Biology: Brain & Behaviour

GENES AND THE BRAIN

Introduction to Genetics
 Genetics and Behaviour
o Both genes and environment interact to shape human behaviour.
o The fundamental issue is how much a role each factor plays in shaping
human behaviour.
 Examples: psychological disorders, weight gain, personality, sexual
orientation.
 Genes and Environment
o Genes are the building blocks of life; the code the proteins make us and make
us work.
o Environment is any other influence:
 Our internal environment – food, drugs, pathogens;
 Chemical make-up of the matter surrounding us (womb, air, lecture
theatre);
 Our social environment: family, school, city, culture.

 What is the Genetic Basis of Psychological Science?

o The term genetics is typically used to describe how
characteristics are passed along to offspring and the process
turning gene “on” and “off”.
 Gene expression: whether a particular gene is turned on
or off.
 Genetic Basis
o The Genome is the master blueprint for making an entire
organism.
 “The genome provides the option, and the environment
determines which option is takes.”
 o Chromosomes: structures within the cell body that are made
up of DNA, segments of which comprise individual genes.
o Genes: the units of heredity that help determine the
characteristics of an organism..
o Genetics:
 Characteristics passed along to offspring;
 The process involved in turning genes “on” and “off”.

 Mendelian Genetics
o DNA serves as model for the
synthesis of the ribonucleic
acid (RNS).
o RNA can serve as a
model/template for the
synthesis of proteins.
o Proteins determine the
development of the body by:
 Forming part of the structure of the body;
 Serving as enzymes, biological catalysts that regulate
chemical reaction in the body.
o Chromosomes and Genes
 Genes are carried in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
 Homozygous: 2 identical genes on the two
chromosomes.

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  Heterozygous: an unmatched pair of genes on the two
chromosomes.
o Genes are either dominant, recessive or intermediate.
 Examples: eye colour, ability to taste PTC
(Phenylthiocarbamide; a bitter taste);
o A dominant gene shows a strong effect in either the
homozygous or heterozygous condition.
 Tasting PCT is dominant;
o A recessive gene shows its effect only in the homozygous
condition.
 Not tasting PCT is recessive;
o Examples such as PCT and hair colour can be misleading.
 Implies that simple gene combination completely
controls a characteristic, which is not True.
o Most traits are the combination of action by multiple genes.
 Eye colour: at least 10 genes (Liu et al, 2010);
 Height: at least 180 genes (Alen et al, 2010);
o Some genes are only expressed partially;
 in some some cells and not others;
 Only under certain circumstances;
o Types of genes include:
 Autosomal genes: all genes except the sex-linked genes.
 Sex-linked genes: genes located on the sex
chromosomes.
o In mammals, the sex chromosomes are designed X & Y.
 Females: XX
 Males: XY
 Sex and Genetics
o During reproduction:

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  Females contribute an X chromosome;
 Males contribute either X or Y chromosomes
(determines the sex of the child).
o The human Y chromosome: genes for 27 proteins.
o The human X chromosome: genes for approx 1500 proteins.
o Sex-linked genes usually refer to X-linked genes:
 Example: red-green colour deficiency;
 Recessive gene on the X chromosome:
 any man will express it as he has no other X
chromosome;
 women only express it if recessive genes is
present on both X chromosomes;
o Sex-limitation genes: genes that are present in both sexes but
mainly have an effect on one sex.
 Example: chest hair, breast size, etc;
 How Genes can change
o Mutation: a heritable change in a DNA molecule;
o Micro-duplication/ micro-deletion: part of a chromosome
might appear twice or not at all.
o Example: some researchers believe that schizophrenia might
be a result of micro-duplications and micro-deletions of brain-
relevant genes.
 Epigenetics
o A field that is concerned with changes in gene expression
without the modification of the DNA sequence.
o Some genes are active only at a certain point in one’s life, a
certain time of the day:
 Some genes are active only at early embryonic
development or in puberty.

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  Malnourished mother rat => different genetic
expression in pups allowing them to conserve more
energy => susceptible to obesity.
o Epigenetics differences are a likely explanation for differences
between monozygotic “identical” twins.
o What you do at every moment not only affects you now, but
produces epigenetic effects that alter gene expressions for a
longer period of time.
o Experiences alter the expression of genes.

Heredity and Environment

 Almost all behaviours have both a genetic component and an environmental
component.
 Researchers study monozygotic (“from one egg 🥚 “) and fraternal (“from 2 eggs 🥚🥚”)
twins to infer contributions of heredity and environment.
 Researchers also study adoptive children and their resemblance to their biological
parents to infer heredity influences.
 Environmental factors influence Schizophrenia
o In those at risk for Schizophrenia, environmental stress contributes to its
development.
o Study of predisposed adopted children 🥚 in psychologically healthy families
vs. adopted children 🥚 with families that were disturbed.
 In healthy families: none became psychotic;
 In disturbed families: 11% of 🥚 became psychotic & 41% of 🥚 had
severe psychological disorders.
 When et al (2006).

 Heritability refers to how much characteristics depend on genetic

differences.
o Researchers have found evidence for her ability in almost
every behaviour they have tested.
o Heritability of a certain trait is specific to a given population.
o Strong environmental influences may cause genetic
influences to have less of an effect.

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 Traits with strong hereditary influence can be modified by
environmental intervation.
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Evolution
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