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Homo Sapiens
The species that you and all other living human beings on this planet belong to is Homo sapiens. During
a time of dramatic climate change 300,000 years ago, Homo sapiens evolved in Africa. Like other early
humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food, and evolved behaviors that helped
them respond to the challenges of survival in unstable environments.

History of Discovery:

Unlike every other human species, Homo sapiens does not have a true type specimen. In other words,
there is not a particular Homo sapiens individual that researchers recognize as being the specimen that
gave Homo sapiens its name. Even though Linnaeus first described our species in 1758, it was not
customary at that time to designate type specimens. It is rumored that in 1994 paleontologist Robert
Bakker formally declared the skull of Edward Drinker Cope as the “lectotype”, a specimen essentially
serving as the type specimen. When Cope, himself a great paleontologist, died in 1897, he willed his
remains to science, and they are held by the University of Pennsylvania. But a type specimen must be
one examined by the original author who names a species, so Cope’s remains do not qualify.

Homo Florensiensis
Remains of one of the most recently discovered early human species, Homo floresiensis (nicknamed
‘Hobbit’), have so far only been found on the Island of Flores, Indonesia. The fossils of H. floresiensis
date to between about 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, and stone tools made by this species date to
between about 190,000 and 50,000 years old. H. floresiensis individuals stood approximately 3 feet 6
inches tall, had tiny brains, large teeth for their small size, shrugged-forward shoulders, no chins,
receding foreheads, and relatively large feet due to their short legs. Despite their small body and brain
size, H. floresiensis made and used stone tools, hunted small elephants and large rodents, coped with
predators such as giant Komodo dragons, and may have used fire.

History of Discovery:

A joint Indonesian-Australian research team found LB-1—a nearly complete female skeleton of a tiny
human that lived about 80,000 years ago—in Liang Bua cave on the island of Flores, Indonesia. The
skeleton’s unique traits such as its small body and brain size led scientists to assign the skeleton to a new
species, Homo floresiensis, named after the island on which it was discovered.

Since the initial find, bones and teeth representing as many as 12 H. floresiensisindividuals have been
recovered at Liang Bua—the only site where H. floresiensis has been found so far. The bulk of the finds
related to H. floresiensis date between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, with stone tools made by this
species dating between 190,00 and 50,000 years ago.

Homo Neanderthalensis
Neanderthals (the ‘th’ pronounced as ‘t’) are our closest extinct human relative. Some defining features
of their skulls include the large middle part of the face, angled cheek bones, and a huge nose for
humidifying and warming cold, dry air. Their bodies were shorter and stockier than ours, another
adaptation to living in cold environments. But their brains were just as large as ours and often larger -
proportional to their brawnier bodies.
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Neanderthals made and used a diverse set of sophisticated tools, controlled fire, lived in shelters, made
and wore clothing, were skilled hunters of large animals and also ate plant foods, and occasionally made
symbolic or ornamental objects. There is evidence that Neanderthals deliberately buried their dead and
occasionally even marked their graves with offerings, such as flowers. No other primates, and no earlier
human species, had ever practiced this sophisticated and symbolic behavior.

DNA has been recovered from more than a dozen Neanderthal fossils, all from Europe; the Neanderthal
Genome Project is one of the exciting new areas of human origins research.

Year of Discovery: 1829History of Discovery:

Neanderthal 1 was the first specimen to be recognized as an early human fossil. When it was discovered
in 1856 in Germany, scientists had never seen a specimen like it: the oval shaped skull with a low,
receding forehead and distinct browridges, the thick, strong bones. In 1864, it became the first fossil
hominin species to be named. Geologist William King suggested the name Homo neanderthalensis
(Johanson and Edgar, 2006), after these fossils found in the Feldhofer Cave of the Neander Valley in
Germany (tal—a modern form of thal—means “valley” in German). Several years after Neanderthal 1
was discovered, scientists realized that prior fossil discoveries—in 1829 at Engis, Belgium, and in 1848 at
Forbes Quarry, Gibraltar—were also Neanderthals. Even though they weren’t recognized at the time,
these two earlier discoveries were actually the first early human fossils ever found.

Homo Habilis
Homo habilis Nickname: Handy Man Where Lived: Eastern and Southern Africa When Lived: 2.4 million
to 1.4 million years ago Homo habilis lived 2.4 million to 1.65 million years ago.

This species, one of the earliest members of the genus Homo, has a slightly larger braincase and smaller
face and teeth than in Australopithecus or older hominin species. But it still retains some ape-like
features, including long arms and a moderately-prognathic face.

Its name, which means ‘handy man’, was given in 1964 because this species was thought to represent
the first maker of stone tools. Currently, the oldest stone tools are dated slightly older than the oldest
evidence of the genus Homo.

Year of Discovery: 1960History of Discovery:

A team led by scientists Louis and Mary Leakey uncovered the fossilized remains of a unique early
human between 1960 and 1963 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. The type speciman, OH 7, was found by
Jonathan Leakey, so was nicknamed "Jonny's child". Because this early human had a combination of
features different from those seen in Australopithecus, Louis Leakey, South African scientist Philip Tobias,
and British scientist John Napier declared these fossils a new species, and called them Homo habilis
(meaning 'handy man'), because they suspected that it was this slightly larger-brained early human that
made the thousands of stone tools also found at Olduvai Gorge.

Homo Rudolfensis
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Homo rudolfensis Where Lived: Eastern Africa (northern Kenya, possibly northern Tanzania and Malawi)
When Lived: About 1.9 million to 1.8 million years ago Homo rudolfensis lived about 1.9 million to 1.8
million years ago.

There is only one really good fossil of this Homo rudolfensis: KNM-ER 1470, from Koobi Fora in the Lake
Turkana basin, Kenya. It has one really critical feature: a braincase size of 775 cubic centimeters, which is
considerably above the upper end of H. habilis braincase size. At least one other braincase from the
same region also shows such a large cranial capacity.

Originally considered to be H. habilis, the ways in which H. rudolfensis differs is in its larger braincase,
longer face, and larger molar and premolar teeth. Due to the last two features, though, some scientists
still wonder whether this species might better be considered an Australopithecus, although one with a
large brain!

Year of Discovery: 1986History of Discovery:

Russian scientist V.P. Alexeev named the species in 1986 after Richard Leakey’s team uncovered Homo
rudolfensis fossils near the shores of Lake Rudolf (now known as Lake Turkana) in 1972. Alexeev
originally named the species Pithecanthropus rudolfensis, but the genus name Pithecanthropus was later
replaced by Homo.

Homo Erectus
Homo erectus Where Lived: Northern, Eastern, and Southern Africa; Western Asia (Dmanisi, Republic of
Georgia); East Asia (China and Indonesia) When Lived: Between about 1.89 million and 143,000 years
ago Homo erectus lived between about 1.89 million and 143,000 years ago.

Early African Homo erectus fossils (sometimes called Homo ergaster) are the oldest known early humans
to have possessed modern human-like body proportions with relatively elongated legs and shorter arms
compared to the size of the torso. These features are considered adaptations to a life lived on the
ground, indicating the loss of earlier tree-climbing adaptations, with the ability to walk and possibly run
long distances. Compared with earlier fossil humans, note the expanded braincase relative to the size of
the face. The most complete fossil individual of this species is known as the ‘Turkana Boy’ – a well-
preserved skeleton (though minus almost all the hand and foot bones), dated around 1.6 million years
old. Microscopic study of the teeth indicates that he grew up at a growth rate similar to that of a great
ape. There is fossil evidence that this species cared for old and weak individuals. The appearance of
Homo erectus in the fossil record is often associated with the earliest handaxes, the first major
innovation in stone tool technology.

Early fossil discoveries from Java (beginning in the 1890s) and China (‘Peking Man’, beginning in the
1920s) comprise the classic examples of this species. Generally considered to have been the first species
to have expanded beyond Africa, Homo erectus is considered a highly variable species, spread over two
continents (it's not certain whether it reached Europe), and possibly the longest lived early human
species - about nine times as long as our own species, Homo sapiens, has been around!

Year of Discovery: 1891History of Discovery:

Eugène Dubois, a Dutch surgeon, found the first Homo erectus individual (Trinil 2) in Indonesia in 1891.
In 1894, Dubois named the species Pithecanthropus erectus, or ‘erect ape-man.’ At that time,
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Pithecanthropus (later changed to Homo) erectus was the most primitive and smallest-brained of all
known early human species; no early human fossils had even been discovered in Africa yet.

Homo Heidelbergenesis
Where Lived: Europe; possibly Asia (China); Africa (eastern and southern)

When Lived: About 700,000 to 200,000 years ago

This early human species had a very large browridge, and a larger braincase and flatter face than older
early human species. It was the first early human species to live in colder climates; their short, wide
bodies were likely an adaptation to conserving heat. It lived at the time of the oldest definite control of
fire and use of wooden spears, and it was the first early human species to routinely hunt large animals.
This early human also broke new ground; it was the first species to build shelters, creating simple
dwellings out of wood and rock.

Year of Discovery: 1908

History of Discovery:

In 1908 near Heidelberg, Germany, a workman found the type specimen of H. heidelbergensisin the
Rösch sandpit just north of the village of Mauer. This mandible was nearly complete except for the
missing premolars and first two left molars; it is heavily built and lacks a chin. German scientist Otto
Schoentensack was the first to describe the specimen and proposed the species name Homo
heidelbergensis.

Before the naming of this species, scientists referred to early human fossils showing traits similar to both
Homo erectus and modern humans as ‘archaic’ Homo sapiens.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens

Nickname: Cro-Magnon Man

Site: Cro-Magnon, France

Year of Discovery: 1868

Discovered by: Louis Lartet

Age: About 30,000 years old

Species: Homo sapiens sapiens

History of Discovery

Discovered in 1868, Cro-Magnon 1 was among the first fossils to be recognized as belonging to our own
species—Homo sapiens. This famous fossil skull is from one of several modern human skeletons found at
the famous rock shelter site at Cro-Magnon, near the village of Les Eyzies, France.

Road construction in 1868 revealed the rock shelter tucked into a limestone cliff. Researchers recognized
an occupation floor toward the back of the cave during excavations. The occupation area revealed the
remains of four adult skeletons, one infant, and some fragmentary bones. The condition and placement
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of ornaments, including pieces of shell and animal teeth fashioned into what appear to be pendants or
necklaces, led researchers to believe the skeletons had been intentionally buried within the shelter in a
single grave. The site was one of the first to establish the ancient roots of modern humans, and fossils
from this shelter represent some of the oldest Homo sapiens populations of Europe. Associated tools
and fragments of fossil animal bone date the site to the uppermost Pleistocene, probably between
32,000 and 30,000 years old.

Cro-Magnon 1 is a middle-aged, male skeleton of one of the four adults found in the cave at Cro-
Magnon. Scientists estimate his age at death at less than 50 years old. Except for the teeth, his skull is
complete, though the bones in his face are noticeably pitted from a fungal infection.

While the Cro-Magnon remains are representative of the earliest anatomically modern human beings to
appear in Western Europe, this population was not the earliest anatomically modern humans to evolve -
our species evolved about 200,000 years ago in Africa. However, the skull of Cro-Magnon 1 does show
traits that are unique to modern humans, including the tall, rounded skull with a near vertical forehead.
A large brow ridge no longer tops the eye sockets and there is no prominent prognathism of the face and
jaw.

Analysis of the skeletons found at the rock shelter indicates that the humans of this time period led a
physically tough life. In addition to Cro-Magnon 1’s fungal infection, several of the individuals found at
the shelter had fused vertebrae in their necks indicating traumatic injury, and the adult female found at
the shelter had survived for some time with a skull fracture. The survival of the individuals with such
ailments is indicative of group support and care, which allowed their injuries to heal.
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HUMAN EVOLUTION
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