Introduction To Botany: Botany Is The Branch of Biology Concerned With The Scientific Study of Plants

Notes in Plant Biology Compiled by: PJ de Castro, MAT-Science, BA Biology
INTRODUCTION TO BOTANY
Botany Botany is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of plants.
Traditionally, botanists studied all organisms that were not generally regarded as animal.
However, advances in our knowledge about the myriad forms of life, especially microbes
(viruses and bacteria), have led to spinning off from Botany the specialized field called
Microbiology. Still, the microbes are usually covered in introductory Botany courses,
although their status as neither animal nor plant is firmly established.
It was alluded to in the opening definition that Botany is a science. Just what makes
Botany, or anything else a science? It is important to acquire a grasp of the fundamentals
of science itself to fully appreciate both how botanical knowledge of was gained as well
as how it can be used. It is usually quickly disinteresting to acquire facts simply for the
sake of knowing. Humans do not just appreciate mountains because they are there, they
climb them because they are there!
Plants Is a living things typically green possecing green pigment called chlorophyll (green
pigment of the plant responsible to absorb energy from the sun) and by means of this
pigment, a part of the energy coming from the sun is absorb and by means of this energy
carbon dioxide and water are combine forming carbohydrate food which is a food of a
plant, since the raw materials, carbon dioxide and water are found everywhere, the plant
does not have to have the power of locomotion. Since the plant cannot move,the plant can
protect itself by means of the rigid walls of cellulose (Is a substance found in the
cellwalls of plant cells that is characterized as hard, colorless, non-motile, and most of all
resistant to many environmental condition).
Uses of Plants There can be no disputing the fundamental significance of plants to the ecology of our
planet. Photosynthetic plants utilize energy arriving from the sun to create complex
organic molecules from inorganic substances, and by this process contribute oxygen to
the atmosphere. Advanced animal life is very much dependent upon this source of
oxygen. However, humans utilize plants in many other ways, especially as sources of
pleasure, food, and material for shelter and more. Consider here the role plants play in
our everyday lives and in our economy.
TERMS COMMONLY USED IN THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE

DURATION OF PLANT LIFE – life span of the plants
•! Annuals – plants that live for only one year season of single season. Examples: sugar
cane, rice, etc.
•! Biennials – plnats that live during the favorable growing period of two years.
Examples: carrots, cabbage, turnips.
•! Perrenials – plants that live frm year to year. Examples: tropical trees, fruit bearing
trees, etc.
HABITS OF PLANTS – refers to the formof growth of plants.

•! Trees – these are erect plants, perrenials, with large singlewoody stem five meters
ormore in height. Example is coconut.
•! Shrubs – with one single woody stem, perennials, smaller than trees with several
branches arising or at near the ground. Examples coffee, mango, citrus and
ramabutan.
HABITAT OF PLANTS – the kind of environment in which the plant grow.

•! Terrestrials – plant that grow on the ground or in the soil. Examples are all land
plants.
•! Aquatic – plant the grow in water. Example watyer lily.
•! Hydrophytes –on decaying plant that grow under very wet condition. Example is
palay.
•! Epiphytes / Aerial – air plants, grown on another plants but do not take nourishment
form it. Example is orchids
•! Parasite – grow on another plant and take nourishment form it. Examples are rust and
molds.
•! Saprophytes – plant that do not posses chlorophyll and grow on decaying organic
matter. Example is mushroom.
•! Xerophytes – grow under very dry habitat. Example is cactus.
•! Mesophytes – plants that are not specialized to grow in either very dry or very wet
habitat. Example is lansones.
•! Halophytes – growing on saline or salty conditon. Examples are mangrove and
seaweeds.
•! Glycophytes – Plants grow in non-saline of not salty condition. Example is hydrilla.
DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF MONOCOTS, DICOTS AND GYMNOSPERMS
Division Spermatophyta - seed bearing plants

Gymnosperms
Angiosperms (Angiospermae)
Subdivision (Gymnospermae)
(flowering plants with seeds enclosed)
(cones with naked seeds)
Monocots (Monocotyledoneae) Dicots (Dicotyledoneae)
Class (means 1 cotyledon) (means 2 cotyledons)
2 cotyledons; endosperm often 1 to many cotyledons; no endosperm;

Seeds 1 cotyledon; endosperm often present
lacking female gametophyte tissue present
Flowers Flower parts in multiples of 3 Flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5 No true flowers
Linear; leaf base or petiole (if present)

Leaves sheathing; parallel venation
Broad; petiole present; net venation Needle-like or scale-like
Vascular Ring of vascular bundles in primary Ring of vascular bundles in primary

Scattered vascular bundles; no
System cambium or secondary growth
growth; cambium present; may have growth; cambium present; may have
of Stem woody secondary growth woody secondary growth
Growth Herbaceous to wood-like (ex. palm),

Herbaceous or woody Herbaceous or woody
Habit but no true wood (secondary xylem)
General
Appearance
PLANT HISTOLOGY
Tissues Is group of cells of similar structure like shape, size and arrangement having a
common origin which together performing a specific function.
Most plant cells are specialized to a greater or lesser degree, and arranged
together in tissues. A plant tissue can be simple or complex depending upon
whether it is composed of one or more than one type of cell. The simplest tissue
found in plants is called parenchyma. The cells are not very specialized, more or
less rounded or angular where packed together, and thin-walled. A type of
parenchyma called chlorenchyma because the cells contain chloroplasts forms
tissue (usually in the leaves) responsible for photosynthesis occurring in the plant.
Note that in simple tissues at least (tissues comprised mostly of one cell type), the
tissue name follows from the cell type. However, tissues may also have unique
anatomical names related to where in the plant they occur. The principal tissues of
the plants are:
Meristematic Tissues Found at the tip of the roots and branches,composed of cells that are actively
dividing characterized as long or elongated with thin cell walls and with big
nucleus.
Tissues comprised of cells that remain undifferentiated and supply, by their

divisions, cells to form new tissues and organs, are called meristems. Meristem
tissue occurs in places that allow for a very orderly pattern of growth.
Meristematic tissues are:
•! Apical Meristem – located just behind the root cap and the apex of the stem
and responsible forgrowth of the root and the stem.
•! Lateral Meristem – located outside the cylinder of the wood and responsible
for the thickness of the stem.
•! Intercallary Meristem – found just above the node and at the face of the leaf
sheath.
HOW DO PLANTS GROW?
Plants grow from localized areas called meristems. MERISTEM - discrete

regions or groups of cells that possess continued cell division for the life of the
plant or that organ.
PLANTS EXHIBIT TWO TYPES OF GROWTH
A.!Primary Growth - growth in length that gives rise to primary (herbaceous)

tissues called the primary plant body. There are two types of meristems give rise
to primary growth these are:
1.!apical meristemor apex- the growing points located at the tips of stems and roots
2.!intercalary meristem - the growth region at the base of grass leaves that
causes leaves to elongate.
B.!Secondary Growth - growth in width or diameter that gives rise to secondary

(woody or corky) tissues called the secondary plant body. Secondary growth is
due to lateral meristems. Lateral meristem - meristematic regions along the sides
of stems and roots.
Permanent Tissues Composed of group of cells that do not usually

become change into another kind of tissues. The different permanent tissue are:
•! Parenchyma – widely distributed throughout the plant body and the cells of
parenchyma are almost round to ovalwith thin cellulose in te cell wall and
with air spaces between them.
•! Epidermis – located outside the plant body. It is a one-celled thick in the cell wall have provided with a
waxy substance called cutin (substance preventing loss of water).
•! Cork – found in the outer part of the roots and stem. The epidermis isreplace
by cork when te plant is already matured. The cork is divided into many layers
and te cells are generally flat and with thin cell wall, no air spaces. The cork is
has substance presentin the cellwall called suberin (substance preventing
dehydration).
Mecanical Tissues Composed of cells that are responsible to give strength to the plant body. The
following mechnical tissue are:
•! Collenchyma – composed of long elongated cells with thick cell walls that are
made up of cellulose and no air psaces between cells.
•! Sclerenchyma – composed of irregular cells not similar to each other with very
•! Wood fiber – composed of very long elongated cells pointed at the end and
the cell walls are made up of lignin ( a substance responsible to give strength
in the wood of the plant).
Conducting Tissues composed of cells thatare adopted for the conduction of water and food. The three
condcting tissue are the following:
•! Tracheid – composed of cells that are elongated andpointed at the end. The
cell wall is thin and made up of lignin. Tracheid is used for the conduction of
water.
•! Tracheal tube – composed of elongated cells, with thick cell walls. The
method of thickening the cell walls of the tracheal tubes are spiral, annular
and pitted. Tracheal tube is used for the conduction of water.
•! Sieve tube – composed of elongated cells with companion cells at the two
siedes and pitted at the two ends. Sieve tube is used for the conduction of food
coming from the leaves throughout the plant body.
A cross-section through
typical phloem tissue
A longitudinal section through phloem tissue showing

the positions of the sieve tube elements and the
companion cells, relative to each other.
The Plant Vascular System
Question: How do the leaves get nutrients and water necessary for photosynthesis? Water and minerals are
absorbed by the root system in the soil. Nutrients are made in the leaves during photosynthesis. How does the
water and the nutrients get to and from the leaves?
Answer: The vascular system in plants is similar to our circulatory system. Just as we depend on our
circulatory system to deliver nutrients and oxygen to our cells, plants rely on their vascular system to deliver
2.! Phloem – Leaves use the water and minerals that they get from the xylem along with sunlight to
photosynthesize. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make sugars and other nutrients. The
phloem conducts these nutrients, which are made in the leaves, to all the cells in the plant so that the
plant can have the materials it needs to grow and reproduce.
Xylem and phloem are often arranged in vascular bundles, surrounded by tissue called cortex. Between the
xylem and phloem is a layer of thin cells called cambium.
PLANT ORGANS: PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Plant Organs include the leaf, stem, root, and reproductive structures. The first three are sometimes called
the vegetative organs.
Plant Structure – The Root
The Root In botany, roots form the portions of a plant which generally lie below the level
of the soil. Roots will generally grow in any direction where the correct
environment of air, nutrients and water exists that meets that plant's needs. The
two most important functions of the root are: Anchorage (hold the plant in
posstion) and Absorption of water and other substances dissolve in water. The
detailed functionas and examples are:
1.!anchorage; secures plant to ground or for epiphytes to branches

2.!absorption; water and nutrients from soil
3.!storage; ex. sweet potato, carrot, or radish tuberous roots
4.!propagation; ex. dahlia or sweet potato tuberous roots, blackberry
Roots anchor plant in ground, absorb water and minerals, and store food.
1.!Taproot system - the primary root grows much larger than the other roots of the
plant.
2.!Fibrous root system - the primary root does not grow large so that many roots of
Typical Anchorage there are three major typical anchorage by roots these are: Tap
by Roots Root where the basal end of the stem and the lateral roots arising from it are
comparativelyvery few, examples are ipil-ipil, carrot and raddish. Stout Root
producing number of large,strong primamry and secondary roots, examples are
roots of tomato, eggplant, acasia and mango. Small Root directly growing from
the basal end of the stem, examples are grasses, corn and rice.
Structure The outside surface of a root is known as the epidermis. Recently produced
epidermal cells absorb water from the surrounding environment and produce root
hairs that increase the absorptive surface. The process by which water is absorbed
into the epidermal cells from the soil is known as osmosis.
Beneath the epidermis is the cortex, which comprises the bulk of the root. Its
main function is the storage of starch; its many intercellular spaces also aerate
cells for respiration. The endodermis is the layer surrounding the vascular
cylinder (or stele). The tightly packed cells of the endodermis contain a substance
known as suberin that creates an impermeable barrier.
The vascular cylinder contains all cells within the endodermis. The outer portion,
known as the pericycle, surrounds the actual vascular tissue.
ROOT ANATOMY (Monocot, Dicot or Gymnosperm Root)
Primary Growth
Root anatomy is virtually the same for monocots, dicots and gymnosperms. The
vascular tissue occurs in the center, which is surrounded by two rings of cells, the
pericycle and endodermis, then the cortex and epidermis. The cell walls of the
endodermis that are perpendicular to the root surface (i.e. the radial and anticlinal
walls) are sealed by a suberized band called the Casparian strip. Root hairs are
Woody Dicot or Gymnosperm Root - Secondary Growth
A woody dicot or gymnosperm root in secondary growth looks almost identical to

a stem in secondary growth. Therefore, see Woody Dicot or Gymnosperm -
Secondary Growth. The only difference is that the woody root has remnants of the
xylem in the center as opposed to pith.
Plant Structure – The Stem
The Stem stem is the above ground axis of a vascular plant. The young stem develops in the
germinating seedling from embryonic tissue known as the hypocotyl. Lengthening
of the hypocotyl lifts the cotyledon(s), plumule (leaf precursor tissues), and
terminal or apical meristem above the ground. The surface cells differentiate and
mature into a protective epidermal layer. A few cells interior differentiate as
chollenchyma, providing support to the young stem. Clusters of elongated cells
appear — these are the provascular strands. The remainder of the stem consists
of parenchyma cells: those lying between the epidermis and the provascular
strands forming a cortex and those interior to the provascular strands forming a
pith. Parenchyma radiating from the pith between the precursors of the vascular
bundles are called pith rays.
Functions These tissues are the early precursors of the mature stem tissues, and define the
basic functions of the stem: Structural support; Growth through increase in
diameter (girth) and elongation; Transport of fluids between the roots and the
leaves. The detailed functions and examples are:
1.! support; trunk, branches and stems of all plant parts

2.! conduction; through phloem and xylem
3.! food storage; ex. Irish potato tubers
4.! protection; ex. thorns on mesquite
5.! propagation; ex. bulbs, runners, rhizomes
STEM MORPHOLOGY
BUD - an underdeveloped and unelongated stem composed of a short axis with compressed internodes, a
meristematic apex, and primordial leaves and/or flowers.
TERMINAL BUD - a bud at the tip of a stem responsible for

terminal growth.
axillary bud or lateral bud - buds along side the axis of a stem;
they were produced by the terminal bud during growth; once
they grow out and form a lateral stem they become terminal
buds of the lateral branch.
FLOWER BUD - a bud containing a floral meristem which

develops into flowers; usually larger than vegetative buds.
LEAF SCAR - a scar marking the former point of attachment

of a leaf or petiole to the stem.
INTERNODE - the part of the stem between nodes
NODE - part of stem marking the point of attachment of

leaves, flowers, fruits, buds and other stems.
LENTICEL - rough areas on stems (and some fruits, ex.

apple) composed of loosely packed cells extending from the
cortex through the ruptured epidermis; serve as "breathing
pores" for gas exchange. Only occur on young stems.
GROWTH RINGS - bud scale scars from the last terminal

bud; they denote flushes of growth (usually per year). Can be
used to age stems because usually 1 set of growth rings is
produced per year on temperate trees in the Temperate
Climatic Zone.
STEM ANATOMY (Herbaceous or Young Woody Dicot or Gymnosperm Stem Primary Growth)
Vascular bundles are arranged as a ring between the cortex and pith. The pith and
cortex are usually comprised of parenchyma cells. Inside each vascular bundle,
the phloem is orientated towards the outside and xylem towards the inside of the
stem.
The outer surface is covered by the epidermis.

STEM ANATOMY (Monocot Stem)
Primary Growth
The vascular bundles are randomly scattered in the ground tissue (usually
comprised of parenchyma cells). Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a bundle
sheath and contains xylem orientated towards the inside and phloem towards the
outside of the stem. The outer layer is epidermis.
Plant Structure – The Leaf
The Leaf The plant leaf is an organ whose shape promotes efficient gathering of light for
photosynthesis. Leaves are extremely variable in details of size, shape, and
adornments like hairs.
In botany, a leaf is a plant organ specialized for photosynthesis. For this

purpose, a leaf is typically flat and thin, to expose the chloroplast containing cells
(chlorenchyma) to light over a broad area, and to allow light to penetrate fully into
the tissues. Leaves are also the sites in most plants where respiration,
transpiration, and guttation take place. Leaves can store food and water, and are
modified in some plants for other purposes. Leaf is designed in order to do the
following:
1.! photosynthesis; site where primarily occurs

2.! regulate water loss; e.g. by opening and closing stomata
3.! storage; ex. carbohydrates and water in garlic, aloe vera
4.! support; ex. tendrils on grape
5.! protection; ex. spines on cacti; bud scales
6.! attraction; ex. bracts on poinsettia or dogwood
7.! propagation; ex. bryophyllum with plantlets on leaves
Leaf Function and Physiology
A. Transpiration. Have you ever noticed how much cooler it is under the shade of a tree in the
summer than under the shade of a building? This is partly because of
transpiration. Though you can’t see it, the plant is releasing water molecules into
the air, which cools the air around it. As discussed, plants can act as giant pumps,
pumping water up from the soil into the leaves. Some of the water is used in the
photosynthetic process, and a great deal of it escapes through the stomata. Water
that escapes goes back into the atmosphere. Much of the water released by the
plants will eventually form clouds and become rain, which falls back to the soil
and begins the process all over again. If plants did not do this, much of the rain
that falls would stay in the ground and never be put back into the atmosphere to
become rain again. Thus the planet would be much hotter with a lot less rainfall,
as in a desert.
B. Photosynthesis. The process by which plants make their food is called photosynthesis. Plants take
in CO2 and water (H2O), and utilizing the power of sunlight along with minerals,
enzymes and chlorophyll, produce oxygen (O2) and carbon compounds such as
glucose (C6H12O6). Plants are considered primary producers, which means they
produce their own food without having to “eat” anything. Without plants, almost
nothing could live on earth because there would be no food for anything else to
eat, not to mention oxygen for animals to breathe. All animals on earth are
dependent on plants.
Leaf Defenses When you can’t move, you have to find creative ways to defend yourself. Plants
can fall prey to a whole host of hungry herbivores, from the tiny bugs like aphids
to some of the largest mammals like giraffes and many critters in between. Here
are some ways that plants defend themselves:
a.! Physical – Physical defenses include spines (which are modified leaves,
like a cactus), thorns (which are modified stems, like roses), or irritating
hairs (like nettles). These act mainly to deter larger herbivores like
mammals. Smaller herbivores like insects can often navigate around these
physical defenses.
b.! Chemical – Plants can produce many compounds, including deadly ones.
Some plants produce chemicals that actually kill herbivores or make them
very sick. These can act to deter both small and large herbivores.
Ironically, some of these compounds are good for humans, though they
may be deadly to other animals. Thus, it is many of these compounds that
we use as medicine, though with the wrong dosage many of these
compounds become poisons to us.
c.! Indigestibility – Some plants simply are difficult or impossible to digest.
Although plants produce many nutrients, they also have a number of
materials that are difficult or impossible for animals to digest, such as
cellulose. Thus, some plants have evolved to have more cellulose in their
tissues, making them harder to digest. Grasses, for instance, are very high
in cellulose because they are eaten heavily by grazing animals. However,
many grazing animals have evolved ways of coping with this - for instance
cows have a second stomach which is especially designed to break down
cellulose!
d.! Mechanical – Though it is rare, some leaves defend themselves by folding
up in response to the stimulus of touch. That makes it difficult for the
insect to get at the tissue of the leaf. There are even leaves that fold up
and trap and digest the insect (like the Venus fly trap), then use the
nutrients from the digested insect for their own benefit.
Leaf Structure A structurally complete leaf of an angiosperm consists of a petiole (leaf stem), a
lamina (leaf blade), and stipules (small processes located to either side of the base
of the petiole). The blade is not always laminar (flattened). External leaf
characteristics (shape, margins, hairs, etc.) are important for identifying plant
species. The point at which the petiole attaches to the plant stem is called the leaf
axil.
Epidermis The epidermis is the outer layer of cells covering the leaf blade. The layer is
usually transparent (cells lack chloroplasts) and coated on the outer surface with a
waxy cuticle that prevents water loss. The epidermis is covered with pores called
stomata (sing., stoma) that enable oxygen and carbon dioxide to move in and out
of the leaf. Water vapor also passes out of the stomata during transpiration. To
conserve water, the guard cells at the opening of the stomata may force the
opening to close up during the night.
Mesophyll Most of the interior of the leaf between the upper and lower layers of epidermis is
a parenchyma or chlorenchyma tissue called the mesophyll. This is the primary
photosynthetic tissue of the plant. It is divided into two layers: an upper palisade
layer of tightly packed, vertically elongated cells, one to two cells thick. Beneath
the palisade layer is the spongy layer. The cells of the spongy layer are more
Structural Features Question: How do plants respire? Plants need to take in CO2 from the
atmosphere in order to photosynthesize. How does the CO2 get into the leaf?
Answer: Leaves have pores called stomata on the epidermal layer of the leaf.
Stomata are the openings through which plants respire. The stomata are flanked
by two guard cells, which control the size of stomatal openings. Guard cells thus
regulate the flow of gas and water between the leaf and its environment. Plants
typically close their stomata at night to avoid too much water loss. Stomata are
usually found on the underside of the leaf in terrestrial plants. Some floating
aquatic plants, like water lilies, have the stomata located on the upper side of the
leaf. Submerged aquatic plants do not have stomata.
Internal Leaf Structure Even though leaves are very thin to the naked eye, if you looked at a cross section
of a leaf under a microscope you would see several cell layers. The top most
layer of a leaf is called the upper epidermis. This protects the leaf and may be
covered by a waxy cuticle. The next layer is the palisade mesophyll, which is a
layer of closely packed cells that perform photosynthesis. The third layer is the
spongy mesophyll, a layer of loosely packed photosynthetic cells. Finally, the
bottom layer is called the lower epidermis and contains the guard cells with
stomatal openings.
Leaf Types, Leaves may be classified in many different ways, and the type is
Arrangements, usually characteristic of a species, although some species and Forms
produce more than one type of leaf.
Basic leaf types: Ferns have fronds. Conifer leaves are typically needle-, awl-, or
scale-shaped. Angiosperm (flowering plant) leaves: the standard form includes
stipules, petiole, and lamina. Microphyll leaves. Sheath leaves (type found in
most grasses).
Arrangement on the stem Alternate — leaf attachments singular at nodes,

and alternate direction up the stem.
Opposite — leaf attachments paired at each node; considered decussate if, as
typical, each pair is rotated 90o going along the stem; or distichous if not rotated,
but two-ranked, all in the same plane.
Whorled — three or more leaves attach at each point or node on the stem. Note:
opposite leaves may appear whorled near the tip of the stem.
Rosulate — leaves form a rosette.
Venation Parallel-veined — veins run parallel most the length of the leaf.
Pinnate-netted — leaf has usually one main vein (called the mid-vein), with
smaller veins branching off, usually somewhat parallel to each other.
Palmate-netted — several main veins diverge from near the leaf base where the
petiole attaches.
Types of simple leaves based on venation (arrangement of veins)
palmate venation parallel venation

pinnate venation
finger-like, net venation with principal veins parallel to
feather-like, net venation with
several major veins diverging the axis of the leaf
lateral veins extending from a
from the union of the petiole (monocots - ex. grasses).
central midrib
and the leaf blade (dicots - ex.
(dicots - ex. elm, oak)
maple)
Types of compound leaves based on arrangement of leaflets
pinnately compound palmately compound

leaflets arising from along both sides leaflets all arising from the same
of the rachis (ex. rose, pecan). location at the top of the petiole (ex.
buckeye, schefflera, poison ivy, bean).
Plant Structure – The Flower
The Flower The flower is the reproductive organ of plants classified as an angiosperms (that
is, the flowering plants comprising the Division Magnoliophyta).
The basic function of a flower is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction.

Seeds are the next generation, and serve as the primary method in most plants by
which individuals of the species are dispersed across the landscape.
A flower is the reproductive organ of those plants classified as angiosperms

(flowering plants; Division Magnoliophyta). The function of a flower is to
produce seeds through sexual reproduction. For the higher plants, seeds are the
next generation, and serve as the primary means by which individuals of a species
are dispersed across the landscape. After fertilization, a flower develops into a
fruit containing the seed(s).
Flower Anatomy A flower is regarded a modified stem (Eames, 1961) with

shortened internodes and bearing, at its nodes, structures that may be highly
modified leaves. In essence, a flower structure forms on a modified shoot or axis
with an apical meristem that does not grow continuously (growth is determinate).
The stem is called a pedicel, the end of which is the torus or receptacle. The parts
of a flower are arranged in whorls on the torus. The four main parts or whorls
(starting from the base of the flower or lowest node and working upwards) are as
follows:
calyx – the outer whorl of sepals; typically these are green, but are petal-like in
androecium (from Greek andros: man) – one or two whorls of stamens, each a
filament topped by an anther where pollen is produced. Pollen contains the male
gametes.
gynoecium (from Greek gynos: woman) – consisting of a pistil, with one or more
carpels, which are the female reproductive organs and contain an ovary with
ovules (female gametes). The sticky tip of tip of the pistil, the stigma, is the
receptor of pollen. The supportive stalk, the style becomes the pathway for pollen
tubes to grow from pollen grains adhering to the stigma, to the ovules, carring the
reproductive material.
Floral formula A floral formula is a system of representing the structure of a flower

using specific letters, numbers, and symbols. Typically, a general formula will be
used to represent the flower structure of a plant family rather than a particular
species. The following representations are used:
Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)

Co = corolla (petal whorl; e.g., Co3(x) = petals some multiple of 3)
Z = add if zygomorphic (e.g., CoZ6 = zygomorphic with 6 petals)
A = androecium (whorl of stamens; e.g., A∞ = many stamens)
G = gynoecium (carpel or carpels; e.g., G1 = monocarpous)
x - to represent a "variable number"

∞ - to represent "many"
A floral formula would appear something like this: Ca5Co5A10-∞G1
Flower Function The function of a flower is to mediate the union of male and female gametes. The
process is termed pollination. Many flowers are dependent upon the wind to
move pollen between flowers of the same species. Others rely on animals
(especially insects) to accomplish this feat. The period of time during which this
process can take place (the flower is fully expanded and functional) is called
anthesis.
Many flowers in nature have evolved to attract animals to pollinate the flower, the
movements of the pollinating agent contributing to the opportunity for genetic
recombinations within a dispersed plant population. Flowers that are insect
pollinated are called entomophilous (literally "insect loving").
Other flowers are pollinated by the wind, and the flowers of these species (for
example, grasses) have no need to attract pollinators and therefore tend not to be
"showy". Wind pollinated flowers are referred to as anemophilous. Whereas the
pollen of entomophilous flowers tends to be large grained, sticky, and contain
significant protein (another "reward" for pollinators), Anemophilous flower pollen
is usually small grained, very light, and of little nutritional value to insects,
though it may still be gathered, in times of dearth. Honeybees and bumblebees
actively gather anemophilous corn (maize) pollen, though it is of little value to
them.
Geneal Information. The Roman goddess of flowers, gardens, and the season of
Spring is Flora. The Greek goddess of spring, flowers and nature is Chloris.
Plant Structure – The Seed
The Seed A seed is the ripened ovule of a gymnosperm or angiosperm. A seed contains
the embryo from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. But it
also contains a supply of stored food and is wrapped in a seed coat. The stored
food begins as a tissue called endosperm that is supplied by the parent plant and
becomes rich in oil or starch, and protein. At maturity, seeds of these species
have no endosperm. Some common plant seeds that lack an endosperm are bean,
pea, squash, sunflower, and radish. Plant seeds with an endosperm include the
The seeds of angiosperms are contained in a hard or fleshy (or with layers of
both) structure called a fruit. Gymnosperm seeds develop "naked" on the bracts of
cones, although those of the yew have a fleshy coat called an aril. An example of
a hard fruit layer surrounding the actual seed is that of the so-called stone fruits
such as the peach.
Plant Structure – The Fruit
The Fruit In botany, a fruit is the ripened ovary, together with its seeds, of a flowering
plant. In cuisine, when discussing fruit as food, the term usually refers to just
those plant fruits that are sweet and fleshy, examples of which would be plum,
apple, and orange. However, a great many common vegetables, as well as nuts
and grains, are the fruit of the plants they come from. Fruits that might not be
considered such in a culinary context include gourds (example squash), maize,
tomatoes, and green peppers. These are fruits to a botanist, but are generally
treated as vegetables in cooking.
The term false fruit is sometimes applied to a fruit, like the fig (a multiple-
accessory fruit; see below) or to a plant structure that resembles a fruit but is not
derived from a flower or flowers. Some gymnosperms, such as yew, have fleshy
arils that resemble fruits and some junipers have berry-like, fleshy cones.
With most fruits pollination is a vital part of fruit culture, and the lack of
knowledge of pollinators and pollenizers can contribute to poor crops or poor
quality crops. In a few species, the fruit may develop in the absence of
pollination/fertilization, a process known as parthenocarpy. Such fruits are
seedless.
In some plants, such as this noni, flowers are produced regularly along the stem
and it is possible to see together examples of flowering, fruit development, and
fruit ripening
Basic Types of Fruits SIMPLE FRUITS can be either dry or fleshy and result from the ripening of a
simple or compound ovary with but one pistil. Dry fruits may be either dehiscent,
(tomato, avocado), drupe - (plum, cherry, peach,), false berry - accessory fruits
(banana) pome - accessory fruits (apple, pear)
An AGGREGATE FRUIT develops from a flower with numerous simple pistils.

The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit. In all these examples, the fruit
develops from a single flower with numerous pistils.
A MULTIPLE FRUIT is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an

inflorescence). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass.
Examples are the pineapple and osage orange.
FRUIT STRUCTURE
SUMMARY OF ANATOMY
MONOCOT DICOT GYMNOSPERM
STEM
primary
growth
STEM
secondary does not exist
growth
ROOT
secondary does not exist
growth
LEAF
primary
growth
LEAF
secondary does not exist does not exist does not exist
growth
PLANT NUTRITION AND TRANSPORT

Introduction Mineral elements, those acquired primarily in the form of inorganic ions,
continually cycle through all organisms and their environment. The entry point of
mineral elements to the biosphere is predominantly through the root systems of
plants so that, in a sense, plants act as the “miners” of the earth's crust (Epstein,
1972; Epstein, 1994). The large surface area of roots and their ability to absorb
inorganic ions at low concentrations in the soil solution make plant mineral
absorption a very effective process. Following absorption at the roots, the mineral
elements are translocated to the various parts of the plant where they are utilized
in important biological functions. Other organisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi and
nitrogen fixing bacteria, often participate with roots in this process of nutrient
acquisition.
Definition The study of how plants absorb and assimilate inorganic ions is called mineral
nutrition. This area is central to modern agriculture and environmental protection.
High agricultural yields depend strongly on fertilization with mineral elements.
Scope This part discusses the nutritional needs of plants, the symptoms of specific
nutritional deficiencies, and the use of fertilizers to ensure proper plant nutrition.
It then examines how soil and root structure influence the transfer of inorganic
nutrients from the environment into a plant. Lastly, it introduces the topic of
mycorrhizal associations. It address additional aspects of solute transport and
nutrient assimilation, respectively.
Essential Nutrients, Only certain elements have been determined to be essential for
Deficiencies, and growth. An essential element is defined as one that has a clear
Plant Disorders physiological role and whose absence prevents a plant from completing its life
or manganese as they do sulfur or magnesium. Many elements may be present in

concentrations greater than the plant's minimal requirements.
The first group includes the elements that form the organic compounds of the
plant. Plants assimilate these nutrients via biochemical reactions involving
oxidation-reduction.
Elements of the second group are important in energy transfer reactions or in
maintaining structural integrity. They can often be found in plant tissues as
phosphate, borate, and silicate esters in which the elemental group is bound to the
hydroxyl group of an organic molecule (i.e., sugar-phosphate).
Elements of the third group are present in plant tissue as either free ions or ions
bound to substances such as the pectic acids present in the plant cell wall. Of
particular importance are their roles as enzyme cofactors and in the regulation of
osmotic potentials.
The fourth group of essential elements has important roles in reactions involving
electron transfer.
Essential Elements Most abundant elements in organisms C,H,O = 96%
Mineral Elements In addition to C, H, and O, there are thirteen essential inorganic substances
needed by plants in ionized form ("mineral ions").
Macronutrients are each at least 0.1% of dry weight (R&J: approaches or

exceeds 1%).
Micronutrients are required in trace amounts they compose a few parts per
million of a plant's dry weight.
Essential nutrients may be translocated from parts to be shed; calcium

cannot be translocated.
Function of mineral ions metabolic activities

They cause turgor pressure due to osmosis.
Nitrogen fixation Plants cannot use molecular nitrogen (N2) as it is found in the atmosphere.
Nitrogen must be converted to a form that can be used (N2 NH4). This
process is called nitrogen fixation and is carried out by microorganisms.
Many of these microbes live symbiotically in the nodules of the roots of
legumes.
Nutrient Deficiencies When macronutrients or micronutrients are limited to plants, they exhibit
symptoms of the deficiency.
Fertilizer N, P, K
numbers reflect percentage of N, P, and K
may be a source of pollution
requires energy to produce
Roots grow toward regions of water and dissolved minerals.

Mycorrhiza A mycorrhiza is an association between a fungus and a vascular plant
which increases the absorptive surface area of the plant.
The plant gets water and dissolved nutrients; the fungus gets
carbohydrates produced by the plant.
Uptake of Water and Minerals Most water enters through root hairs; may also diffuse through cell walls,
but must eventually enter cells due to Casparian strip.
Water uptake requires an osmotic gradient.
Solutes, especially mineral ions, are actively pumped into cells by

membrane pumps that use ATP.
Selection of minerals that enters the vascular cylinder is controlled by

endodermal cells.
Water uptake at night Water loss is lower at night due to high relative humidity of air active
transport still occurs osmosis causes root pressure which causes guttation
COHESION THEORY OF WATER CONDUCTION

(Xylem Structure)
Tracheids- pitted end walls

Vessel elements- no end walls; form a ontinuous tube
Properties of Water Water molecules are polar; one side is positively charged and the other is
negative. Due to their polarity, molecules are attracted to each other and
hydrogen bonds form betwen the hydrogen atoms (which are positively
chargeed) and the oxygen atoms (which are negatively charged).
Water and Mineral Transport A vacuum can only pull water 10.4 ft. (3.17 m)
at sea level
Transpiration- evaporative water loss from plants
Hydrogen bonds help to pull the continuous water column up the plant.
Evaporation in leaves (transpiration) causes the state of tension; results in

movement
Stomata (sing. stoma) - transpiration and CO2 uptake
When guard cells are turgid- opens
When guard cells are flaccid- closes
Opens and closes according to H2O and CO2 conc.
Stomata close when the temperature is > 30 to 34 C.
CAM photosynthesis seen in many desert plants allows plants to conserve

water by taking in CO2 at night and fixing it during the day.
Transport of Organic Substances in Phloem
Translocation Translocation is the transport of food (mostly sucrose) in the phloem from
one plant organ to another.
Example: site of synthesis site of use.
Occurs in sieve tube cells (phloem); alive at maturity; interconnected from

leaf to root.
Observations of aphids provided translocation information (sucrose,

pressure flow)
Pressure Flow Theory "source-to sink" pattern

Source: leaves
Sinks: fruits, seeds, roots
Translocation through the phloem depends on pressure gradients between

source and sink regions.
Active transport moves solutes into sieve tubes and water follows. ATP is
supplied by companion cells
Active transport moves solutes into sink tissues and water follows. ATP is
supplied by parenchyma cells
SEED GERMINATION AND SEEDLING GROWTH
Introduction Most plants reproduce more of their kind through production of seeds.
This is SEXUAL REPRODUCTION and it involves the exchange of
genetic material between two parent plants. Many ornamental plants do
not come "true" from seed. To increase the numbers of these plants,
gardeners and horticulturists use ASEXUAL PROPAGATION. In asexual
propagation, the new plants are genetically exact copies or clones of a
single parent plant. The methods used in asexual propagation range from
taking leaf cuttings of African violets to grafting apple cuttings onto root
stocks.
SEXUAL PROPAGATION Sexual propagation of plants involves the exchange of

OF PLANTS genetic material between parents to produce a new generation. Sexual
propagation offers the following advantages:
•! It is usually the only method of producing new varieties or cultivars.

•! It is often the cheapest and easiest method of producing large numbers
of plants.
•! It can be a way to avoid certain diseases.
•! It may be the only way to propagate some species.
PROPAGATION BY SEED Propagation by seed is the most commonly known method of producing
new plants. Common annual and biennial vegetables and flowers are
grown easily from seed. Perennials grown from seed may take more than
one season to flower. Lawn grasses are commonly grown from seed by the
home gardener.
PURCHASING SEED Use seed that is guaranteed reliable for freshness and purity. Purchase seed
that is packaged for the current year. Most seed companies provide
information on expected percent of germination. This figure tells what
percent of seed is expected to sprout or germinate. Generally, 65-80% of
most fresh seed sown will germinate. Of those seeds that germinate, 60-
75% will grow into satisfactory seedlings.
When choosing seed, be sure to select varieties or cultivars that meet your
requirements for size, color and growth habit. Choose varieties that will
mature before frost. This can be estimated by using the number of days to
maturity (found on the seed packet or in the catalog) and comparing it to
the days between probable planting date and the average frost date of the
area.
When considering seed not packaged for the current year, remember that
the germination rate of most seeds drops dramatically after the first year.
Seed catalogs are not only helpful in purchasing seed, but they are also
excellent references for cultural information. Catalogs and seed packets
may provide information on country of origin, bloom time, specific
germination requirements, cultural requirements and disease resistance.
Some seed packets indicate if seeds have been chemically treated to
results in seeds that produce plants that may not be identical to the parent
plant. The seeds of HYBRID cultivars should not be saved.
Some plants make excellent candidates for seed saving. Common self-
pollinated, non-hybrid and purebred annual vegetable seeds that can be
saved include lettuce, beans, peas, herbs and HEIRLOOM tomatoes.
Saving seed saves money. It allows the gardener to maintain varieties that
are not sold commercially. Many avid seed savers belong to groups that
exchange seed through networks. Some seed saver groups specialize in
keeping heirloom varieties. Many heirloom varieties are the great-
grandparent plants of modern cultivars.
It may be tempting to bring home seeds or plants seen on vacation in

foreign countries. However, this is how many serious insect and disease
pests are introduced. A nonnative plant may become a noxious weed.
Follow all import regulations for horticultural materials. The USDA
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service can provide information to
travelers.
HARVESTING SEED It is important to save seed from healthy plants because some diseases can
be carried in seeds. Commercially grown seed is protected from disease
problems because it is produced under very strict conditions with frequent
inspection.
Harvest seed just before fruit is fully ripe. For flowers with exposed seeds,
place the seed stalk or flower head in a bag and store in a warm, dry
location. Seed will fall into the bag when it is completely dry. The seed of
pulpy fruits should be separated from the pulp, washed and thoroughly
dried.
STORING SEED Once seeds are completely dry, place them in airtight storage containers
marked with name and date saved. Store seeds at 40 degrees F with low
humidity. The refrigerator provides these conditions.
Seed of many plants can remain VIABLE for up to 5 years if properly

stored. However, it is best to use home-harvested seed during the
following growing season. Some species of plants produce seeds that are
short-lived. These seeds must germinate immediately after they ripen or
they lose their viability. Delphinium, onion and parsley are examples.
Before planting, it is a good idea to check stored seed for its germination
rate. Planting these seeds directly in the garden may be a waste of time
and effort if germination rate is very low. To check germination rate, place
some of the seeds between paper towels that are kept constantly moist and
between 65 and 70 degrees F. Check the seeds daily for germination. If the
germination rate is 70% or less, consider buying new seed.
GERMINATION OF SEED When germinating seed it is helpful to remember that a seed is made up of
three parts:
•! an outer protective coat

There are several factors that affect germination. Water (moisture), light
(or dark), oxygen and heat play a part in triggering germination. In
addition to environmental factors, seed must be viable.
Water is essential in the first phase of germination. Water penetrates the

seed coat and causes the endosperm to swell. The seed coat, softened by
water, splits open as the endosperm swells. The water dissolves nutrients
in the endosperm making them available to the embryo and growth begins.
The growing medium must be constantly moist, but not wet. Any dry
period may cause death of the sprouting embryo.
Light can stimulate or inhibit a seed's germination. This determines

whether the seed should be sown on the surface of the growing medium or
below the surface. Check the seed packet or catalog for light requirements.
Oxygen is required by the embryo to begin growing. The seed must

respire to break down the food stored in the seed. This is one reason for
using a light, well-aerated growing medium for starting seeds.
Every seed has an optimum temperature range for germination. Many

seeds have a fairly wide temperature range for germination, but some are
limited to a narrow range. The temperature range is usually given on the
seed packet or in the catalog.
The temperatures required by many seeds are higher than those in most
homes. The desired constant temperature can be achieved through heating
cables placed under germination containers. Setting flats or pots on
radiators, the furnace or on the refrigerator will provide bottom heat.
However, these locations may be too hot and cause the soil to dry too
quickly.
Once germination occurs, a different, usually lower, temperature may be

required for optimal growth of the seedlings.
SCARIFICATION OF SEED The coat of certain seed is extremely tough and must be penetrated by special
means. Particularly hard seed may be scarified. Scarification involves breaking, scratching or softening the seed
coat to allow moisture penetration.
Two methods of scarification commonly used by the home gardener are

mechanical and hot water. Mechanical scarification involves breaking or
weakening the seed coat with a file, sandpaper or hammer. Hot water
scarification involves placing seeds in water that is 170 to 210 degrees F.
After the water cools, seeds should continue to soak for 12 to 24 hours.
Then they are planted. Specific instructions for scarification are usually
mentioned on the seed packet or in the seed catalog.
STRATIFICATION OF SEED Some seeds will not break their dormancy unless exposed to a period of
low temperature and moist conditions. Stratification requirements are
usually indicated by the seed supplier. They can also be found in
references, such as Michael Dirr's MANUAL OF WOODY LANDSCAPE
PLANTS, Steven Still's MANUAL OF HERBACEOUS ORNAMENTAL
equal parts clean sand and peat or sphagnum peat moss, in a disinfested
container. Enclose the container in a tightly sealed plastic bag and place it
in the non-freezer section of the refrigerator. Towards the end of the
stratification period seeds may start to sprout. Handle sprouted seeds
carefully when transplanting into pots.
Some seeds may require both scarification and stratification to germinate

reliably.
SOWING SEEDS INDOORS Sowing seed indoors is the easiest and cheapest method of
producing vegetables, annual flowers and some perennial plants. Plants
with extremely small seeds or those that need a long growing season make
excellent candidates for starting indoors.
Very small seed is difficult to plant outdoors because of size. Plants that
require a long growing season may not have enough time to reach maturity
unless started indoors in winter or early spring.
Supplies needed for indoor seed sowing include the following: fluorescent
or grow lights, disinfested containers with excellent drainage, pasteurized
(sterile) seed-starting medium and a location with proper temperature and
ventilation.
GROWING MEDIA Choose a medium with a loose, uniform, fine texture. A pasteurized
mixture that is 1/3 soil, 1/3 sand, vermiculite or perlite, and 1/3 peat moss
has the qualities of a good seed-starting medium. Retail garden centers
carry mixes labeled for seed starting. Whatever is selected, be sure it is
pasteurized (sterile). Using pasteurized soil prevents damping-off, a fungal
disease that kills young seedlings. Pasteurized soil also helps to avoid
weeds, diseases and pests.
Seed-starting media are usually low in fertility. This means that a regular
fertilization program is very important once seedlings emerge.
CONTAINERS Any recycled containers are adequate for seed starting provided they are
disinfested, have good drainage and are at least 2 inches deep. Other
container options include compressed peat pellets, peat pots, paper pots,
plastic cell packs and flats.
Peat and clay containers tend to dry more quickly than plastic containers
because they are very porous.
SOWING SEED The correct timing of seed sowing is an important factor in successful
indoor seed starting. In winter months, overanxious gardeners may sow
seeds too soon. Seedlings that are held indoors too long perform poorly
once transplanted into the garden. Most seeds should be sown 4 to 12
weeks prior to transplanting into the garden. The time it takes for
seedlings to be ready for transplanting outdoors will vary.
An ACCLIMATION period before placing seedlings directly into the

permanent growing site must be included. However, readiness for outdoor
planting will vary with how quickly germination occurs, the growth rate
and weather conditions. Quality and quantity of light, temperature and
a plastic bag just large enough for the container. Seal the bag. The plastic
bag keeps moisture in, but allows air exchange. The plastic bag method
should not require any further watering until germination. Provide proper
light and temperature conditions.
Once seedlings germinate, remove the container from the plastic bag.
Place the container in a location that has high light intensity and cooler
temperatures.
Use the following rules to sow seed, depending upon seed size. Sow very
small seeds by sprinkling on top of the medium and pressing in. Use a fine
mist of water to gently wash seed into the growing medium. Sow medium-
size and larger seed in rows 1 to 2 inches apart, and 1/8 to 1/4 inches deep.
If no depth is specified on the seed packet, use the general rule of planting
the seed at a depth twice the diameter of the seed.
When sowing in a tray or flat, sowing in rows is preferred over scattering

seed. This method provides better air circulation than scattering of seed.
When seedlings are crowded, they may become tall and spindly. To avoid
the need to transplant seedlings from a seed flat to pots, you may sow
seeds directly into cell packs or peat pots. Plant two or three seeds per cell
or pot. When they germinate, remove the two less vigorous seedlings.
CARE OF SEEDLINGS Once the seeds have germinated, you will see two seed
STARTED INDOORS leaves or cotyledons. Eventually, these seed leaves will
TRANSPLANTING wither. Next, true leaves will form. These true leave look like the plant's
typical leaves. Transplant the seedlings to individual containers once the
first set of true leaves appear.
Use a pencil, small stick or other narrow tool to lift seedlings from the
seed flat. Plant each seedling in its own small pot filled with pasteurized
growing medium. The new container should be no larger than a 2-1/2- to
3-inch pot.
Hold the seedlings by a leaf between the thumb and forefinger. Handling
by the leaf avoids damaging the fragile stem which would kill the
seedling. If a small leaf is lost in transplanting, the plant can recover and
grow normally. Expose seedlings' roots to air as briefly as possible.
Lightly firm the soil around the seedling.
Transplanting temporarily slows or stops the growth of seedlings. Sowing

into cell packs bypasses the need to transplant the seedlings.
WATERING SEEDLINGS Watering can be a cause of seedling failure. Keep soil INDOORS
Moist but not wet. Small, tender seedlings dry out rapidly
and can die. Remember that roots always must have oxygen, as well as
water; therefore, do not keep the soil soaked. Water when the surface of
the soil begins to dry out.
Bottom watering helps prevent damage to the seedlings caused by a hard

stream of water. Bottom watering also encourages deep root development
and ensures that the entire depth of soil receives moisture. Do not let the
LIGHT REQUIREMENTS FOR Seedlings require bright light immediately after

INDOOR SEEDLINGS germination. One warm-white, 40-watt bulb and one cool-white, 40-watt
bulb used together are adequate for seed starting and seedling growth.
Fluorescent lights can be used for one year before replacement is
recommended.
Special grow lights are also suitable, but more expensive. The lights
should be no more than 6 inches above the top of the seedlings. Mount the
light fixture so it can be raised as the plants grow in height.
Day-length requirements vary with different plants. Petunia, snapdragon,
phlox and China aster require short daylight periods of 10 to 12 hours.
However, most plants that are started from seed benefit from 16 to 18
hours of light.
FERTILIZING SEEDLINGS Because the growing medium used to start seedlings is

INDOORS usually low in nutrients, a regular fertilization program is important for
proper plant growth. Apply a liquid fertilizer high in phosphorous weekly.
Fertilizer with a 1-2-1, N-P-K ratio is recommended. Dilute fertilizer 1/4
to 1/2 the label's recommended strength and apply sparingly. Always use a
liquid form of fertilizer.
PINCHING SEEDLINGS Pinching the growing tips of seedlings will result in more branching. This
produces a fuller, stockier plant.
HARDENING OFF SEEDLINGS Plants grown indoors must be gradually introduced to

BEFORE TRANSPLANTING outdoor conditions. If seedlings are not hardened off, leaves
INTO THE GARDEN may be burned by the intensity of the sun or damaged by wind. Acclimate
plants by first placing them in a cool, protected location, such as a porch
or shaded COLD FRAME.
This first step in hardening off allows plants to adjust to outdoor

temperatures. After 7 to 10 days, move seedlings into a shaded area of the
garden for 2 to 3 days. This will prevent sunscald. Finally, hardened
seedlings can be planted directly into the garden as weather permits.
Planting on a cloudy day or late in the evening is a sensible precaution.
TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS The garden soil should be adequately dry to prevent

INTO THE GARDEN compaction. At this point, plants will again experience transplant shock
and a setback in growth. Plants must adjust to dramatically different
nutrient levels, soil temperatures, moisture levels and soil tilth in the
garden.
Pull apart the lower portion of the root mass to get the roots growing
outward. If seedlings have been grown in peat pots, pull apart the bottom
of the pot and roots. Although seedlings may be planted without removing
the pot, be sure to maintain the same soil level. Trim away any of the pot
that is above the soil line. The exposed portion of the peat pot acts as a
wick and dries out the entire pot and roots.
Water seedlings into the soil. A cup of transplanting solution will help
plants get off to a good start. Make your own transplanting solution by
mixing 1 tablespoons of a water-soluble 20-20-20 fertilizer in a gallon of
Before sowing seeds directly into the garden, know what conditions are
required for germination and growth. A warm-season crop, such as beans,
may rot before germinating if planted in cold, damp soil. Knowing the
average frost date for your area helps to avoid losing frost-sensitive plants.
Some cool- season crops, such as peas and lettuce, should be planted early
in the season while temperatures are low.
Sow seeds in a row or broadcast them into a well-raked seedbed. The

seedbed should be free of stones or other large debris. Choose a calm day.
To broadcast seeds, merely scatter them over a large area in the seedbed.
Cover the seeds with a fine layer of soil. To sow very small seeds, mix
them with sand before scattering. Then water with a gentle spray. Avoid
washing seed away when watering.
SPORES Ferns can be propagated from SPORES which develop in clusters on the
underside of FRONDS. Collect fronds that have produced spores and store
them in an envelope until dry. After drying, separate the dust-like spores
from the cases by screening. Store spores in an airtight container in a cool,
dry place until ready to plant.
Germinating spores requires more time and care than germinating seeds.
Growing ferns from spores involves the two different generations of ferns.
Spores first produce an asexual plant called a GAMETOPHYTE (gam-
EAT-oh-fight). This plant is very small and has none of the usual plant
parts. It resembles a moss-like growth and is about 1/8 inch thick.
The gametophyte reproduces sexually and forms SPOROPHYTES

(SPORE-oh-fights) which have visible roots, stems and leaves.
During the first phase of growing ferns, sterile conditions are critical.
Moss, fungi and algae compete aggressively with young fern
gametophytes. Sow spores on top of a pasteurized (sterile), moist, soilless
mix or sphagnum peat in a disinfested container. Water must also be
sterile. It takes from 3 to 6 months to grow ferns from spores.
ROLE OF PHYTOCHROME IN PLANT DEVELOPMENT
Introduction Light is vital for photosynthesis, but is also necessary to direct plant
growth and development. Light acts as a signal to initiate and regulate
photoperiodism and photomorphogenesis. There are two light-sensing
systems involved in these responses, the blue light sensistive system and
the red light sensitive or phytochrome system.
Blue light responses Many plant responses are regulated by blue light, including phototropism,
stomatal opnening and chlorophyll synthesis. The last step of chlorophyll
synthesis requires high levels of blue light. The other blue light responses
are triggered by lower levels of blue light. For more detailed information,
read.
Phytochrome responses Important plant responses regulated by the phytochrome system include
photoperiodic induction of flowering, chloroplast development (not
including chlorophyll synthesis), leaf senescence and leaf abscission.
Sensitive spectrophotometers can measure a decrease in absorbance at 660

nm and in increase in absorbance at 730 nm when sensitive plant tissues
are exposed to red (660 nm) light.
The change in absorbance is caused by the conversion of a the

photoreceptor from one structural form to another. The red-absorbing
form changes to the far-red absorbing form when it absorbs red light (660
nm) and back again when it absorb far-red light (730 nm).
The phytochrome molecule is the photoreceptor for red light responses.
It exists in two forms, Pr and Pfr:
The Pr form: Absorbs at a peak of 666 nm

Is the form synthesized in dark-grown seedligs.
When Pr absorbs red light, it is converted to the Pfr form.
The Pfr form: Absorbs at a peak of 730 nm

The Pfr form is the active form that initiates biological responses
When Pfr absorbs far red light, it is converted to the Pr form Pfr can also
spontaneously revert to the Pr form in the dark over time = dark reversion;
Pfr is also susceptible to proteinases.
Pfr absorbs some red light, so in red light, there is a balance of 85% Pfr
and 15% Pr
Pr absorbs very little far red light, so in far red light, there is a balance of
97% Pr to 3% Pfr
Phytochrome is a family of Phytochrome proteins occur as a dimer of two 124 kDa proteins with a
small covalently-boun polypeptides, each with a covalently-attached pigment molecule.
d pigment molecule: The pigment is called the chromophore. It is a linear tetrapyrrole.
When the chromophore absorbs light, there is a slight change in its
structure. This causes a change in the conformation of the protein portion
to the form that initiates a response.
Phytochrome levels are much higher (about 50X) in dark-grown seedlings

than in light-grown plants. Its levels are highest near the apex of the plant.
Molecular genetics has revealed the existence of several genes for this
protein in a given plant. All of these proteins use the same chromophore
but differ in their sensitivity to light.
The different phytochromes are involved in different biological responses

to red light.
Read more about the phytochrome molecule
Phytochrome allows plants to Sunlight has a R:FR ratio of 1.2

Plants adapted for growth in full sun will display greater stem elongation
when they are transferred to shade. They also develop smaller leaves and
less branching. This change is due to greater proportion of Pr to Pfr.
Seeds of certain plants require red light for germination; FR light inhibits
germination. Many small seeds with low amounts of storage reserves
(such as lettuce) show such a red light requirement.
If these seeds they are buried below the level of light penetration in the
soil, they do not germinate.
If they are shaded by a leaf canopy, causing a high proportion of FR,

germination is inhibited, Pfr is required for germination.
Phytochrome and the Circadian Clock in Plants

The Phytochrome Molecule The structure of the linear tetrapyrrole is shown below. It is
attached to the phytochrome protein through a sulfur linkage.
Phytochrome Genes and Proteins There are five phytochrome genes in Arabidopsis, termed phyA,
phyB, phyC, phyD, phyE.
Phytochrome A (PhyA) present only in angiosperms, is responsible for early events in

germination and seedling de-etiolation. It is powerfully down-
regulated in light both at the transcriptional and post-translational
levels. In darkness it accumulates to (comparatively) high levels.
Expression of the other phytochrome Phytochrome B (PhyB) is probably the types (B to E in

angiosperms) is photoreceptor involved in shade detection and
independent of light and both Pr and avoidance. This response allows many species to
Pfr forms are stable. greatly increase their stem extension rate when they become
shaded by competitors. The relative amount of Pfr is reduced
strongly by the presence of chlorophyll-bearing leaves that filter-
out red light but not far-red. The absolute irradiance is irrelevant.
Through this red/far-red sensitivity, phytochrome provides the
plant with a degree of color perception. PhyB also is considered
responsible for daylength detection in flowering and for
tuberization in the potato, though the mechanisms are not
understood.
Phytochrome C (phyC) is a low-abundance member of the five-membered phytochrome

family of photoreceptors in Arabidopsis. Experimental data
indicate that phyC may have some physiological roles that are
different to those of phyA and phyB in the control of seedling
responses to light signals.
The Elusive Phytochrome "Receptor" The mechanism by which the phytochrome (phy)
photoreceptor family transduces informational light signals to
photoresponsive genes is unknown. Several candidates are being
investigated. For example:
PIF3, a phytochrome-interacting factor necessary for normal photoinduced signal transduction, is a novel basic
The mechanism by which the phytochrome (phy) photoreceptor

family transduces informational light signals to photoresponsive
genes is unknown. Using a yeast two-hybrid screen, we have
identified a hytochrome-interacting factor, PIF3, a basic helix-
loop-helix protein containing a PAS domain. PIF3 binds to wild-
type C-terminal domains of both phyA and phyB, but less strongly
to signaling-defective, missense mutant-containing domains.
Expression of sense or antisense PIF3 sequences in transgenic
Arabidopsis perturbs photoresponsiveness in a manner indicating
that PIF3 functions in both phyA and phyB signaling pathways in
vivo. PIF3 localized to the nucleus in transient transfection
experiments, indicating a potential role in controlling gene
expression. Together, the data suggest that phytochrome signaling
to photoregulated genes includes a direct pathway involving
physical interaction between the photoreceptor and a
transcriptional regulator.
PLANT MOVEMENT
Plant Movements Growth=irreversible increase in size

Turgor movements=reversible changes in cell volume
Nutations-regular rotary movements
Tropisms-directional to a stimulus
Nastic movements-non-directional movements, that depend upon a motor

organ
PHOTOTROPISM -positive or negative bending in response to unequally distributed light
-Studied by Darwin; led to Went’s discovery of hormones (auxin) in

etiolated coleoptiles of cereal seedlings
-requires a light gradient across a plant organ (affected by optical

properties of tissue, pigments, etc.)
Signal Perception -evidence points to a blue light receptor (action spectra peaks at 475 and
450nm); carotenoids have been recently ruled out because carotenoid-
deficient mutants or chemically treated plants still exhibit phototropism
-Arabidopsis mutants –nph (non-phototropic hypocotyl), NPH1 is a 120

kD cell membrane protein, phosphorylation of this protein may be first
step
-degree of curvature is sensitive to photon fluence and presentation

timeSignal Transduction
Mechanism of bending -Cholodny-Went hypothesis (1920’s) – light perception induces lateral

redistribution of auxin in the stem apex, followed by differential cell
elongation promoted by auxin, resulting in curvature
GRAVITROPISM -bending of organ in response to the direction of gravity's

pull
-Root-positive, shoot-negative; right angles-diagravitropic; some other

angle-plagiogravitropic
-Gravity is ubiquitous and unchanging-no gradient, something in cell must

move in response to it
-threshold dose: minimum quantity needed to invoke response=(intensity

X time); varies by organ; lower dose needed to orient roots
-presentation time: in the range of seconds for roots; cumulative
-threshold intensity: minimum intensity needed to invoke response; roots

more sensitive than shoots
-detection centered in root cap cells, and the shoot apex
Mechanism of Perception -in invertebrates-statocysts contain sand or calcium carbonate statoliths,

which impact sensory hairs in response to gravity
-in plants, statocytes contain starch-containing amyloplasts that act as

statoliths-found in gravity-responsive tissues
Signal transduction -sedimentation of statolith imparts pressure on the cell membrane or the
ER membranes, pressure is redistributed when root is placed on its side
(statoliths sediment, altering pressure on ER), initiates some sort of
enzymatic or hormonal response, or alters plasmodesmatal function
-also may involve pressure sensitive cell wall attachments that stimulate
cellular response
Growth Response -lateral translocation of auxin to the lower side of the organ, alters cell
elongation in the lower side of cells and whole tissue
-in shoots-auxin redistribution to lower half of cells induces differential

cell elongation on lower half, bending a horizontal stem upward,
-in roots, auxin redistribution inhibits growth on lower side of cells, causes
root to bend downward, auxin may be the inhibitor or some other hormone
(ethylene)
Calcium -redistribution of Ca occurs during gravistimulation of roots, Ca migrates

toward the concave side through mucilage, Ca distribution may lead to
high auxin concentration and inhibition of growth; Ca appears to sensitize
tissue to auxin
-gravitopism studied using clinostats or in microgravity
THIGMOTROPISM -bending in response to touch or other mechanical stimuli

-jasmonic acid mediates touch-induced tendril coiling
NASTIC MOVEMENTS -reversible movements that require a motor organ –pulvinus, found in
many legumes
Nyctinasty -leaflet closure at night, regulated by phytochrome, biological clocks
-pulvinus structure-vascular core surrounded by cortex of cells containing

thin flexible walls (extensor and flexor regions)
-changes in turgor initially induced by ion movement (K+) between

regions, followed by osmostic water movement, K+ comes from apoplast
through channels in the membrane, accompanied by changes in pH
Seismonasty -rapid response to mechanical stimulus, involving leaf pulvini
-model: Mimosa pudica (the sensitive plant) exhibits rapid leaf folding
-Venus fly trap (Dionea) exhibits rapid trap closure
-response is rapid, little stimulation invokes entire response, signal is

propagated=electrical signal transduction through phloem (2 cm/sec)-
related to proton movement, stimulates water efflux and cellular collapse
PLANT HORMONES AND GROWTH SUBSTANCES

DEFINITIONS, TYPES AND PROPERTIES
Hormone an endogenous or naturally-occurring compound that is produced or

synthesized in one part of the plant and causes a change in physiology,
growth or development n another part of the plant; usually present in very
small quantities.
any chemical produced in one part of the body that has a target elsewhere
in the body. Plants have five classes of hormones. Animals, especially
chordates, have a much larger number. Hormones and enzymes serve as
control chemicals in multicellular organisms. One important aspect of this
is the obtaining of food and/or nutrients
Growth Substance all naturally-occurring or synthetically produced substances that affect the
physiology, growth and development of plants.
Naturally-Occurring Synthetic
Structure Site of Production
Example Example
Auxin
indolebutyric acid (IBA)
naphthaleneacetic acid
indoleacetic acid shoot tips
(NAA)
(IAA) embryos
2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid (2,4-D)
Cytokinin
zeatin benzyladenine (BA) root tips

kinetin (not in plants) pyranylbenzyladenine (PBA) embryos
Gibberellic Acid (GA)
shoot tips
over 90 none root tips
embryos
Ethylene
ripening fruits
ethephon or ethrel
aging flowers
ethylene (both release ethylene inside
germinating seeds
plant)
wounded tissue
Abscisic Acid (ABA)
plastids, especially
abscisic acid none
chloroplast
EFFECTS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HORMONES/GROWTH SUBSTANCES
AUXIN 1) Tropism - response of plants to environmental or physical stimuli.

a) phototropism - response to light
b) geotropism - response to gravity
c) thigmotropism - response to touch
2) Apical dominance - determined by apical bud, partly due to auxin

produced
3) Fruit set - low concentrations stimulate
4) Fruit or flower thinning - high concentrations cause
5) Herbicides - 2,4-D at high concentrations
6) Adventitious root formation
of the plant, causing the cells there to grow larger than corresponding cells
on the lighter side of the plant. This produces a curving of the plant stem
tip toward the light, a plant movement known as phototropism.
Auxin also plays a role in maintaining apical dominance. Most plants have
lateral (sometimes called axillary) buds located at nodes (where leaves
attach to the stem). Buds are embryonic meristems maintained in a
dormant state. Auxin maintains this dormancy. As long as sufficient auxin
is produced by the apical meristem, the lateral buds remain dormant. If the
apex of the shoot is removed (by a browsing animal or a scientist), the
auxin is no longer produced. This will cause the lateral buds to break their
dormancy and begin to grow. In effect, the plant becomes bushier. When a
gardener trims a hedge, they are applying apical dominance.
CYTOKININ 1) Leaf aging or abscission - may delay

2) Seed germination - may overcome dormancy or stimulate germination
3) Adventitious shoot formation
a) leaf and root cuttings
b) tissue culture
Cytokinins promote cell division. They are produced in growing areas,

such as meristems at tip of the shoot. Zeatin is a hormone in this class, and
occurs in corn (Zea ).
EFFECTS AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF HORMONES/GROWTH SUBSTANCES -

GIBBERELLIC ACID (GA)
1) Rosette or dwarf plants - lack of endogenous GA often causes growth

retardants - chemicals that block GA synthesis; are used in greenhouse and
bedding plant production to produce compact plants.
2) Flowering - may cause bolting in biennials
3) Fruit size - increases size of seedless grapes
4) Bud dormancy - may overcome and substitute for cold treatment
5) Seed germination - may increase or speed up
6) Sex expression - favors staminate flower formation on monoecious

plants
ETHYLENE 1) Fruit ripening - stimulates in many fruits, ex. banana
2) Flowering - triggers flowering in some bromeliads, ex. pineapple.
3) Flower longevity - causes senescence (death) of cut flowers
4) Leaf abscission (leaf drop) - causes in some plants

Sprayed on a field it will cause all fruits to ripen at the same time so they
can be harvested.
ABSCISIC ACID (ABA) 1) Dormancy - causes bud or seed dormancy
2) Leaf abscission (leaf drop) - may cause in some plants
3) Stomata - causes stomata to close (a response to drought stress)
Abscisic Acid promotes seed dormancy by inhibiting cell growth. It is also

involved in opening and closing of stomata as leaves wilt.
GIBBERELLINS Gibberellins promote stem elongation. They are not produced in stem tip.
Gibberellic acid was the first of this class of hormone to be discovered.
PLANT NUTRITION Unlike animals (which obrtain their food from what they eat) plants obtain
their nutrition from the soil and atmosphere. Using sunlight as an energy
source, plants are capable of making all the organic macromolecules they
need by modifications of the sugars they form by photosynthesis.
However, plants must take up various minerals through their root systems
for use.
A (PLANT) BALANCED DIET Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen are considered the essential elements.
Nitrogen, Potassium, and Phosphorous are obtained from the soil and are
the primary macronutrients. Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur are the
secondary macronutrients needed in lesser quantity. The micronutrients,
needed in very small quantities and toxic in large quantities, include Iron,
Manganese, Copper, Zinc, Boron, and Chlorine. A complete fertilizer
provides all three primary macronutrients and some of the secondary and
micronutrients. The label of the fertilizer will list numbers, for example 5-
10-5, which refer to the percent by weight of the primary macronutrients.

Introduction To Botany: Botany Is The Branch of Biology Concerned With The Scientific Study of Plants

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Notes in Plant Biology Compiled by: PJ de Castro, MAT-Science, BA Biology

TERMS COMMONLY USED IN THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE

HABITS OF PLANTS – refers to the formof growth of plants.

HABITAT OF PLANTS – the kind of environment in which the plant grow.

DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF MONOCOTS, DICOTS AND GYMNOSPERMS

Division Spermatophyta - seed bearing plants

2 cotyledons; endosperm often 1 to many cotyledons; no endosperm;

Flowers Flower parts in multiples of 3 Flower parts in multiples of 4 or 5 No true flowers

Linear; leaf base or petiole (if present)

Vascular Ring of vascular bundles in primary Ring of vascular bundles in primary

Growth Herbaceous to wood-like (ex. palm),

Tissues comprised of cells that remain undifferentiated and supply, by their

Plants grow from localized areas called meristems. MERISTEM - discrete

PLANTS EXHIBIT TWO TYPES OF GROWTH

A.!Primary Growth - growth in length that gives rise to primary (herbaceous)

B.!Secondary Growth - growth in width or diameter that gives rise to secondary

Permanent Tissues Composed of group of cells that do not usually

A longitudinal section through phloem tissue showing

PLANT ORGANS: PARTS AND FUNCTIONS

Plant Structure – The Root

1.!anchorage; secures plant to ground or for epiphytes to branches

ROOT ANATOMY (Monocot, Dicot or Gymnosperm Root)

Woody Dicot or Gymnosperm Root - Secondary Growth

A woody dicot or gymnosperm root in secondary growth looks almost identical to

Plant Structure – The Stem

1.! support; trunk, branches and stems of all plant parts

TERMINAL BUD - a bud at the tip of a stem responsible for

FLOWER BUD - a bud containing a floral meristem which

LEAF SCAR - a scar marking the former point of attachment

INTERNODE - the part of the stem between nodes

NODE - part of stem marking the point of attachment of

LENTICEL - rough areas on stems (and some fruits, ex.

GROWTH RINGS - bud scale scars from the last terminal

The outer surface is covered by the epidermis.

STEM ANATOMY (Monocot Stem)

Plant Structure – The Leaf

In botany, a leaf is a plant organ specialized for photosynthesis. For this

1.! photosynthesis; site where primarily occurs

Leaf Function and Physiology

Arrangement on the stem Alternate — leaf attachments singular at nodes,

Types of simple leaves based on venation (arrangement of veins)

palmate venation parallel venation

Types of compound leaves based on arrangement of leaflets

pinnately compound palmately compound

Plant Structure – The Flower

The basic function of a flower is to produce seeds through sexual reproduction.

A flower is the reproductive organ of those plants classified as angiosperms

Flower Anatomy A flower is regarded a modified stem (Eames, 1961) with

Floral formula A floral formula is a system of representing the structure of a flower

Ca = calyx (sepal whorl; e.g. Ca5 = 5 sepals)

x - to represent a "variable number"

A floral formula would appear something like this: Ca5Co5A10-∞G1

Plant Structure – The Seed

Plant Structure – The Fruit

An AGGREGATE FRUIT develops from a flower with numerous simple pistils.

A MULTIPLE FRUIT is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an

PLANT NUTRITION AND TRANSPORT

or manganese as they do sulfur or magnesium. Many elements may be present in

Essential Elements Most abundant elements in organisms C,H,O = 96%

Macronutrients are each at least 0.1% of dry weight (R&J: approaches or

Essential nutrients may be translocated from parts to be shed; calcium

Function of mineral ions metabolic activities

Roots grow toward regions of water and dissolved minerals.