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56

CHAPTER 4

Powers, roots and reciprocals

In this chapter you will learn how to:
• work with simple powers and roots using mental methods
• use a calculator to compute harder powers and roots
• work with fractional and negative powers, and reciprocals
• use the laws of indices to simplify numerical expressions
• write large and small numbers using standard form
• calculate using standard form.
You will also be challenged to:
• investigate astronomical numbers.

Starter: Roman numerals

The Romans used letters for numbers.
I1
V5
X  10
L  50
C  100
D  500
M  1000
To add two letters, write the smaller one after the larger one. For example,
VI  5  1  6. To subtract two letters, write the smaller one before the larger
one. For example, XL  50  10  40.

Task 1
Turn these Roman numbers into ordinary numbers.
a) XVII b) XIV c) XLV
d) LXX e) XCII f) DCIX

Task 2
Write these ordinary numbers as Roman numerals.
a) 21 b) 24 c) 39
d) 212 e) 319 f) 47

Task 3
Film makers often use Roman numerals in their credits. Star Wars was
originally released in MDCCCCLXXVII. The Lion King was released in
MDCCCCXCIV. Write these two years as ordinary numbers.
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4.1 Basic powers and roots 57

4.1 Basic powers and roots

When a number is multiplied by itself, the result is called the square of the
original number. For example, 5 squared is 5  5  25.

Reversing this process gives the square root. The square root of 25 is 5.
This can be written using the  symbol as 25
  5.

In a sense, 25 has two different square roots, because 5 times 5 also makes
25, so you could say that 5 is another square root of 25. To distinguish
between these two cases, we say that 5 is the positive square root of 25 and
5 is the negative square root of 25.

When a number is multiplied by itself and then by itself again, the result is
called the cube of the original number. For example, 5 cubed is
5  5  5  125.

Reversing this process gives the cube root. The cube root of 125 is 5.
3 3
This can be written using the  symbol as 125
  5.
(There is no negative cube root for 125.)

You are expected to know the squares and cubes of some basic whole numbers,
and to recognise the corresponding square roots and cube roots. Here are the
squares you should learn.
22  4 72  49 122  144
32  9 82  64 132  169
42  16 92  81 142  196
52  25 102  100 152  225
62  36 112  121

You should also learn these cubes:

23  8 43  64 103  1000
33  27 53  125

The squares, cubes, square roots and cube roots of other numbers will normally
be found using a calculator. Make sure that you know how to use the keys for
this on your calculator; most calculators use similar keys but their locations on
the keypad vary between different models.

EXAMPLE
Without using a calculator, obtain the values of:
3
a) 132 b) 53 c) 121
 d) 27


SOLUTION
a) 132  169
b) 53  125 Make sure that you have learnt the basic squares
and cubes so you can spot these answers by eye.
c) 121
  11
3
d) 27
3
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58 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

EXAMPLE
Fred is answering an algebra problem. He has worked out that x2  81. Give
two possible values of x that would complete Fred’s answer.

SOLUTION
x2  81
You will meet this idea again later in the book,
So x  81
 or 81
 when you are working with quadratic equations.
 9 or 9

EXAMPLE
Use your calculator to work out the values of:
3
a) 9.42 b) 2.53 c) 109
 d) 44.8

Round your answer to a sensible level of accuracy where appropriate.

SOLUTION a) and b) are calculated using the x2 and x3 keys

on a calculator. No rounding is needed.
a) 9.42  88.36
b) 2.53 15.625 3
c) and d) are calculated using the  and  keys on a
calculator. The calculator generates a full screen of decimals.
c) 109
  10.440 306 51
 10.44 (4 s.f.)
3 A good exam habit is to show your full calculator result…
d) 44.8
  3.551 616 007
…as well as the rounded answer.
 3.552 (4 s.f.)

EXERCISE 4.1
Find the values of the following, without using a calculator.

1 52 2 23 3 72 4 33

5 92 6 43 7 122 8 103
3
9 144
 10 225
 11 64
 12 36

3 3
13 196
 14 125
 15 81
 16 1000


Use your calculator to work out the values of the following expressions. Round
your answers to 3 significant figures where appropriate.

17 192 18 1.82 19 14.62 20 93

21 16.33 22 1.23 23 13

 24 300

3 3 3
25 24
 26 50
 27 2.5
 28 6.8

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4.2 Higher powers and roots 59

29 Find x if x 2  72. Give your answers to 3 s.f.

30 Find y if y 3  38. Give your answer to 4 s.f.

4.2 Higher powers and roots

Although squares and cubes occur frequently in mathematics, other (higher)
whole number powers and roots may also be used. The notation x n represents
n factors of x multiplied together so, for example, 64 means
6  6  6  6  1296.

Similarly, higher roots may be obtained too, using this idea in reverse.
The 5th root of 32 is 2, because 2  2  2  2  2  32. 1
Roots are denoted using fractional powers, so you would write this as 32 5  2.
1
The notation x n represents the nth root of x.

As with basic powers, you will solve simple problems by sight, but may use
a calculator for harder ones. Make sure that you know how to use your
calculator’s power and root keys.

EXAMPLE
Without using a calculator, obtain the values of:
1 1
a) 73 b) 28 c) 81 4 d) 125 3

SOLUTION
a) 73  7  7  7
 49  7
 343
b) 28  2  2  2  2  2  2  2  2
4444
 16  16
 256
c) Since 3  3  3  3  81,
1
81 4  3
d) Since 5  5  5  125
1
125 3  5

EXAMPLE
Use your calculator to obtain the values of:
1 1
a) 144 b) 1.56 c) 1045 4 d) 125 6
Round your answers to 3 significant figures where appropriate.
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60 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

SOLUTION
a) 144  38 416
b) 1.56  11.390 625
 11.4 (3 s.f.)
1
c) 1045 4  5.685 636 266 Remember to show the full calculator values as
 5.69 (3 s.f.) well as your final rounded answer.
1
d) 125 6  2.236 067 977
 2.24 (3 s.f.)

EXERCISE 4.2
Without using a calculator, find the exact values of:
1
1 34 2 1003 3 216 3 4 104
1
5 93 6 25 7 32 5 8 210
1 1 1
9 1000 3 10 400 2 11 123 12 16 4

Use your calculator to find the value of each expression. Round your answers as indicated.

13 125 (3 s.f.) 14 9.84 (4 s.f.) 15 1.37 (3 d.p.) 16 0.954 (4 d.p.)

1 1 1 1
17 6 3 (4 s.f.) 18 12 4 (3 s.f.) 19 6.3 5 (3 d.p.) 20 41.6 3 (3 s.f.)

4.3 Fractional (rational) indices

2
Some expressions contain fractional indices, for example 8 3 . These require two
processes to be applied together – you need to raise to a power, and also apply a
root.

The top of the fraction tells you what power to apply – squaring in this case.

The bottom of the fraction tells you what root to apply – cube root in this case.

EXAMPLE
2
Find the value of 8 3 , without using a calculator.

SOLUTION
Method 1
2
8 3  8 squared and then cube rooted
 64 cube rooted
4
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4.4 Negative powers and reciprocals 61

Method 2
2
8 3  8 cube rooted and then squared
 2 squared
4
Notice that the order of the two processes did not affect the final result. Method
2 is probably more efficient, because the intermediate numbers you are working
with are smaller.

EXERCISE 4.3
Without using a calculator, write the following expressions as simply as possible.
3 2 3 5
1 42 2 27 3 3 25 2 4 92
3 3 2 5
5 36 2 6 64 2 7 64 3 8 100 2
3 4 3 3
9 81 4 10 125 3 11 16 2 12 16 4

4.4 Negative powers and reciprocals

So far you have used positive powers: for example 103 tells you to multiply by
10, then by 10 again, and then by 10 again, so 103 1000.

Negative powers are also used for numerical expression. For example,
103 tells you to divide by 10, then by 10 again, and then by 10 again, so
103  1/1000.

Here is a general rule for negative powers:

1
xn  n
x
1
(This rule may be used as long as x is not zero; if x is zero then n is not
x
defined.)

EXAMPLE
Work out the values of:
a) 23 b) 104 c) 62

SOLUTION
1
a) 23  3
2
1
 
222
1
 
8
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62 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

1
b) 104  4
10
1
 
10  10  10  10
1
 
10 000
1
c) 62  2
6
1
 
66
1
 
36

The reciprocal of a whole number is 1 divided by that number. For example,

1 1
the reciprocal of 2 is 2, and the reciprocal of 4 is 4.
1
Using power notation, reciprocals are indicated by a power of 1. So 2–1  2,
1
and 4–1  4.

EXAMPLE
Work out the values of:
a) 81 b) 251 c) 31

SOLUTION Fractions are usually preferable to decimals in this type

of question, since they are exact; decimals might not be.
1
a) 81  8 (or 0.125)
1 1
b) 251 25 (or 0.04) Note that 3 does not have an exact terminating decimal
1 form, so this answer is best given as a fraction.
c) 31 3

Fractions, too, have reciprocals. To find the reciprocal of a fraction, simply

interchange the top and bottom of the fraction.

To raise a fraction to a negative power, use the equivalent positive power and
then interchange the top and bottom.

EXAMPLE
Work out the values of: 1
2 1 2 

   
5 16 2
a)  b)  c) 
3 7 25

SOLUTION
1

3
2 3
a)  
2
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4.5 The laws of indices 63

2

7 
5 7 2
b)  
5
72
 2
5
49
 
25
1 1
2

   
16 25 2
c)   
25 16
1
25 2
 1
16 2
5
 
4

EXERCISE 4.4
Work out the values of these, leaving your answers as exact fractions.

1 32 2 103 3 52 4 41

5 92 6 42 7 25 8 101

9 51 10 202

Evaluate these expressions, giving your answers as exact fractions.

1
1 1 2 2

    
3 4 25 4
11  12  13  14 
5 3 4 5
1
3 1 2 2

    
2 1 9 5
15  16  17  18 
3 2 64 3
3 2
2 3

   
100 27
19  20 
49 64

4.5 The laws of indices

Another name for a power is an index, so powers are often called indices.
There are several laws of indices that can help you to simplify index problems.

EXAMPLE
Write 103  105 as a single power of 10.
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64 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

SOLUTION
103  10  10  10
and 105  10  10  10  10  10
so 103  105  (10  10  10)  (10  10  10  10  10)
 10  10  10  10  10  10  10  10
 108
You could have solved this example much more efficiently just by adding the
indices to give the final result: 103  105  1035  108.

EXAMPLE
Write 29  26 as a single power of 2.

SOLUTION
29  2  2  2  2  2  2  2  2  2
and 26  2  2  2  2  2  2
222222222
so 29  26  
222222
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 222
 
2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1
222
 
1
 23
Once again, there is a more efficient method. You could have just subtracted
the indices to give the final result: 29  26  296  23.

EXAMPLE
Write (54)2 as a single power of 5.

SOLUTION
54  5  5  5  5
so (54)2  (5  5  5  5)  (5  5  5  5)
55555555
 58
Again, it would be quicker to multiply the indices to give the final result:
(54)2  54  2  58.
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4.5 The laws of indices 65

The three examples above illustrate three general laws of indices, which may be
expressed symbolically like this:

x a  x b  x ab when multiplying, add the indices

ab
x x x
a b
when dividing, subtract the indices
(x a)b  x ab when raising to a power, multiply the indices

You should look for opportunities to use these rules whenever you are
simplifying numerical expressions involving indices.

The laws of indices allow you to assign a meaning to a power 0, such as 70. For
example, using the laws of indices, 75  75  755  70, but since 75  75  1
the value of 70 must be 1. More generally, x0  1, for any value of x (provided x
is not 0). Do not confuse this with x1, which is just x.

This is loosely stated in words as ‘anything to the power zero equals 1’.
This rule covers all cases except 00, which is not defined to have a value.
To summarise:

x1  x
x0  1 provided x is not 0
0
0 is not defined

EXAMPLE
Use the laws of indices to write these expressions as simply as possible.
a) 83  84 b) 510  58 c) (43)2 d) 80

SOLUTION
a) 83  84  834
 87 Although you can do each of these in your head, it is good discipline
to write down the steps of the simplification as shown here.
b) 510  58  5108 This helps you to master the laws of indices, and also lets your teacher
 52 follow your reasoning clearly.
c) (43)2  434
 46
d) 80  1

EXERCISE 4.5
Simplify each of these expressions, giving your answer as a number to a single power.

1 2 3  24 2 5 4  53 3 8 2  87 4 6 5  62

5 9 4  93 6 310  39 7 (23)4 8 (32)3

3 5 1 3
9 3 2  30 10 2 2  2 2 11 3 2  3 2 12 6  20
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66 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

Work out each of these, giving your answer as an ordinary number.

13 23  22 14 36  35 15 103  103 16 48  46

17 (22)3 18 32  33 19 23  2 20 76  74

21 312  39 22 (30)4 23 (102)3 24 (52)0

4.6 Standard index form

Standard index form, or standard form as it is often called, is a very
convenient way of writing very large or very small quantities. You start with a
number between 1 and 10, and multiply (or divide) by a suitable number of
powers of 10. For example, the number 3 000 000 could be written as 3  106,
meaning that the 3 has to be multiplied by six powers of 10.

EXAMPLE
Write these numbers in standard form.
a) 4 000 000 000 b) 36 000 c) 14 300 000

SOLUTION
a) 4 000 000 000  4  109
Note that 36  103 would not be right here,
b) 36 000  3.6  104
because 36 does not lie between 1 and 10.
c) 14 300 000  1.43  107

For numbers smaller than 1 you divide by powers of 10, instead of multiplying.
This gives rise to a negative index of 10, instead of a positive one.

EXAMPLE
Write these numbers in standard form.
a) 0.0006 b) 0.000 000 25 c) 0.000 000 000 001 8

SOLUTION Count the number of hops needed to restore the 2.05

a) 0.0006  6  10 4 to the original number:
b) 0.000 000 205  2.05  107 0.0000002.05
There are 7 altogether.
c) 0.000 000 000 001 8  1.8  1012

Remember that numbers in standard form always have the decimal point after
the first non-zero digit.
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4.7 Calculating with numbers in standard form 67

EXERCISE 4.6
Write these numbers in standard index form.

1 350 000 2 40 000 3 352 000 000

4 19 300 000 5 765 6 0.0045

7 0.8 8 0.002 03 9 0.000 000 000 827

10 0.000 33

Write these as ordinary numbers

11 7.4  106 12 2.15  107 13 1.05  105

14 2  109 15 8.4  103 16 5  10 3

17 2.5  10 6 18 1.004  10 7 19 8.3  10 11

20 5.05  10 4

4.7 Calculating with numbers in standard form

In order to add or subtract two numbers in standard form, you have to make
sure that the digits line up in their correct place values. You can do this either
by converting them into ordinary numbers, or adjusting them so they both have
the same power of 10. This latter method means that your working contains
index numbers that are not ‘standard’, but this does not matter provided the
final answer is expressed correctly.

EXAMPLE
Add together 4.2  104 and 7.3  105 . Write your answer in standard form.

SOLUTION
Method 1
4.2  104  42 000 and 7.3  105  730 000
so 4.2  104  7.3  105  42 000  730 000
 772 000
 7.72  105

Method 2
Write both numbers using the lower power (104):
7.3  105  73  104
Thus 4.2  104  7.3  105  4.2  104  73  104
 77.2  104
 7.72  105
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68 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

Standard form numbers can be used in multiplication or division quite easily.

EXAMPLE
Multiply 3  105 and 2.5  107.

SOLUTION
3  105 and 2.5  107  3  2.5  105  107 Multiply the two number parts, and
 7.5  1057 multiply the two power terms.
 7.5  1012

Sometimes the final answer is not in standard index form, however, and needs a
little adjustment.

EXAMPLE
Work out (4  108)  (5  102).

SOLUTION
Divide the two number parts, and divide the
(4  108)  (5  102)  (4  5)  (108  102) two power terms.
 0.8  106
 8.0  101  106
 8  105 Note the adjustment into standard form here.

The IGCSE examination requires you to know how to multiply and divide
simple standard form numbers, using the methods in the examples above. For
harder problems, a calculator may be appropriate.

A good calculator will allow you to type in the numbers using standard form.
Some older models require the use of an EXP key to do this, but on the latest
models you will find a 10 x key that allows a more natural entry notation.
Make sure you know how your calculator works!

EXAMPLE
If a  3.55  108 and b  2.065  109 use your calculator to work out the
values of each of these expressions. Give your answer in standard form, correct
to 3 significant figures.
a
a) ab b)  c) a   2b
b

SOLUTION
a) ab  3.55  108  2.065  109
 7.330 75  1017
 7.33  1017 (3 s.f.)
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Review exercise 4 69

a
b)   (3.55  108)  (2.065  109)
b
 0.171 912 8329
 1.72  101 (3 s.f.)
c) a  2b  3.55  108  2  (2.065  109)
 4 485 000 000
First work out just a  2b…
Thus a
 2b  400
485 0 000 …then square root it.
 66 970.1426
 67 000 (3 s.f.)
 6.70  104 (3 s.f.)

EXERCISE 4.7
Work out the answers to these calculations without using a calculator.
Give your answers in standard form.

1 (4  106)  (7  108) 2 (2.4  105)  (1.8  106) 3 (7  107)  (5  105)

4 (3  105)  (8  104) 5 (1.2  1010)  (5  107) 6 (7  106)  (6  107)

7 (4  1010)  (8  107) 8 (3  106)  (4  103)

9 In the year 2004 a total of 2.17  108 passengers passed through UK airports. 6.7  107 of these
passengers passed through Heathrow Airport. How many of the UK passengers did not pass through
Heathrow? Give your answer as an ordinary number.

Use your calculator to evaluate these expressions.

Give your answers in standard form, correct to 3 significant figures.

(3.5  107)  (4.8  109)

10 (2.45  107)  (8.22  1011) 11  ) 12 184 000  0.0023
(8.4  106)

(1.2  106)  (4.8  104)

13 (1.5  107)2 14  15 (2.8  1010)  0.15
7  105

REVIEW EXERCISE 4
1 Write down the values of:
a) 53 b) 144
 c) 152

2 Find the reciprocals of:

1
a) 10 b)  c) 2
4

3 Work out the values of: 2

a) 102 b) 43 c) 8 3

4 Write each of these using a single power.

a) 63  62 b) 310  37 c) (43)2
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70 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

5 Arrange these numbers in order of size, smallest first:

3.2  108, 7.6  102, 1.4  109, 15 300

6 Find the value of (2

  2
 3 
3  5 .
5) [Edexcel]

7 Evaluate: 3
4

 
1 2 16
a) 32 b) 36 2 c) 27 3 d)  [Edexcel]
81
8 Work out: 3
a) 40 b) 42 c) 16 2 [Edexcel]

9 Work out the values of

a) (22)3 b) (3)2 c) 2
 4
9 [Edexcel]

10 a) Write 84 000 000 in standard form.

b) Work out:
84 000 000

4  1012
Give your answer in standard form. [Edexcel]

You may use your calculator for the remaining questions.

11 a) Work out the value of 53.

b) Work out the value of
i) (4.5
 2

0.52)
Write down all the figures on your calculator display.
ii) Write your answer correct to 2 decimal places. [Edexcel]

12 Calculate the value of

5.98  108  4.32  109

6.14  102
Give your answer in standard form correct to 3 significant figures. [Edexcel]

13 420 000 carrot seeds weigh 1 gram

a) Write the number 420 000 in standard form.
b) Calculate the weight, in grams, of one carrot seed.
Give your answer in standard form, correct to 2 significant figures. [Edexcel]

14 A floppy disk (old computer storage device) can hold 1 440 000 bytes of data.
a) Write the number 1 440 000 in standard form.
A hard disk can hold 2.4  109 bytes of data.
b) Calculate the number of floppy disks needed to store the 2.4  109 bytes of data. [Edexcel]

ab
15 y 2  
ab
a  3  108
b  2  107
Find y. Give your answer in standard form correct to 2 significant figures. [Edexcel]
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Key points 71

Key points
1 Powers tell you how many times a number is to be multiplied by itself.
For example, 24  2  2  2  2.
Powers are also called indices.
2 The reverse of raising to a power is taking a root.
So, for example, the fourth root of 16 is 2.
4 1
This may be written as 16 or 16 4 .
3 Fractional powers indicate a combination of raising to a power and taking a root.
3
The power 2, for example, tells you to cube and also square root the number.
1
4 n –1 indicates the reciprocal of n and takes the value .
a b n
The reciprocal of  is .
b a
1
5 Negative powers indicate reciprocals, thus 32  .
32
6 There are three key laws of indices:
x a  x b  x ab when multiplying, add the indices
x a  x b  x ab when dividing, subtract the indices
(x a)b  x ab when raising to a power, multiply the indices
7 Remember also that:
x1  x
x0  1 (provided x is not 0)
00 is not defined.
8 Very large or very small numbers may be written in the form a  10n,
where n is a whole number and 1  a 10.
This is called standard (index) form.
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72 Chapter 4: Powers, roots and reciprocals

Internet Challenge 4
Astronomical numbers
Astronomers work with very large numbers, so they often use standard index form, sometimes alternatively
called scientific notation.
Here are some astronomical statements with missing values. The values are given, in jumbled-up order, to
the right. Use the internet to help you decide which answer belongs with which statement.

1 Astronomers have calculated that the mass of the Sun is about 2.998  108
 kg.
2 The Sun is thought to have formed about  years ago. 10–9

3 Each second the Sun’s mass decreases by about  tonnes. 6  103

4 The surface temperature of the Sun has been measured to be about 1011
 degrees C.
5 It takes our solar system about  years to make one 2  1030
revolution around the Milky Way galaxy.

6 Light travels through space at a speed of  metres per second. 2.25  108

7 Visible light has a wavelength of about  metres. 4  106

8 X-rays can have wavelengths as short as  metres. 2.8  106

9 The Andromeda galaxy is so remote that light from it takes 5  109

 years to reach us.
10 It is thought that the Universe contains about  individual 5.5  10–7
galaxies.