EXPERIMENT 1

Determining resistance per cm of given wire by plotting a graph of potential d ifference

versus current:

AIM: To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential
difference versus current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Battery, key, rheostat, voltmeter, ammeter, resistance wire (unknown resistance),
connecting wires, meter scale, sandpaper.
PRINCIPLE:
This Experiment is based on OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law states that the electric current passing t hrough a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends.
Mathematically, V=IR
The resistance R of the wire depends on the mater ial of the wire and its dimensions.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

1.
PROCEDURE:

1. Draw the circuit diagram as shown in figur e above

2. Arrange the apparatus as per the circuit diagram

3. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sandpaper and make them shiny.

4. Make the connection s as per cir cuit diagram . All connections must be neat and tight.
Take care to connect the ammeter and voltmeter with their correct polarity. (+veto +ve
and-veto -ve)

5. Determine the zero error and least count of the ammeter and voltmet er and recor d
them .

6. Adjust the rheostat to pass a low current .

7. Insert the key Kand slide the rheostat contact to see whether the ammeter and
voltmeter are showing deflections properly,
8. Adjust the rheostat t o get a small deflection in ammeter and voltmeter.

9. Record the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter

10. Take at least six sets of readings by adju sting the rheostat gradually

11. Plot a graph with V along X axis and I along axis.

12. The graph will be a straight line which verifies Ohm's law

13. Determine the slope of the V-1graph. The reciprocal of the slope gives the resistance of
the wire.

i i
OBSERVATIONS:

1. Range
Range of the given Ammeter= 0-500m A
Range of the given voltmeter = 0-5V

2. Least Count
Least Count of the given Ammeter= 10Ma
Least Count of the given voltmeter = 0.1 V

3. Zero Error
Zero Error of the given Ammeter= 0A
Zero Error of the given voltmeter= 0V
4. Zero Cor rection
Zero Correction of the given Ammeter= 0A
Zero Correction of the given voltmeter = OV

5. Observation Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings.

Ammeter Voltmeter
Ammeter Voltmeter Ratio (V/ 1) =
S No Corrected Corrected
Observed (A) Observed (V) R (ohm)
(A) (V)

1 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.33

2 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.28

3 1.1 1.1 0.3 0.3 0.27

4 1.5 1.5 0.4 0.4 0.26

5 1.9 1.9 0.5 0.5 0.26

Graph

tI

Voltage vis Current Graph

CALCULATIONS:
Mean Value of V/1from observations, R = 0.280
Length of resistance wire = 40.2cm
Value of slope of VI graph =0.27 0
Resistance per unit length = 0.675 om·1
RESULT:

1. Ohm's Law is verified as the I vs V graph is a straight line

2. The resistance of the given wire= 0.280
3. The resistance per cm of given wire is 0.675 0 m·1.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the electrical connections must be neat and tight.

2. Voltmeter and Ammeter must of proper range
3. The key should be inserted only while taking readings.

EXPERIMENT 2

Finding: the resistance of a given wire using: meter bridge and hence determine resistivity
of its material:

Aim: To find the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine
resistivity of its material.
Apparatus:

A meter bridge (slide wire bridge ) , a lecranche cell, a galvanometer , a resistor , a jockey , a
one way key , a resistance wire , a screw gauge , a meter scale , a set of square , connecting
wire , a piece of sand paper.

Theory:

he unknown resistance 'X" is given by

'·'-
Where ' R" is the known resistance placed in the left gap & unknown resistance 'X" is the
right gap of Meter Bridge. ' L' is length of meter bridge wire from zero end up to balance.

Resistivity of the material of the given wire is given by

Where 'L' is the length & Dis the diameter of the given wire.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the arrangement diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determine in the right gap b/w C&
B .Take care that no point /part of the wire forms a loop.
3. Connect resistance box of low range in the left gap b/w A & B.
4. Make all other connection as shown in the circuit diagram.
5. Take out some resistance from the resistance box , ping the key 'K'
6. Touch the jockey gently first at length end & then right end of the bridge wire.

7. Note the deflection in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflection in the
galvanometer reading in opposit e direction the correction are correct. If the deflection is
on one side only then there is fault in the circuit. Check & rectify the fault.
8. Move the jockey gently along the wire from left t o r ight till gives zero deflection. The
point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point 'D'.
9. Choose an appropriate value of 'R' from the box such that there is no defection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire.
10. Note position of point 'D' to known the length AD=I
11. Take at least 4 set s of observation in the same way by changing the value of R in the
steps.
12. Record your observation .
ff)
13. For specific resistance

1. Cut the resistance w ire at the point w here it leaves the terminal, started it & find its
length by using a meter scale.

2. M easure the d iameter of the wire at least at 4 places in two m utually

perpendicular direction at each place w ith the of screw gauge.

3. Record your observation as given in the table.

Observation:

1. length of a given w ire L = 66 cm =0.66 m

2. Table for unknown resistance (X)

Unkown
Resistance from box, R Length AB =I Length BC = (100-1) Resistance
(Ohm) (cm) (cm) X = (R(l00-1))/L
(ohm)

0.5 58.3 41.7 0.35

0.7 60.7 39.3 0.45

1 61.9 38.1 0.61

1.5 61.1 38.9 0.95

Mean =0.59

3. Least count of screw gauge

Pit ch of screw gauge =0 .01

Tot al no of division o n the circular scale=

LC of screw gauge = Pit ch / No of the circular scale

Zero error (e) = (0)

Zero connectio n = (e) =0

Radius of the resist ance wire

Main Scale Circular Scale Total Reading Mean D Mean radius

Reading (mm) Reading (diameter) (mm) (mm) (D/2) (mm)

0 43 0.43 0.42 0.21

0 41 0.41

Rasult:

1. The value of the unknown resistance X =0.5 ohm

2. The specific resistance of mat erial of w ire= 0. 104 x10·3 o hm m

3. Percent age erro r

Precaution:

The connectio n should be neat , clean & t ight .

ff)
 EXPERIMENT 3

Verifying laws of combination (parallel) of resistance using meter bridge:

Aim: To verify laws of combination (parallel) of resist ance using meter bridge.

Apparatus: a meter bridge , a leclanch e cell , a galvanometer , a jockey , a jockey , a

resistance box , t wo resistance wire , connecting wires , set square .
Theory:

The resistance (r) of a resistance w ire or coil is given by r= (100-I)/L • R w here R is the
resistance from resistance box in the left gap and L is the length of meter bridge wire from O
end upto balan ce point.

W hen r1 and r2 are connected in parallel, then their combined resistance

Rp = r1r2 / r1+r2
Procedure:

1 . Mark the two resistance wires as r 1 and r2

2. Connect the t w o coils r1 and r 2 in parallel as shown in fig. in t he right gap of Meter Bridge
and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three set of observation
3. Record your observation.

Value of r1:

Resistance of R.B. (ohm} Balance L (cm) (100-1) (cm) ((100-1)* R]/L Mean r1

0.5 59 41 0.347

1 37 63 0.587 0.6393

2 33 67 0.985

Resistance of R.B. (ohm) Balance L (cm) (100-1) (cm) 1(100-l)*R]/L Mean r2

0.5 83.2 16.8 0.1009

1 80.8 19.2 4.208 1.729

2 69.4 30.6 0.881

Value of .1:2:

Resistance of R.B. (ohm) Balance L (cm) {100-1) (cm) [(100-l)*R]/L Mean !:la

0.1 27 73 0.27

0.2 32 68 0.42 0.36

0.5 56 44 0.39

Calculations:

Rp = (R1R2)/ R1+R2 = (0.693 x 1.729) / {0.693+1.729) = 0.4667 ohm

Experimental Error= [{0.36-0.4667) / (0.36W100 = 29.6%
 Result:

Within limit of experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rp are same.
Hence law of resistance in parallel are verified.
Precaution:

The key should be inserted only while taking observation.

Connection should be neat and tight.

EXPERIMENT 4

To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistance uslnc a meter bride• (R=Rl + R2):

Alm : To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistance using a me ter bridge {R~R1 + R2)

Apparatus : a meter bridge , a leclanche cell (battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a

resistance box , a jockey, two resistance wire or two resistance coils, set square,
connecting wires.

Theory:

1. The resistance {r) of a wire or coil is given by

Where R is the resistance from resistance box in the left gap and I is the length of the meter
bridge wire from zero end up to balance point.

2. When two resistance r1 & r2 are connected in series, then their combined resistance

R3=R1+R2

Procedure:

1. Mark the two resistance coil as ri and r 2.

2. To find the r1 and r2 proceed same way as in experiment 1.

(If r 1 and r2 are not known)

1. Connect the two coils n and r2 in series as shown circuit diagram in the right gap of Meter
Bridge and find the resistance of this combination. Take at least three sets of observation.

2. Record your observation.

 Circuit diacram:

Observation table:

Resistance in R.B. (ohm) Balance I (cm) (100-1) (cm) ((100-l)•Rj/l Mean r1(cm)

0.5 24 76 1.583

1 38 62 1.631 1.616

2 55 45 1.636

Resistance in R.B. (ohm) Balance I (cm) (100-1) (cm) ((100-l}*R]/I Mean r2(cm)

0.5 33 67 1.015

1 50 50 1 1.015

2 66 34 1.030
L

Resistance in R.B. (ohm) Balance I (cm) (100-1) (cm) ((100-l)*R]/I Mean !.!(cm)

0.5 16 84 2.625

1 28 72 2.571 2.615

2 43 57 2.651

Calculation:

R1 + R2 = 1.616+1.015 = 2.63 1 ohm

R, = 2.615 ohm

Therefore, experimental error = [(2.615-2.631)/2.615)" 100 = 0.6%

Result:

Within limits ot experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of Rare same.
Hence law of resistance in series is verified.

Precaution:

1. The key should be inserted only w hile taking observation.

2. Connections should be neat and tight.

ff]
 EXPERIMENTS

To compare EMF of two civen primary cells usinc potentiometer:

Aim: To compare EMF of two given primary cells using potentiometer

Apparatus: potentiometer, a leclanche cell, a daniel cell, an ammeter , a voltmeter, a

galvanometer , a battery , (battery eleminator), a rheostat , of low resistance , a resistance
box , a one way key , a two way key , a jockey , a set square, connecting wire , a piece of
sand paper .
Theory:

When we keep key (K1) closed and (K2) open, let the null point found be IJ1
E1=Kl,j1 (1)
When we keep K, open and K, closed, let null poiot obtained by IJ,.
E,=Kl,j, (2)
(1)/ (2)

E, / E, = KIJ, / Kl.j,
EJE, =IJ I,
Where E, and E, are the emf of two given cells.

Procedure:

1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the positive poles of the cells to the terminal and the negative poles to the
terminal a and b of the two way key.
3. Insert the plug in the key Kand also in between the terminals a and c of the two way
key.
4. Slide the jockey gently over the potentiometer wires until you obtain a point of no
deflection.
5. Note the length 11 at the point.
6. Repeat this with E, by disconnecting E, and inserting plug into gap a and c of two way
key.
7. Record hat null point.
8. Repeat this different resistance.
Observation table:

Balancing Lengths

fa/ b = IA.11 / IAji

Li for cell E1 (cm) l2 for cell b (cm)

327 376 0.86

323.5 371 0.87

321.5 369 0.87

312.5 352.5 0.88

Result:

The ratio of emf Ei/E2 ~o.87.

Precaution:

1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observat ions taken.
3. The positive poles of the battery E and cells Ex and E2 should, all be connected to
terminal at the zero of the wires.

4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the
5 . The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f.'s of the either cells.
6. Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from resistant the jockey is
moved along the wire.

EXPERIMENT 6

Determining resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure
of merit:

Aim: To determine resist ance of a galvan ometer by half deflection method and to find its
figure of merit.

Apparatus : A Weston type of galvanometer , a voltmeter, a battery /battery eliminator ,

two 10,000 ohm and 200 ohm ) resist ance boxes , t wo one way key , a rheostat , a screw
gauge , a meter scale , an ammeter of given range , connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper .

Theory:

The resistance o f the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method.

G= (RxS)/(R-S) (1)

Where R is the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and Sis the shunt
resistan ce.

The figure of merit, K =E /((R+G)QJ (2)

L
Where E is the end of the cell and Q is the deflection produced with resistance R.

The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer, lc=nk

Where n is the total number of dimension on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero.

Procedure:

1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method

• Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

• See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight

• Take out the high resistance (200 Ohm) from the resistance box Rand insert key Kl only.
• Adjust the value of Rt so that deflection is maximum, even in number and within the
scale.
• Note the deflection. Let it be Q.
• Insert the key k2 also and without changing the value of R2, adjust the value of S, such
that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value of resistance S.
• Note the value of resistance S.
• Repeat step 4 & 7 three t imes taking different Rand adjusting.

2. Figure of merit

• Take one cell of the battery and find its e mf by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the
voltmeter with +ve of cell and - ve of the voltmeter with -ve of cell. Let it be E.
• Take connection as in circuit diagram.
• Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection Q when circuit is closed.
• Note the value of resistance R and deflection Q .
• Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again.
• Repeat the step with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2, 4, 6, 8 volts
from battery e liminator.
• Find the figure of merit K using the formula .

Diagram:

Resistance of Galvanometer:

rl - • •P

a
Observation table ·

Resistance (R) Deflection (Q) Shunt (S) G =(RxS)/(R-S)

5000 10 5 5.005

10000 6 3 3

2000 20 10 10.05

1500 26 3 13.11

Average G = 7.79 ohms

Resistance (R) Deflection (Q) K

5000 9 0.556

10000 5 0.60

2000 20 0.502

1500 25 0.524

Average K = 0.5455 A/dn

I I
Calculations:

1. G = (5.005+3+10.05+13.11)/4 [E = 1.45V)
2. Figure of Merit : Current in the galvanometer per unit time
3. K = IQ= [(E)/(R+G))x[l/Q) - SI unit= AD division= 10-s Al div

Result:

Resistance of given galvanometer is 7 .79 ohm.

Figure of merit of given galvanometer is 0.545 A/dn .

Precautions:

All connections should be neat and tight.

The emf of cell / battery should be constant.

EXPERIMENT 7

Determining the internill resistilnce of ii given primary cell usinc cell usinc pot,ntlometer:
Aim: To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using cell using
potentiometer.

Apparatus : a potentiometer , a battery , (or eliminator ) , two one way key , a rheostat of
low resistance , a galvanometer , a high resistance box , a fractional resistance box , an

ammeter , a voltmeter , a cell, a jockey , a set square , connecting wires , a piece of sand
paper .

Thaory:

When Key K2 is open and K1 is closed,

Let null point be obtained at a distance 11 from A

: E =Kli (1)

When key K2 is closed and K1 is open,

Let null point be obtained at a distance Ii from A

V=Kl2 (2)

L
V

Where S is the shunt resistance in parallel with given cell.

It and Ii; balancing length without & with shunt respectively.

R: internal resistance of the cell. tt]

Procedure:

• Make the connection as show n in diagram .

• Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connection,
tighten the plug of the resi stance box.

• Check the emf of the battery and cell and see the emf of the battery is more than
that of the given cell otherwise null or balance point won't be obtained (E' >E).

• Take maximum current from battery, making rheostat resistance small.

• Insert the plug key k, and adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the
fourth wire of the potentiometer.

• Insert the 2000 ohm plug in it s position in resistance box and obtain a null point by
slightly adjusting the jockey.

• Measure the balan cing length Ii.

• Take out the 2000 o hm plug from the resistance box. Introduce the plu.g in the key
k1 as well in key k2.Take out a small resistance from the resistance box R connected
in parallel with cell.

• Slide the jockey along the potentiometer wire and obtain a null point

• Insert the 200 ohm plug back in its position in RB and make further adjustment for
sharp null point.

• Measure the balancing length 12 from end P.

• Remove the plugs key k1 and K2. Wait for some time and repeat the activity for the
same current.

• Record your observation

Circuit Oiacram:
Observation table :

Value of Shunt Balance length Balance length r = [{h-

Mean
resistance (S in h (K2is open) '2with Stunt (K2 is l2)S)/'2 (in
'r'
ohm) without Shunt (cm) closed) (cm) ohm)

1.5 171.4 64 1.67

1.77
2 171.3 61.5 1.78
ohm

2.5 171.1 59.6 1.87

Calculation:

Mean 'r' = (1.67+1.78+1.87)/3 = 1.77 ohm

Result:

The internal resistance (R) of given cell is 1.77 OHM

Precaution:

For one set of observation the ammeter reading should be constant.

Current should be passed for short t ime.

Jockey should be rubbed against potentiometer wire.