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The spiritual potential of otherness

in film: The interplay of scene and
narrative
a
Richard A. Engnell
a
Associate Professor of Communication Arts , George Fox
College , Newberg, Oregon
Published online: 18 May 2009.

To cite this article: Richard A. Engnell (1995) The spiritual potential of otherness in film: The
interplay of scene and narrative, Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 12:3, 241-262, DOI:
10.1080/15295039509366936

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 Critical Studies in Mass Communication
VOLUME 12 NUMBER 3 SEPTEMBER 1995

The Spiritual Potential of

Otherness in Film:
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The Interplay of Scene and Narrative

RICHARD A. ENGNELL

—The spiritual potential of film is grounded in its ability to render "Other" what is
presented visually on the screen. However, the narrative structure of a film interacts
with the filmed scene to modify its spiritual potential. While scene and narrative can be
artfully manipulated to express mystical and theistic sensibilities, film seems inherently
biased towards the immanent spirituality of cosmological or plenum religions, but not
without some practical difficulties. Schrader's transcendental style can be seen as
expressing a quasi-mystical spirituality. The popular film Places of the Heart
intimates a cosmological consciousness, whereas Tender Mercies evokes a spiritual-
ity more characteristic of theistic religion.

religious or spiritual phenomena, not

InessNargued
a recent article, Engnell (1993)
that the concept of Other-
can account for some of the
distinctive rhetorical characteristics
associated with the practice of the-
ism. The theistic emphasis on proph-
ecy, gospel, and praise in the context
of preaching and worship was shown
to be an appropriate response to the
encounter with the wholly Other. But
the inventor of the concept, Rudolf
Otto (1952), saw Otherness as the
defining essence of all distinctively
Richard A. Engnell is Associate Professor of
Communication Arts, George Fox College in
Newberg, Oregon.
Critical Studies in Mass Communication
12 (1995), 241-262
just theistic religion, and manifested
not just in language-based symbol-
ism but all symbolic forms. The pur-
pose of this article is to further ex-
plore the theoretical and critical value
of Otherness as a concept in account-
ing for religious or spiritual commu-
nication, specifically with reference
to film.1
In this article, I hope to 1) further
demonstrate the usefulness of the
concept of Otherness in both the
theoretical and critical study of spiri-
tuality and communication; 2) un-
cover the distinctive advantages or
disadvantages of film as a communi-
Copyright 1995, SCA
 242
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS SEPTEMBER 1995

cation medium for expressing or One of the challenges of a spiritual

evoking Otherness; and 3) explore rhetoric, then, is to manage this ten-
the multiple ways in which film may sion between availability and Other-
manipulate scene and narrative to ness.
evoke or express Otherness. Otto (1952, p. 27) held that any
radical differentiation in existence-as-
THE NATURE lived can occasion the manifestation
OF OTHERNESS of the Other, or in Eliade's terms,
constitute a hierophany. Therefore,
Otto (1952, pp. 1-41) held that the to uncover the spiritual potential for
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core of religion (and spirituality) is any region of experience, one should

the wholly Other which is appre- look for instances of difference, dis-
hended by human beings in three continuity, or contrast. The argu-
modes. First, there is the Other as ment of this study is that film as a
mysterium, the Other that can never medium may be particularly adept at
be fully assimilated to normal cogni- intensifying such difference and
tive routines or categories. Yet the strangeness, to the extent that the
Other is so definitely present that it Other is given the opportunity to
cannot easily be ignored; it calls forth reveal itself. While necessary, how-
a response. A second mode of appre- ever, mere strangeness is insufficient
hension is tremendum, the fear and for the emergence of the wholly
dread evoked by the Other's awe- Other. For Otto (1952, p. 133), the
some power and perfection. The hu- spiritual nature of the Other mani-
man being is at risk when facing the fests itself fully only when 1) ordi-
wholly Other. Finally, there is the nary, this-worldly reasoning cannot
third mode of being, the Other as account for the difference or discon-
fascinans, the blessedness and compel- tinuity, and 2) the qualitative eleva-
ling, infinite attractiveness of the tion of the Other is such that it is
Other that draws all who behold it desired for its own sake apart from
into its presence, despite (or perhaps any strictly utilitarian value to the
because of) the possible danger. worshiper. The following study will
The wholly Other is clearly a para- attempt to disclose first how film typi-
doxical concept. It is at the same cally (or atypically) can intensify dif-
time both infinitely daunting and in- ference, thus creating the potential
finitely attractive. It is unknowable for Otherness to reveal itself. It will
yet somehow available. Mircea Eliade then explore how well two films have
(1957, p. 11) addresses this latter par- achieved this potential.
adox through the notion of hiero-
phany: THE SPIRITUAL
Man becomes aware of the sacred be- POTENTIAL OF SCENE
cause it manifests itself, shows itself, as The focus of this study is not the
something wholly different from the pro- spiritual potential of specific films
fane. . . . In each case we are confronted
by the same mysterious act—the manifes- but rather of film in general as a
tation of a wholly different order, a real- distinctive communication medium.
ity that does not belong to our world, in While contemporary film is a com-
objects that are an integral part of our plex medium, utilizing shape, color,
natural "profane" world. sound, and sequence to present plot,

CSMC
character, scene, dialog, symbol, and
music effectively to the viewer, it
clearly surpasses other media in com-
municating visual information and
in setting the scene for action. What
may take several minutes to read in a
novel is available instantaneously on
the screen. What theatre patrons may
see from a distance will be displayed
in intense, engaging detail to film
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viewers.
Film theorist Siegfried Kracauer
(1960, p. 300) held that film is uniquely
suited to putting the viewers in con-
tact with sensual reality:
Film renders visible what we did not, or
perhaps even could not, see before its
advent. It effectively assists us in discov-
ering the material world with its psycho-
physical correspondences. We literally
redeem the world from its dormant state.
This intensified apprehension of the
physical world is brought about by
the framing effect of film technology
(cf. Martin, 1981, pp. 48-55, 80-81).
The darkness surrounding the im-
age on screen, like the borders of a
print, lifts the object out of its normal
experiential context. In ordinary liv-
ing, viewers will assign meaning to a
focal object in light of the wider con-
text in which it appears. In film, the
move to the wider context is thwarted
by the frame. As a consequence, the
physical details of the scene become
more important and the normal fig-
ure/ground relationships become
confused (Kracauer, 1960, p. 54).
The objects depicted on screen be-
come interesting in their own right—
independent of their function in ev-
eryday life—and somehow different.
Kracauer (1960, p. 55) claims that
film "alienates our environment," in
the sense that the filmed image eman-
cipates the objects portrayed from
their subordination to routine per-
243
ENGNELL
ceptual habits and practical con-
cerns.
This effect of framing is intensified
by the sensory deprivation character-
istic of most film viewing situations.
The audience typically watches a film
in a darkened room with a very large
screen that dominates the space. The
screened image can be ignored only
with great difficulty; it is the most
compelling sensory object in the en-
vironment.
What are the spiritual implications
of this process? Film rescues physical
reality from subordination to ordi-
nary human purposes. The object
becomes other than what it is nor-
mally taken to be, something with a
hint of mystery. The now alienated
object still compels involvement be-
cause of the sensory richness of the
image on screen. No longer merely
an ordinary event or feature of every-
day life, the object becomes valuable
as a self-constituting reality. Adding
attractive information through screen
magnification may heighten myste-
rium as viewers are drawn to con-
sider the additional meaning within
the object (and other objects) that
may still be just beyond their grasp.
Thus the object is presented both as
mysterium and fascinans. The move-
ment from the abstract to the con-
crete in the manner described by
Kracauer distances the viewers from
the scene while still intensifying their
involvement (Kracauer, 1960, p.
297). This dialectical movement of
distance and participation matches
formally the typical experience of the
Other, which is distanced through
mystery and quality yet is of such
obvious significance that it cannot be
disregarded.
However, this particular spiritual
effect—the discovery of intense value
 244
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
and mystery in ordinary existence—
depends on the viewers' confidence
in the camera's documentary ability.
Kracauer holds that film is especially
well suited to presenting certain
kinds of scenic information: the un-
staged, the continuous, the inde-
terminate, and the "flow of life"
(Kracauer, 1960, pp. 60-76). Candid
shots, for example, are especially ap-
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pealing on film but inherently impos-
sible in theatre. Essentially endless
motions, such as leaves blowing
across a path or waves beating on a
beach, can hold attention on film in
ways that would be difficult in a novel
(Kracauer, 1960, pp. 41-45). Film is
biased towards the ordinary because
audiences in industrial societies un-
derstand that film in a very basic
sense mechanically produces an im-
age of what is in fact before the cam-
era. Viewers cannot dismiss the
filmed object as completely fictitious;
they can trust that the scene reflects
in varying degrees reality as it ex-
isted at some point. Any mystery,
fascination, or dread evoked by the
screened image can thus be trans-
ferred fairly easily to the object itself
rather than being restricted to its
representation. If what appears on
screen is perceived as essentially arti-
ficial, film's ability to evoke Other-
ness in the sense described above is
attenuated.2 Any hierophanic mani-
festation of the Other must be recog-
nized as truly of this world in order
to be effective.
This account of the spiritual poten-
tial of film, however, runs counter to
the conclusions drawn by Paul
Schrader (1972), one of the most in-
sightful students of film and spiritu-
ality. While he would agree with
Kracauer that ordinary physical real-
ity constitutes the best subject matter
SEPTEMBER 1995
for film and that film can alienate
familiar existence from the viewer,
Schrader envisions a different result.
Instead of the filmed image drawing
the viewer into the depths of the every-
day world and thus discovering new
dimensions of meaning, Schrader
sees the spiritual film as undermin-
ing viewers' normal confidence in
their interpretive schemes, leaving
them in a precarious existential situ-
ation.
Schrader(1972, pp. 159-162) has
identified two patterns of technique
available to the filmmaker: sparse
and abundant. Abundance involves
using all of film's resources to pre-
sent the story on the screen-full nar-
rative, full characterization, color,
and dialog. Sparse technique (or cin-
ematic austerity) involves restricting
the use of such cinematic tools as
camera angle, editing, or sound track
so that the screen presents less infor-
mation and fewer clues to meaning
than is normal for film (Schrader,
1972, p. 304). The artful balance of
filmic abundance and austerity yields
the transcendental style, which "styl-
izes reality by eliminating (or nearly
eliminating) those elements which are
primarily expressive of human exper-
ience, thereby robbing the conven-
tional interpretations of reality of their
relevance and power" (Schrader,
1972, p. 61-63).
With respect to scene, Schrader
advocates an almost documentary fo-
cus on the everyday. The film must
project a "meticulous representation
of the dull, banal commonplaces of
everyday living" (Schrader, 1972, p.
39). But the austere style means that
the projected image lacks the aes-
thetic and sensory richness normally
present. The filmmaker refuses to
provide other cues to meaning such
 245
CSMC ENGNELL

as editing and special camera angles. otherwise be routinely assimilated to

The austere style focuses on only the ordinary cognitive and emotional
surface of reality. The framing effect routines.
of film, however, compels the view-
ers' attention to an undeniably veridi- SOME SPIRITUAL
cal depiction of human experience. IMPLICATIONS OF FILM
The result for Schrader (1972, p. 69) NARRATIVE
is that
Films do not typically consist of a
by drawing attention to itself, the every- simple sequence of scenes but rather
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day stylization annuls the viewer's natu- employ them to tell a story. Narra-
ral desire to participate vicariously in the
action on screen. Everyday is not a case tive has its own spiritual potential
of making a viewer see life in a certain that may modify, intensify, or even
way, but rather preventing him from subvert the spiritual impact of scene.
seeing it as he is accustomed to. The initial hypothesis of this sec-
tion—to be revised as this essay
Scenic austerity subtracts from rather unfolds—is that the incomplete or
than adds to the appreciation of ordi- fragmented narrative is especially im-
nary life (Schrader, 1972, pp. 6 1 - portant for evoking or expressing
63).3 Otherness since fully developed nar-
This comparison of Kracauer and rative tends to mitigate mysterium.
Schrader suggests that film may In his theory of film, Kracauer
evoke differing qualities of Other- sought to distinguish what he called
ness by manipulating the portrayal the theatrical story from what I will
of scene. If what is portrayed on call the cinematic story. Theatrical
screen is sensorily rich and engaging stories would include not only
(as Kracauer recommends), the filmed plays but also all narratives
viewer may be encouraged to see a that depend on typical theatrical
deeper and wider value in what is techniques for storytelling effective-
portrayed. When suitably composed, ness. Kracauer (1960, chs. 12, 13,15)
the scene may reveal the Other within identified the differences as follows:
ordinary reality as mysterium and fas-
cinans. If on the other hand, follow-
ing the principles of scenic austerity, Theatrical Story Cinematic Story
the filmed scene is highly constrained Character Environment
in content, the resulting mysterium Human Motivation Circumstances
may be tinged with tremendum, the Dialog Things
fear that life-as-lived has no founda- Moral/Social Order Fragmentation
tion. Since the former approach Action Climax/ Resolution
Motion
Uniformity
makes full use of the competitive ad- of Time
vantage of film over other cultural Purpose Chance
media in presenting sensory detail, it The Unique The Common-
is more in keeping with the basic place
tendencies of the medium. Both ef- Time: Past/Bounded Time: Present/
fects, however, are grounded in the Open
ability of film through framing or Consider human action; without
bracketing to render strange or mys- motivation it becomes mere motion.
terious yet compelling what would Yet film so effectively presents move-
 246
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
ment that movement alone may hold
the audience's attention even with-
out dramatic incident or powerful
purpose; lengthy or complex pro-
cesses that would slow down or inter-
rupt a novel may intensify the action
in cinema (Kracauer, 1960, citing
Panofsky, p. 224). Thus a film that
fulfills its cinematic potential will fea-
ture motion above action (Kracauer,
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1960, pp. 30-35, 41-44, 63-68, 7 1 -
73, 227-228). With regard to charac-
ter and motivation, Kracauer faults
the filmed theatrical story for elevat-
ing the human over the inanimate
through its focus on character and
relationships. A truly cinematic story
must treat both person and object
equally (Kracauer, 1960, pp. 45—46,
218). Kracauer (1960, p. 265) down-
grades the cinematic significance of
tragedy because
The tragic is exclusively a human affair.
In consequence, its adequate representa-
tion involves inanimate objects not as
equal partners in the play but as stage
requisites whose function it is to bear out
and attune us to the inner drama in
progress.
As Cardullo (1987, p. vii) notes, the
best film tragedies will be driven by
circumstances rather than inward
character. (Note that circumstances
constitutes a much more scenic cat-
egory than character.) While film can
present both theatrical and cinematic
stories with equal effectiveness, the
latter most reflects its distinctive char-
acter as a medium. Cinematic films
are characterized by narrative re-
straint in that they limit their use of
the narrative techniques available.
Kracauer (1960, e.g., pp. 221, 231)
advocates narrative restraint because
he wants to preserve the power of
the scene. His cinematic analysis is
grounded in the experience of still
SEPTEMBER 1995
photography, yet the impact of a
moving picture is not simply an addi-
tive function of a number of still pho-
tographs. The sequencing of images
serves to recontextualize the object
or event portrayed on screen, thus
giving the viewer additional cues to
its potential meaning and weakening
the effect of the frame. The object
yields up its independence and be-
comes submerged in or subordi-
nated to other images that have gone
before or come after. Other cin-
ematic techniques such as editing,
sound, and camera angle can also
undercut the natural indeterminacy
of the filmed image by directing the
viewers' attribution of meaning and
significance. The typical theatrical
film, then, subordinates the there-
ness of the scene to the demands of
effective storytelling, thus diminish-
ing the potential of scene for renew-
ing our contact with a now-strange
physical reality. From the spiritual
perspective, the theatrical story re-
stricts the ability of scene to open up
a space for the Other.
But narrative forms can have their
own spiritual ramifications even apart
from their effect on scene. The prac-
tice of narrative restraint can gen-
erate what students of religion call
parable. 4 The parabolic narrative
subverts established orders rather
than founding new worlds. It intensi-
fies the gaps and divisions in experi-
ence rather than unifying them. The
parable encourages differentiation of
consciousness through the recogni-
tion that what is intelligible may not
be identical to what is true, that truth
may not adequately ground right ac-
tion, that desire is not always a reli-
able guide in ethical choice, and that
right action is not always rewarded.
Narrative restraint tends toward par-

CSMC
able in that it refrains from using all
available resources for completing
the story. Parable in turn evokes Oth-
erness by intensifying mysterium since
it frustrates our normal strategies for
making sense out of our world.
Schrader's transcendental style goes
considerably beyond Kracauer's cin-
ematic style in using narrative re-
straint to achieve parable. While
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he advocates many of the same
techniques as the cinematic style,5
Schrader employs them with a differ-
ent objective in view. For Kracauer,
restrained narrative enables viewers
to redirect their attention to the scene
and discover there a new source of
meaning and significance overlooked
in ordinary living. In contrast,
Schrader's narrative austerity serves
to frustrate the viewers' own normal
procedures for ascribing meaning
while refusing to give any clues as to
the filmmaker's own meaning. Narra-
tive austerity functions directly to in-
tensify the mysterium of existence
rather than to clear a space for the
fascinans of the emancipated ordi-
nary.
Schrader's typical line of story de-
velopment is as follows: The subject
matter is the everyday. Normal tech-
niques of scenic and narrative abun-
dance help interest the movie goer in
the story (Schrader, 1972, pp. 159-
167). But as the film progresses,
filmic abundance is replaced by nar-
rative and scenic austerity, with the
cumulative effect being to "under-
mine the viewer's customarily rock-
solid confidence in his feelings"
(Schrader, 1972, p. 51). The every-
day that appears on the screen is
nothing extraordinary. It should be
meaningful but it is not. The viewers
become confused and emotionally
distant. Yet the filmmaker does not
247
ENGNELL
allow viewers to remain permanently
uninvolved but calls them back into
the story through a decisive action
that evokes an emotional response
(Schrader, 1972, p. 46). If the view-
ers so respond, they will be enmeshed
in what Schrader (1972, p. 42) calls a
disparity, a disharmony between the
environment portrayed and what a
viewer thinks about and feels within
that environment. Since the viewers'
feelings cannot be accounted for sim-
ply on the basis of the physical reality
so effectively presented on the screen,
they are led to ask the question, "If a
human being can have true and ten-
der feelings within an unfeeling envi-
ronment, . . . where do man's feel-
ings come from?" (Schrader, 1972,
p. 43). The transcendental style cul-
minates in stasis: "a frozen view of
life which does not resolve the dispar-
ity but transcends it" (Schrader, 1972,
p. 49). The transcendental film must
not resolve for the viewer the para-
dox of environment versus human
meaning; in this, it is clearly para-
bolic.
The account of filmed narrative
and Otherness presented thus far is
faithful to the insights of Kracauer,
Schrader, and Otto but is somewhat
unsatisfying as an analysis of the spiri-
tual potential of film qua film. The
overwhelming majority of successful
films tend to use all the narrative
resources of the medium to tell
stories, and tell them very well. No-
table instances of narrative reticence
or austerity are the exception. If only
parabolic narratives have a spiritual
potential, then the most common
kind of filmed story must be devoid
of spiritual significance.
Studies of narrative and religion
may help here. Some see narrative as
a dimensional concept bounded at
 248
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
one pole by parable and at the oppo-
site pole by myth (May, 1982). Char-
acteristically, myth portrays a world
in which separation is the problem
and a return to unity is the solution.
The plot typically centers on personal
conflict and vindication through illu-
mination or saving love. Myth articu-
lates a compact world that integrates
in a seamless unity ontology and eth-
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ics, feeling and reason, history and
destiny. Myth, of course, has an hon-
ored place in the history of religion.
Spiritually, myth makes sense out of
experience and reveals hidden con-
nections. Clearly the ability of film to
go beyond the austerity of the tran-
scendental and even cinematic styles
to present a total picture (through,
for example, portraying human mo-
tivation, simultaneous action, hid-
den actions, or intimations of pur-
pose) suggests a mythic potential for
film. But while the equation of typi-
cal film narrative style with myth en-
larges our understanding of the spiri-
tual potential of film, it renders more
problematic the centrality of Other-
ness as the foundation of the spiri-
tual. If seamlessness is the objective
of myth, where, then, is the place for
the Other? If film rather effortlessly
achieves the coherence of myth, can
Otherness really be central to film's
spiritual potential?
OTHERNESS AND THE
VARIETIES OF
SPIRITUALITY
While this study has posited Other-
ness as the central feature in the
rhetoric of spirituality, various spiri-
tual traditions appropriate it differ-
ently. The Other is most clearly cen-
tral to theistic religion, which elevates
and maintains Otherness as the essen-
tial religious fact. It safeguards Other-
SEPTEMBER 1995
ness through prophetic preaching
that continually reinforces and rees-
tablishes the gap between the divine
and the mundane (Engnell, 1993).
Theistic Otherness elevates mystery
and awe/dread, though revelation
and/or incarnation may mitigate the
resulting anxiety. At root, theism
tends to be antimythological (in the
sense given above), and as such
should be more easily expressible
through narrative austerity than nar-
rative fullness. While theism typi-
cally regards the world as real and
valuable (as the free creation of a
personal God), the cosmos is not
granted ultimate significance and sal-
vific help must come from beyond
this world through an assisting Other
(Sheridan, 1986, p. 45). As such, the-
istic spirituality should be equally
communicable through scenic abun-
dance and scenic austerity.
Plenum or cosmological spirituali-
ties, on the other hand, tend to sub-
merge Otherness in connectedness
or unity. As Eliade (1958, pp. 10-12)
points out, hierophany manifests
both Otherness and sameness simul-
taneously and no this-worldy object
can be ruled out as a potential hiero-
phany. Eliade (1957, p. 12) also holds
that archaic peoples seek to live all of
their existence within the shelter of
these sacred times, places, and ob-
jects. Tolerating no holes in the sa-
cred canopy, plenum spiritualities
tend to elevate unity rather than dif-
ference. If carried far enough, any
fundamental distinction between be-
tween the Other and the profane can
become essentially meaningless (Eck,
1981, pp. 176-177).
But while the plenum project is to
sacralize equally all of life, in actual-
ity, significant qualitative differentia-
tion remains. Eliade (1958, p. 12)

CSMC
maintains that it is simply a fact that
in any real, concrete religion, not all
possible hierophanies are realized.
Even with the tendency towards
unity, there remain highly signifi-
cant qualitative distinctions between
regions, objects, or events of experi-
ence. While in theory, all of life may
be equally holy, people necessarily
experience some parts of life as more
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holy than others. In plenum spiritu-
alities, therefore, Otherness is mani-
fested as significant rather than radi-
cal difference and is therefore far
more present in plenum spirituali-
ties than in theistic religion. Plenum
Otherness is typically pluralistic and
integrated, even domesticated,
though the potential for danger re-
mains. There are also many Others.
Each object, place, time, or event
may have its own unique spiritual
potential within itself or in associa-
tion with other objects, places, and
times. Salvation in plenum spirituali-
ties comes from within the cosmos
(Sheridan, 1986, p. 43) and is appro-
priated through ritual. Given its em-
phasis on integration and locally sig-
nificant qualitative differentiation,
the cosmological film should be char-
acterized by both scenic abundance
and full, myth-like narrative.
The central spiritual fact for the
classic Eastern mysticisms is likewise
not Otherness, but unity. But while it
may have no ultimate significance,
Otherness nevertheless functions
subjectively and pragmatically in
highly significant ways. It can func-
tion as a provisional negative pres-
ence that must be overcome. In the
classic mysticisms, separation, differ-
ence, and otherness constitute a false
or imperfect consciousness that inhib-
its personal blessedness and gener-
ates suffering. Spiritual remediation
249
ENGNELL
comes through properly understand-
ing the true, unified nature of the
cosmos, achieved through spiritual,
mental, and physical discipline. Thus
salvation comes not from outside the
cosmos but from within the indi-
vidual devotee (Sheridan, 1986, p.
44).
The Other may also be provision-
ally present as a positive qualitative
difference that is to be embraced.
The classic mysticisms envision a
quality of achievable existence so
radically different from ordinary liv-
ing that it appears Other, even to the
extent of being symbolized as the
farther shore (Eck, 1981, p. 158). In
this context, the objective of the mys-
tic enterprise becomes to embrace
this other and in the process discover
that there is in fact no Other. So
while officially absent from these
spiritualities as an ontological reality,
Otherness is nonetheless central to
them. The spiritual aspirations and
practices of mysticism revolve around
it as the visible stars of a galaxy may
revolve around a invisible black hole.
Because mystic spirituality seeks to
expose ordinary understanding as
false consciousness, story-as-parable
should be more central to it than
story-as-myth. We would expect,
then, techniques of narrative auster-
ity in films with mystic aspirations.
There is also the tendency for mystic
spiritualities to present themselves
(or to be perceived) as world-deny-
ing even though strictly speaking this
would be absurd on its own account:
Since all is one there is nothing to
deny. But in the presence of this
blessed unity ordinary existence be-
comes radically deficient, especially
so since the world cannot be re-
garded as the free creation of an
all-powerful, personal God. As a con-
 250
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
sequence, we might expect films with
mystical impact to make extensive
use of scenic austerity rather than
abundance.6
MYSTICAL SPIRITUALITY7
AND THE
TRANSCENDENTAL STYLE
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Up to this point, the spiritual po-
tential of film has been explored ab-
stractly and somewhat deductively,
by considering only the implications
of the Other as Other and the charac-
teristics of film as a unique medium.
Now we need to consider specific
film artifacts to see how (or if) the
elements already identified can in
fact yield the outcomes suggested.
First, however, we must return to
the work of Schrader to see exactly
how his transcendental style fits into
the framework developed here, since
his work is the most widely known
and precisely developed approach to
spirituality and film. In my view,
Schrader's theory accounts for only
one kind of spiritual achievement
possible in film and tends to slight
the distinct advantages of film as a
communication medium.
It should be clear from the preced-
ing presentation that the transcen-
dental style rigorously refuses to ex-
ploit both the rich sensory potential
of the filmed scene in ways advo-
cated by Kracauer and the mythic
potential of the filmed narrative.
Schrader (1972, p. 158) explicitly ad-
vocates working against the normal
proclivities of the medium. Still, film's
inherent scenic and narrative advan-
tages are central to the success of the
style. Firstly, by simple contrast with
normal film technique the transcen-
dental style alerts the viewer to its
potential for meaning. Secondly, the
SEPTEMBER 1995
conditions of viewing and the sen-
sual quality of film as such make it
possible to hold the attention of the
viewer even when scene and narra-
tive are highly austere. Finally, the
decontextualization inherent in ba-
sic film technology (the framing ef-
fect) and film viewing (the darkened
room) give transcendental filmmak-
ers a head start in further subverting
conventional understandings through
cinematic austerity. Thus while the
transcendental style actively resists
the normal proclivities of film as a
medium, the inherent qualities of film
as such are essential to its effective-
ness in expressing the transcendent.
Even so, Schrader's preferred style
does not exploit all of the distinct
advantages of the medium and hence
is not likely to function as the defini-
tive account of spirituality and film.
The transcendental style privileges
scene over narrative as the vehicle
for expressing the spiritual. Schrader's
favored means for expressing stasis
is scenic, a presentation of a near
static scene that has figured repeat-
edly in the story and occurs promi-
nently towards the end. He cites as a
paradigmatic example Ozu's use (in
Late Spring) of the static, still-life shot
of a vase in a darkened room
(Schrader, 1972, pp. 49-50). For
Schrader, stasis expresses the accep-
tance of disparity as part of a cosmic
pattern—that both the cold rational-
ism of empirical reality and the exis-
tence of human meaning are equally
true, equally valuable, and somehow
one and the same. More precisely,
stasis symbolizes the notion that
all emotions, however contradictory,
have no power in themselves but are
only part of a universal form which ex-
presses the inner unity of every phenom-
enon. Stasis, expressed in the static, qui-

CSMC
escent, organized scene, reinforces this
newfound idea of life (Schrader, 1972,
p. 51).
In the transcendental film, scene ul-
timately triumphs over narrative.
The spiritual impact brought about
through the transcendental style is
clearly associated with the mysti-
cisms of Asia, especially with the
teachings of Zen Buddhism.8 Unity
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clearly is privileged over difference
and a film's spiritual achievement
consists in discovering unity in the
context of apparent discontinuity. A
world-denying tone also permeates
the transcendental style in that it re-
veals ordinary reality as an inad-
equate foundation for meaning. Yet
everyday existence is not completely
rejected as illusion; it is affirmed. But
what is affirmed is physical reality's
sheer indifference, facticity, and for-
mal (not sensual) beauty. Otherness
figures in the transcendental style as
a provisional, negative presence that
is overcome at the margins of aware-
ness.
PLENUM SPIRITUALITY
IN PLACES IN THE HEART
Places in the Heart is characterized
by both scenic and narrative abun-
dance and evocative of a spirituality
at least somewhat in tune with the
more cosmological or plenum tradi-
tions.9 While Soloman and McMullen
(1991) have written an insightful
analysis of the film chiefly address-
ing feminist issues, it certainly war-
rants a spiritual reading. The film is
bracketed by hymns ("Blessed Assur-
ance" and "In the Garden"), twice
explicitly questions the nature of re-
ality, and closes with a fantastic com-
munion service that involves both
251
ENGNELL
the living and the dead. (For a brief
religious analysis of the film, see
Anker, 1993.)
The film involves two somewhat
separate stories that come together
in the final scene. The primary story
is the struggle of newly widowed
Edna Spaulding (Sally Field) to keep
her family and home together by
raising cotton. She is aided by Mose,
an itinerant black farm hand (Danny
Glover). Together they outwit the
community's rednecks by winning
the prize for ginning the season's
first cotton, which allows Edna to
save her farm and keep her family
together. The subplot depicts an adul-
terous affair between Wayne Lomax
(Ed Harris) and Viola Kelsey (Amy
Madigan). The second story con-
nects with the first because Wayne is
the husband of Edna's sister Marga-
ret (Lindsay Crouse).
Narratively, the story is developed
in mythic style. Until the final scene
there are no gaps in the narrative,
hence no mysterium. Every aspect of
the story is fully motivated by what
actually occurs on the screen and by
our story-viewing conventions. The
main plot is unexceptional. Several
familiar victims of social injustice are
present—a woman alone, an itiner-
ant black man, a blind man (Will,
played by John Malkovich). The vil-
lains are unsurprising—the business
class and the Ku Klux Klan. The my-
thic theme is that the poor and power-
less can achieve survival with dignity
through grit, pluck and solidarity.
The myth is affirmed; these power-
less people do succeed. Scenically,
the film is rather predictable. Each
scene is subordinated to the narra-
tive, each richly detailed, and each
on screen for precisely the amount of
 252
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
time necessary to orient the viewers
to the story.
On the whole, the main story is a
thoroughly conventional tribute to
the triumph of good over evil
through the best efforts of the hu-
man spirit. Everything in the pri-
mary story can be accommodated by
our normal story viewing routines.
While not without spiritual poten-
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tial, the story evokes no heightened
sense of mystery, no ominous dread,
and no fascination with power or
beauty. If the Other is present, it is so
domesticated as to be unnoticeable.
However, in the other-worldly com-
munion scene that concludes the
movie and in the more realistic sub-
narrative involving adultery the film
attempts to open up a space for Oth-
erness.
In what has been called "one of
filmdom's most startling endings"
(Anker, 1993, p. 17), most of the
characters in the film—-living and
dead, black and white, sinner and
sinned against—reappear together
in the movie-ending communion ser-
vice. The scene opens with a shot of
the sparsely filled sanctuary, with
Wayne and Margaret on the front
row. As the communion plates are
distributed, the camera focuses on
one or two persons at a time, slowly
moving down the pew as the com-
munion cup is passed. First there is
Wayne and Margaret, then the
banker and the scruffy members of
the dance band. As the camera
moves, the church seems fuller than
the opening shot suggested. Then
the camera focuses on some familiar
but unplaceable people who turn out
to be a homeless family that died in a
tornado. Just as the viewers recog-
nize the family, the camera finds
Mose in the next pew—a black man
SEPTEMBER 1995
in a depression-era Southern, white
church! The viewers incredulity is
then suspended for a bit as the cam-
era moves to Will, Edna's children,
and Edna herself. Then, Edna passes
the cup tray to the person on her
right, who turns out to be her dead
husband. He then gives the tray to
the person on his right, who is none
other than the black youth that had
killed him and who had been lynched
by a mob. At each stage, the framing
power of the filmed image intensifies
the shock of the scene.
Soloman and McMullen (1991, pp.
344-345, 349-350) correctly regard
this scene as a fissure in the seamless-
ness of the primary narrative that
opens up the film to alternative read-
ings. From the perspective of Other-
ness, the final scene turns myth into
parable. It breaks the continuity of
the primary narrative and opens a
yawning gap in our understanding
of existence, encouraging the audi-
ence to confront personally the
puzzle posed twice in the film: Be-
tween what matters and what seems
to matter, how shall the world we
know judge wisely? (The question
comes from Trent's Last Case by E. C.
Bentley and is brought into the story
by means of a recording for the
blind.) Are death and injustice reali-
ties? Is separation essentially an illu-
sion? Reality confronts reality, and in
the process clears a space for the
manifestation of Otherness.
What is manifested, however, is a
domesticated Otherness without any
tremendum. The scene actually sub-
verts the story's parabolicity. From
an ontological perspective, the scene
constitutes another order of reality.
It makes evident the intrinsic con-
nectedness and value of all beings
and events. The parabolic disruption

CSMC
of the story actually serves to rein-
force the cosmological view of seam-
less existence: What appeared to be a
gap in ordinary existence—death—is
shown as no gap at all. As in the
transcendental style, scene triumphs
over narrative, but here there is no
stasis. The unity of Places in the Heart
is not the static unity of Schrader.
Clearly, the communion service does
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not transcend disparity; it vanquishes
it.
To evoke the spiritual successfully,
however, the viewers must take the
communion service as seriously as
they take the rest of the story. They
must give the final scene the same
degree of credence they give the rest
of the film. Few probably do. The
awareness brought about by the final
scene may lead in two directions: 1)
toward an intimation of Otherness,
or 2) to a recognition of the film's
artificiality. Our general documen-
tary confidence in the medium makes
the second alternative more likely.
Since the viewers know that such
events do not occur in real life, they
are reminded by the scene of how
easily film may manipulate our view
of reality.10 Its conclusion mocks our
involvement with the rest of the film,
hence the angry response of some
first time viewers. If the audience
wishes to salvage its own involve-
ment in the story, it must reinterpret
the final scene as symbolic rather
than real. Soloman and McMullen
(1991, pp. 349-50) give it a symbolic
reading, interpreting it as a represen-
tation of Edna's or the viewers' vision
of reality, a picture of how reality
ought to be if the world gets its act
together. But this symbolic reading
robs the movie of its hierophanic
power. As Southern Catholic novelist
Flannery O'Conner (1979, p. 125)
253
ENGNELL
said in response to the suggestion
that the Eucharist was a "pretty
good" symbol, "Well, if it's a symbol,
to hell with it." After all, the hiero-
phany must be both truly of this
world and of the other world as well.
The spiritual potential of the com-
munion scene, however, is deepened
through its connection with the sec-
ondary narrative.11 Unlike the pri-
mary narrative, the subplot of Wayne
and Viola's adultery is presented with
reticence. The audience knows little
of Viola and Wayne's history; their
relationship is almost completely un-
explained. While Wayne's motiva-
tion may be understandable—he
seems to be a stereotypical, sexually
predatory male—Viola's motivation
remains a mystery.12 Fear, even
dread, pervades the story. In scenic
technique, the secondary story is also
more austere. Little happens or is
said when the two are on screen to-
gether. Wayne and Viola are shown
at a trysting site, but they display
only modest passion. The typical view
of Viola is of a person dumbfounded.
(Speechlessness is an appropriate re-
sponse to the daunting mysterium of
the Other [Otto, 1950, p. 26].) The
undeniable power of the attraction,
the mystery of its cause, the dread of
its consequence—all enhanced through
narrative and scenic austerity—give
the subplot a potential for opening
up the story to Otherness. Yet the
subplot comprises the most thor-
oughly realistic element of the story.
Negro farm hands and white widows
are unlikely victors in the depression-
era South. Adultery, however, is a
timeless and universal reality.
This subsidiary story also culmi-
nates in the communion scene. The
communion service is almost, but not
entirely, inclusive; only the klans-
 254
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
men and Viola are absent. As the
service begins, Viola and her hus-
band are shown leaving town, bags
packed. As they pass the church,
Viola turns around and stares
speechlessly at the sanctuary. We are
obviously to note her absence. But
why should Viola be excluded and
not Wayne? Her exclusion seems un-
just. Wayne is the active perpetrator
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of this moral outrage, Viola merely
the helpless thrall. She is the victim,
not a femme fatale. Why is she
counted with the klansmen in her
transgression? Viola is excluded be-
cause she is less directly related to
the community than is Wayne. While
raised elsewhere, Wayne is now re-
lated to the central figures through
marriage covenant and issue (they
have a daughter). His absence would
represent a radical fracture in the
unity of this mythic world. Viola is a
professional (a teacher), thus emanci-
pated to a degree from communal
ties. We know of no other ties for
Viola and she is already the "other
woman." Yet Viola is more closely
related than the klansmen, who are
never recognized as an integral part
of the group. Thus Viola is the appro-
priate vessel for bearing away both
her own and the community's defile-
ment. Her relative innocence only
intensifies her value as a scapegoat.13
This analysis of Places in the Heart
suggests several possible challenges
for a film seeking to evoke plenum
spirituality. The use of ordinary sce-
nic and narrative abundance in por-
traying largely ordinary reality is ap-
parently insufficient for evoking
Otherness. One method for enhanc-
ing the spiritual potential of such a
film might be to emphasize scene as
scene rather than merely as an aid to
storytelling. For example, giving
SEPTEMBER 1995
more prominence to the fantastic
courthouse might have introduced
another element of indeterminacy or
mystery.14 Or focusing more consis-
tently on the everyday might have
added another dimension of mythic
completeness or revealed hidden
depths of meaning in ordinary liv-
ing. Such a scenic emphasis would
serve at least to slow the normal cog-
nitive routines so that the audience
can be opened up to new meanings.
Another alternative, followed in this
film, is to interrupt normal interpre-
tive schemas by including some sort
of bizarre happening. But the bi-
zarre, by its contrived nature vis-a-
vis film, may simply call attention to
the manipulative character of the me-
dium itself. A less risky means, also
found in this film, may be to scape-
goat some this-wordly object or per-
son as Other. Perhaps the integra-
tive spiritual unity of the cosmos can
only be appreciated through the con-
trast with subjective or objective dif-
ference. In theistic religion, the
wholly Other is a pervasive fact. In
cosmological religion, the Other may
have to be continually uncovered or
reinvented.
THEISTIC OTHERNESS
IN TENDER MERCIES
Horton Foote's Tender Mercies has
already been subject to an analysis as
a Schraderian, transcendental film
(Desser, 1985).15 But while Schrader's
concepts contribute significantly to a
proper understanding of the spiri-
tual effect of the film, they are insuffi-
cient for capturing its distinctive char-
acter. An interpretation within the
framework presented in this article
will result in a better reading of the
film and a more refined understand-
ing of how manipulating scene and
 255
CSMC ENGNELL

narrative may invoke Otherness to dent with his professional rebirth,

express differing varieties of spiritu- Mac is transformed inwardly. He falls
ality. in love with Rosa and marries her.
Tender Mercies comes closest to the He is baptized. He tries to market his
transcendental style in its skillful use songs because he wants to support
of narrative austerity. Scenically, Rosa Lee and Sonny, not because
however, the film is richer than one he wants to be famous again. He
would expect in the transcendental stops drinking. Clearly, Mac is on the
style. More importantly, the narra- mend, finding peace within himself
tive develops beyond stasis in a very and within his situation.
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significant way, evoking a spirituality Up to this point, the film invokes a

of dynamic hope far more in keeping familiar and powerful myth: What
with theistic Otherness than with the every failed man needs in order to
static, frozen acceptance of the tran- succeed is the love of a good woman.
scendental style or fecund plurality (Graves [1991] sees the film as ex-
of plenum Otherness. ample of the Dante/Beatrice myth.)
Two closely related narrative The theme is alluded to once in dia-
themes characterize Tender Mercies: log and announced several times in
1) the professional comeback of a the signature refrain of his comeback
country song writer (Mac Sledge, song, "If you'll just hold the ladder,
played by Robert Duval) laid low by baby/I'll climb to the top." This
divorce and alcoholism and 2) the mythic narrative, though, is inter-
transformation of his spirit through rupted abruptly by the death of Mac's
a growing relationship with motel teenage daughter Sue Anne (played
owner and widow Rosa Lee (played by Ellen Barkin), who had reentered
by Tess Harper) and her little boy his life after several years' absence.
Sonny. The story begins with Mac She appears twice, the first time in a
passed out drunk on the floor in very restrained but poignant meet-
Lee's decrepit roadside motel. (The ing with her father in the motel liv-
refrain of the opening song is "It ing room. She asks Mac if he remem-
hurts so much/To face/Reality.") bers a song that he sang to her as a
Abandoned by his friends and with- child. He says no, but after she leaves,
out money, he asks to stay on at the he very, very softly begins singing it
motel, doing odd jobs to earn his to himself, the country religious clas-
keep. He begins to write songs again, sic "On the Wings of a Dove." Later,
eventually taking some to sell to his just as Mac's new song is being played
ex-wife, Dixie—still a successful coun- on the radio, he gets word on the
try singer—and her manager. When phone that Sue Anne has died in an
they reject his work, he sets out to auto accident. As the film plays out,
get drunk but fails. Though Mac gives we see Mac asking Rosa the familiar
little additional attention to his ca- "why" questions; not only why his
reer comeback, a local band seeking daughter died but why Mac has sur-
to make good asks for his help. They vived and why he is in fact blessed
end up recording his song, with Mac with Rosa's love. "See—I don't trust
doing the vocal as a favor, and it happiness," Mac declares. "I never
begins to get local air time. Mac is on did and I never will." Rosa has no
his way to success once again. Coinci- answer. The mythic coherence of ex-
 256
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS
istence is shattered. After an inter-
lude in which Rosa talks with Sonny
about the death of his father, the film
ends with scenes of Mac picking up
highway trash while softly singing
"On the wings of a dove," then of
Mac playing catch with Sonny.
In broad outline, Tender Mercies
might appear to be a conventional
theatrical film, but the spiritual po-
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tential of the film is significantly al-
tered through the use of narrative
austerity and a creative mix of scenic
abundance and austerity. The come-
back narrative is developed in con-
ventional fullness, but the story of
inward transformation is told with
great reticence. Central events come
unexpectedly; important informa-
tion is left unexpressed. When Mac
proposes to Rosa Lee, it comes as a
surprise to the viewer, even though
he tells her, "Anyone can see how
crazy I am about you!" She only
agrees to think it over; later viewers
discover that they have married,
though not hint of the wedding ap-
peared on screen. Even more surpris-
ing is Mac's baptism. The audience is
almost completely unprepared for his
sudden appearance in the baptistery
during a church service. (Desser
[1985, p. 25] calls this narrative ellip-
sis and the principle of retrospectiv-
ity.) While Mac's character is fairly
well developed (though a great deal
of his past is hidden), Rosa Lee's
character seems rather superficial
and simple, with little depth. Why
she would run the motel alone and
why she would marry Mac are unex-
plained. Their relationship is simi-
larly undeveloped. What they see in
each other is unclear. They touch
only three times in the movie. Even
the musical cues to the theme of
SEPTEMBER 1995
transformation ("On the Wings of a
Dove") are highly restrained.
Scenically, the detailed, cinematic
mise-en-scene typical of most films
also characterizes Tender Mercies. But
because of the reticent dialog and
paucity of action, viewers have time
to contemplate the objects on screen:
a cafe menu board, paper french fry
trays at the dance hall, the sleeveless
choir director, a snack stack in the
service station office, a spice rack on
the wall above the kitchen stove. All
seems as it should be—perhaps just a
little overdetailed. But the emblem-
atic scene is an austere, almost straight-
on view of the dilapidated, 40s era
motel owned by Rosa Lee, set against
the borderless fields and immense
skies of Texas. It appears at least
nine times, in addition to several
horizon-featuring shots directed out-
ward from the motel. The distance of
the shot means that rather little spe-
cific detail comes through, yet the
wide view fails to orient the audience
towards any geographical context.
No other identifiable landmarks ap-
pear in the scene. The shot takes on
the stylized character of an Ozu coda
(Desser, 1985).
The abruptly interrupted narra-
tive, the narrative austerity, the rich
portrayal of ordinary reality, and the
barrenness of the emblematic scene
together function to evoke a power-
ful transcendental spirituality in the
manner described by Schrader, but
with a significant difference. The nar-
rative austerity and dingy realism
tend to distance the viewer from
identifying too strongly with Mac and
Rosa. Yet the viewer is called back to
emotional commitment through a de-
cisive action, the death of the daugh-
ter Sue Anne. Viewer's cannot doubt
Mac's grief, though he is reticent as

CSMC
always. The almost perverted emo-
tionalism of Dixie, however, under-
scores the depth of the loss. In the
questioning scene, Mac cries—though
one can't be quite sure. Yet as the
film ends, no one can doubt Mac's
peace as the scenes of everyday life
unfold.
Nothing can account for this expe-
rience of simultaneous peace and
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pain. The austere narrative cannot
account for it; too little is known
about Rosa Lee and Mac together to
believe that she has brought about
the change. The mythic narrative of
the love of a good woman has proved
inadequate. In response to Mac's
questions, she offers not even a com-
forting touch. Nor can the scene ac-
count for the transformation, since
neither the dingy richness of ordi-
nary living nor the emptiness of the
emblematic scene provide clues to an
explanation. The viewer is caught in
disparity; emotional reality and
physical reality do not mesh. Other-
ness is manifested as mysterium.
The everyday scenes that end the
movie express a kind of stasis. Sonny
comes home from school and talks
with his mother about the death of
his father in Vietnam. She knows
little and apparently is unbothered
by her ignorance. The distant loss
has been assimilated to ongoing rou-
tine, as present (or absent) as the
daily office tasks. Outside, Mac does
his normal chores. The pain and dis-
ruption of existence clearly have not
been resolved but within this dispar-
ity Mac, Sonny, and Rosa Lee have
found peace, and something not di-
rectly representable on screen must
account for it.
But Tender Mercies goes beyond the
frozen, largely empty unity of tran-
scendental stasis. After stasis, the film
257
ENGNELL
issues another invitation for emo-
tional commitment and evokes its
most extravagant emotional experi-
ence. Desser (1985, p. 25) notes that
the final scenes of Tender Mercies are
unlike the still-life codas of Ozu in
that they show human figures mov-
ing against a background. In fact,
Mac's movements take on an energy,
spontaneity, and freedom never be-
fore exhibited in the film. But there
are more important differences. As
Sonny goes out to play catch with
Mac, Rosa Lee comes onto the porch
and watches them. For the first time,
viewers see Rosa Lee in a true
close-up and are able to ponder the
subtlety of her emotions. She be-
comes more than a surface. But more
significantly, after Sonny and Mac
begin to play catch, the soundtrack
introduces the only fully orches-
trated song in the film, a lush ode to
Rosa Lee as a source of meaning that
says in part, "You're the good things
I threw away/Coming back to me
every day/You're the best that could
ever be/You are what love means to
me." The song continues as the
screen goes deep black and the cred-
its roll. In the orthodox transcenden-
tal style, the power of scene triumphs
over narrative. In this film, cinemati-
cally, the power of the (sung) word
triumphs over scene.
The sequence of call-stasis-call im-
plicates a different kind of spiritual-
ity than that expressed in the tran-
scendental style. Difference is given
even more ontological weight yet is
transcended though the intimation
of an assisting Other. The final ex-
change between Rosa Lee and Mac
establishes once and for all the deep
incongruity of life, the great gap be-
tween the ideal and the real, the
great difference between the mun-
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SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS SEPTEMBER 1995

dane and the divine. The refrain of
the opening song remains true: "It
hurts so much/To face/Reality." But
once the essential disparity and the
essential isomorphism of the mun-
dane and the divine have been ac-
cepted, the mundane, in the person
of Rosa Lee, can come into its own
appropriate glory. Once the myth
has been acknowledged as an essen-
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strange and Other the experiences
of everyday living, opening a place
for viewers to discover an added spiri-
tual dimension in ordinary reality.
In doing so, film may evoke the expe-
rience of cosmological spirituality in
which Otherness is integrated as
much as possible with ordinary exis-
tence. On the other hand, when care-
fully manipulated, the decontextual-

tially incomplete account of life, its izing and intensifying effect of the
own limited truth can be lavishly cel- filmed scene can draw attention to
ebrated. But the disparity still stands;the inadequacy of ordinary physical
the seams of existence lie exposed. reality to account for the depth of
Rosa Lee's love cannot "make up" meaning characteristically given to
for the loss. Life with her is merely a everyday experience. It can direct
magnificent gift in the midst of dis- the viewer to another, transcendent
parity. This form of transcendence is level of reality as an explanation of
not frozen or static, but dynamic. value. In both cases film's particular
The viewer goes beyond acceptance power to focus attention on a framed
to a hope that is grounded in some- scene generates the desired effect.
thing certain yet beyond what can be
known. Given its effectiveness in render-
ing other the objects and scenes of
Tender Mercies demonstrates the ordinary reality, in establishing the
spiritual potential achievable through completeness of narrative, and in se-
the artful manipulation of the ele- curing the unity of place, film ap-
ments of the transcendental style. pears to be especially well suited to
The skillful balancing of narrative
and scenic austerity and abundance expressing the differentiated unity
can generate more than a vision of characteristic of plenum spirituali-
static, profound unity. In Tender Mer- ties. But seamless unity may also ren-
cies, greater use of scenic abundance der precarious any specifically spiri-
and placing the emotional high point tual quality. To maintain its spiritual
after stasis evokes the transcendence character, some residue of signifi-
of dynamic hope. But unlike Places in cant Otherness may be required, in-
the Heart, hope reveals itself not in troduced perhaps through the some-
some bizarre, other-worldly vision, how credible inclusion of the bizarre,
but rather deep within ordinary real- or perhaps by designating a specific
ity. Tender Mercies is the more truly person, place, or object as the unas-
hierophanic film. similatable Other that dramatizes the
seamless unity of the rest of exis-
tence.
CONCLUSION Expressing the more transcendent,
Despite its secular origins, film ap- world-denying spirituality character-
pears well suited in a variety of ways istic of theistic religion and mysti-
for evoking spirituality. The decon- cism requires more careful manipula-
textualizing and intensifying effect of tion of the cinematic elements.
the filmed image tends to render Typically, the filmmaker must exer-
 259
CSMC ENGNELL

cise greater restraint in utilizing the
full potential of scene and narrative
so that mystery is enhanced and
dread intensified. Scenic emptiness
and narrative fragmentation can
open a space for the Other. Paradoxi-
cally, films that posit a more radical
break between this world and the
transcendent may find it less neces-
sary to include the bizarre or desig-
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source of meaning. This focused at-
tention on the imaged object emanci-
pated from its ordinary contexts may
enhance the apparent value of the
reality displayed such that the viewer
comes to a greater appreciation of
ordinary existence. Or alternatively,
the composition and use of the scene
may be such as to call attention to the
shallowness of ordinary social reality

nated Other within the story. without substituting anything deeper

In any case, narrative generally
must defer in significant ways to scene
since too much narrative power sub-
ordinates scene to meaning and thus
undercuts film's basic advantage as a
visual medium in expressing the
spiritual. It is the scenic dimension of
film that seems most central to any
spiritual effectiveness. Through art-
ful narrative fragmentation or per-
haps simply through banality of plot,
viewers must fall back on the visual
image, rather than narrative, as the
in its place, rendering more precari-
ous the viewers' confidence in their
everyday world. Either way, viewers
come into an awareness of an aspect
of existence generally avoided in
modern, bureaucratic living.
Spirituality is a complex phenom-
enon and film as a medium possesses
complex capabilities. Anyone who
studies the relationship between film,
scene, narrative, Otherness, and
spirituality should be prepared to be
surprised.

NOTES
1 This project also reflects the recent intensified interest in issues of spirituality and
communication. Cf. Tukey (1988) and the responses to his essay published in Communication
Studies (see Bineham, Scott, and Tukey, all 1989); see also Tukey (1993) for a comprehensive
proposal for a spiritual rhetoric.
This study also reflects the continuing problematic status of visual symbols in Judaism and
Christianity. For a contemporary, secular, iconoclastic view of visual communication, see Ellul
(1985). For a personal account of a Calvinistic anti-visual bias, see Paul Schrader's comments
in Jackson (1990, pp. 26-27).
2 This, of course, must be qualified in various ways. The film viewer does not believe that,
say, King Henry VIII actually has been photographed or that Sally Fields is actually Edna
Spaulding. But at least until the advent of computer-generated special effects, film-goers
would believe that something physically real was at one time before the camera. My point is
that the more obviously contrived the image, the less likelihood it has for evoking the Other.
For a very precise account of how visual rendering and representation works, see Wolterstorff
(1980, pp. 262-355).
3
Both Kracauer and Schrader advocate scenic realism. Kracauer's approach might be
characterized as thick realism because it draws one into reality. In contrast, Schrader
advocates thin realism because he invites the viewer to see how unsubstantial and unsup-
ported ordinary reality really is (but cf. Kracauer, 1960, pp. 63—64).
4
The comments here on parable and myth (below) are based on May (1982) who bases his
work on Crossan (1975) and Sacks (1966). Theologians and students of religion have shown
considerable interest in the spiritual value of narrative. For overviews of this field, see
Goldberg (1982), Fackre (1983), and Stroup (1991).
 260
SPIRITUAL POTENTIAL OF OTHERNESS SEPTEMBER 1995
5
Schrader (1972, pp. 26, 65-67) de-emphasizes motivation and approves of over-
rehearsing as a device for eliminating inner depth. He also favors techniques that weaken
dramatic climax. He cites with approval how Ozu may give an absolutely faithful account of an
action, showing its beginning, middle, and ending, yet rob the scene of its dramatic and
ordinary significance by giving each stage of the action equal emphasis (Schrader, 1972, pp.
42, 68).
6
The following threefold division is suggested by Berger (1981). Sheridan (1986) makes a
similar division on a different foundation. A twofold division into characteristically western
theism and eastern mysticisms is rather commonly made by scholars of religion; see Berger
(1979), Arapura (1972), and Ninian Smart (e.g., 1973, pp. 61-62).
These are ideal types. Perhaps no single religious or spiritual tradition will be without
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elements of all three kinds of spirituality. Roman Catholicism, for example, clearly incorpo-
rates aspects of all three (Sheridan, 1986, p. 45). What may be distinctive about a specific
spiritual tradition may be the hierarchical ordering of elements rather than the simple
presence or absence of Otherness, unity, or plurality. The dominant element will affect the
function of the others.
7 Mystical Spirituality should be in quotation marks to alert readers that we are dealing with
rough correspondences between film and spirituality. The mystical tradition is of course far
richer and more nuanced than the mystical spirituality addressed here. So too for plenum
spirituality and theistic otherness in the next two sections. For other summaries and
interpretations of Schrader, see Desser (1985) and Graves (1992).
8
Schrader was raised and educated in a strongly Calvinistic milieu (see Jackson, 1990) and
one of his examples of the transcendental style is the films of Bresson, who worked out of a
Christian, Calvinist milieu. Some see a Calvinist tinge to his own films (Jackson, 1990, p. xi).
But in Transcendental Style (1972, pp. 27-28) he clearly acknowledges his debt to Zen
Buddhism and holds up Ozu as the most complete and authentic exemplar of the style.
9 Places in the Heart was written and directed by Robert Benton. This movie and Tender
Mercies were chosen for a variety of reasons. Both were produced about the same time, were
situated in a rural Southern setting, are moderately historical, and feature widows. While
both include some explicitly religious elements, neither would be regarded as a stereotypi-
cally religious film. Their emphasis on everyday domestic reality makes them easily compa-
rable to the films of Ozu, the purest exemplar of the transcendental style. In addition, as
widely distributed commercial films rather than art films, they should reveal the spiritual
possibilities of film as it is more or less conventionally used.
10
Consider Schrader's misgivings (1972, pp. 134-135) about the resurrection in Dreyer's
Ordet; he found it "too drastic to induce belief."
11 Soloman and McMullen (1991, p. 345) see the subplot as designed to subvert the religious
tone set in the beginning by showing the moral imperfection possible within the community. I
believe it is largely the subplot that gives the film any real religious substance. At any rate, the
potential for moral imperfection is surely already evident in the activities of the klansmen and
the boorishness of the banker.
12
Wayne's philandering is viewed as impish by Soloman and McMullen (1991, p. 345).
While Wayne has his charms, his relationship with Viola seems to me based less on mere
sexual mischievousness than on power games and a self-centered intoxication with living
dangerously.
13
Soloman and McMullen regard Viola's exclusion from the communion service as a
consequence of her own decision (announced earlier in the film) to leave the community
rather than be reconciled to its poverty, danger and recrimination, whereas Wayne chose to
stay. But their decisions are not morally equivalent. While Viola and Margaret are both
victims, Margaret holds some power over Wayne (for example, as family provider, mother of
his daughter). Viola has no source of power. To remain in this community would subject her
to further taunting and victimization. While Wayne appears to show remorse, subject himself
to some humiliation, and evidence humility and relief in their reconciliation, the picture is not
 261

CSMC ENGNELL

altogether convincing. Emotionally facile, he may be allowing his emotions to follow his meal
ticket.
Anker (1993) sees klansmen included in this service but I have not been able to identify
them.
14 The only scene that is interesting and compelling largely for its own sake is that of a
fantastic, steepled courthouse rising above the trees and houses of the town like a Buddhist
stupa emerging from a humid plain. No action occurs within it and its appearance on screen
(usually only the clock tower) typically portends some ominous action about to occur. It also
opens the film and appears just before the final communion scene. The viewer at first takes it
for a church. As such, it may provide a symbol for the integration of secular and spiritual
power characteristic of plenum spiritualities.
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15 Tender Mercies was directed by Bruce Beresford and produced by Philip S. Hobel; see also
note 9.

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