Soc Indic Res (2011) 102:265–273

DOI 10.1007/s11205-010-9679-3

A Comparison of Workers Employed in Hazardous

Jobs in Terms of Job Satisfaction, Perceived Job Risk
and Stress: Turkish Jean Sandblasting Workers, Dock
Workers, Factory Workers and Miners

Ayda Buyuksahin Sunal • Onur Sunal • Fatma Yasin

Accepted: 27 June 2010 / Published online: 31 July 2010

 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract The purpose of this study is to compare job satisfaction, perception of job risk,
stress symptoms and vulnerability to stress of miners, dock workers, jean sandblasting
workers and factory workers. A job satisfaction scale and stress audit scale were applied to
220 workers. Results revealed that dock and jean sandblasting workers perceived their work
as more risky compared to other workers. Jean sandblasting workers also had the lowest
scores on job satisfaction subscales (organisational policies, physical conditions, interper-
sonal relations, individual factors, autonomy and wage) and total job satisfaction. Likewise,
dock workers had lower scores on job satisfaction than factory workers and miners.
Analyses also showed that miners did not differ from factory workers in terms of job
satisfaction and stress symptoms. Moreover, jean sandblasting workers and dock workers
obtained higher scores on stress symptoms. Jean sandblasting workers were also found to be
the group that had the highest level of vulnerability to stress. Perceived job risk, vulnera-
bility to stress and stress symptoms were the most important predictors of job satisfaction.

Keywords Hazardous jobs
Perceived job risk
Job satisfaction
Stress symptoms

Vulnerability to stress

Job satisfaction can be defined as individuals’ positive and negative feelings and attitudes
about their work (Schultz and Schultz 1994). Job satisfaction has been shown to be
associated with various factors such as job characteristics (self actualisation, level of
responsibility), interpersonal relationships (friends and others), institutional factors
(administrative policies, job safety, wage, etc.), working environments and conditions

A. B. Sunal (&)
Faculty of Letters, Department of Psychology, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey
e-mail: bsahin@humanity.ankara.edu.tr

O. Sunal
Faculty of Commercial Sciences, Baskent University, Ankara, Turkey

F. Yasin
Kardelen Special Education, Ankara, Turkey

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266 A. B. Sunal et al.

(working with heavy equipment, noise, vibration and chemical exposures) (Durak-Batıgün
and Şahin 2006). Working environments are one of the most important predictors of job
satisfaction (Malek et al. 2009). Physical (heavy loads, dangerous machines, noise and
vibration), chemical (asbestos, silika, lead, solvents, resins, pesticides etc.) and biological
(viruses, bacteria, fungi etc.) exposures as well as natural exposures (such as heat, sun,
radiation etc.) are job related hazards (Ringen et al. 1995). These can cause occupational
accidents and injuries in many different sectors and affect a variety of occupations such as
rescue workers (Chang et al. 2003), firefighters (Damrongsak 2008; Saijo et al. 2007),
construction workers (Ringen et al. 1995) and farmers (Mack 2007).
One study (Goldenhar et al. 2003) conducted with construction workers showed that
workers who were in a hazardous working environment were at greater risk of experi-
encing an injury. Also, workers reporting a higher degree of psychological symptoms were
at greater risk of experiencing near miss incidents. The direct relationship between
stressors and injuries in the construction sector has been well documented (Ringen et al.
1995). Similarly, Mack’s (2007) study showed that farmers perceived themselves as being
stressed and those who were depressed had a greater tendency to commit suicide. Boud-
reaux et al. (1997) studied stress, job satisfaction, coping and psychological distress in
emergency service providers. They found that job related stressors were significant pre-
dictors for more severe symptoms of anxiety and psychological distress. Similarly, a recent
study conducted with Malaysian firefighters showed that occupational stress had significant
negative correlations with job satisfaction and well being (Malek et al. 2009). Some studies
also demonstrated that workers who have reported high levels of work stress due to higher
levels of occupational hazards and risks were more likely to have higher levels of turnover
intention (Duraisingam et al. 2009). In addition to all of these, there are studies which show
that interpersonal relations are negatively effected by working in life threatening condi-
tions. Some studies (McFarlane and Bookless 2001) revealed that after a critical fire
incident, firefighters spent less time with their families.
Similarly, occupational groups such as dock workers, miners and jean sandblasting
workers may encounter many occupational stressors during their work. Dock workers have
various hazardous responsibilities such as steel fabrication, cutting, welding, blasting,
painting and finish coating. There are many physical (temperature, weather, heavy loads,
ionizing-non ionizing radiation, falls, trips, etc.) and chemical (dust, asbestos, mineral fibres,
vapour, mist, paint, solvents, thinner, etc.) hazards due to the nature of the work which
possesses a high risk of fatal accident (ILO 1998). Blasting is the operation where an abrasive
is used on a surface of any material. Sandblasting is used on jeans to give them an aged look
where materials comprised of silica dusts or crystals are applied on jean fabrics. Sand that
includes silica particles that comes from plastic trunks at high pressure is applied to the fabric
by the workers. During this process high amounts of dust is produced which can easily be
inhaled by workers who are unprotected. Workers who are exposed to silica fibres are at a
greater risk of developing the fatal illness called silicosis, which is a fibrotic disease of lungs
caused by inhalation (Parker and Wagner 1998). Also, miners carry a high risk of acquiring
silicosis, because of the nature of their work, as free crystalline silica is the most abundant
compound in the earth’s crust (Weeks 1998). Jean sandblasting workers are usually
employed in the informal sector where workers have no social security and insurance. As a
result of the nature of the sector often none or very low levels of occupational safety measures
are taken. As no skills are required for this type of work, wages also tend to be significantly
low. In Turkey, these occupational groups, especially jean sandblasting workers, are
employed in workplaces where occupational safety and health measures are very poor. Jean
sandblasting workers also carry a high risk of acquiring a fatal occupational illness, called

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A Comparison of Workers Employed in Hazardous jobs 267

silicosis (Şahbaz et al. 2007). In a recent circular, issued by The Turkish Ministry of Health,
sandblasting of jeans was banned to prevent the development of incurable silicosis. There has
been a growing number of media reports which all revealed the very unhealthy and poor
working conditions in sandblasting ateliers. Among the workers interviewed, the wages were
well below the minimum legal level and hardly any of them had any social insurance
coverage (Arpa 2008). Miners can also face explosions which are considered as one of the
main hazards in this sector. Similarly, dock workers might become victims of fatal accidents
from falls from heights and electric shocks (Turkish Ministry of Health 2009). As demon-
strated, Turkish miners, dock workers and jean sandblasting workers face hazardous occu-
pational conditions. As mentioned before, working in hazardous conditions affects both job
satisfaction and psychological stress levels (Motowidlo et al. 1986).
In Turkey, when we take previous studies conducted with hazardous occupational
groups into consideration, it can be seen that mostly emergency workers such as firefighters
(Duruduygu et al. 2003), health professionals (Acicbe et al. 2003) and rescue workers
(Yılmaz and Şahin 2007) are examined. However, no research has been conducted with
miners, dock workers, and jean sandblasting workers in Turkey. Thus, the purpose of this
study was to compare hazardous occupational groups in terms of job satisfaction, perceived
risk and stress levels. Besides, factory workers which are considered to have relatively less
risky jobs compared to other hazardous occupational groups are also involved in this study.
These workers are employed in highly reputable and well known food processing and
production companies where occupational health and safety standards are high, labour
code standards are met, and are frequently inspected by government authorities.
The hypotheses were as follows:
• Hypothesis 1: Due to lower risk of acquiring fatal illnesses and facing occupational
accidents, factory workers were expected to obtain the lowest scores on perceived job risk.
• Hypothesis 2: Since factory workers have relatively less heavy duties and better
working conditions, we expected factory workers to obtain the highest scores on job
satisfaction and job satisfaction subscales. Also, miners were expected to obtain higher
scores on job satisfaction than jean sandblasting workers and dock workers.
• Hypothesis 3: Sandblasting ateliers are characterised by very unhealthy and poor
working conditions which might be considered as sweatshops. Also, there is high
prevalence of silicosis which is a fatal occupational illness among sandblasting
workers. Also, dock workers have very heavy duties and their work is characterised by
great risk of facing occupational accidents; therefore, sandblasting workers and dock
workers were expected to report greater stress symptoms and vulnerability to stress.
• Hypothesis 4: It was expected that vulnerability to stress, perceived job risk and stress
symptoms would negatively predict job satisfaction.

1 Method

1.1 Participants

_
Participants comprised 220 male workers from three different Turkish cities (Istanbul,
Bursa and Kocaeli). Fifty-nine were miners, 44 were dock workers, 39 were sandblasting
workers and 78 were factory workers (food processing companies), whose ages ranged
between 17 and 55 (M = 29.50; SD = 7.11). Among 220 workers, 134 (61%) were
married, 82 (37%) were single and 4 (2%) were divorced. Eight of the participants (4%)

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were only literate, 77 (35%) were primary school graduates, 45 (21%) were secondary
school graduates, 67 (31%) were high school graduates and 23 (11%) were university
graduates. Eighty-three workers (38%) lived the majority of their lives in a village, 43
(20%) workers in a county, 69 (31%) workers in a city, 25 (11%) in a metropol.
The mean monthly wages of the participants was 745,43 TL or 497 USD
(SD = 257,27). The average years of employment was 4.66 years (SD = 5.66). Partici-
pants reported that their current work was their on average 3.31st (SD = 3.14) job.

1.2 Procedure

The purpose of the study was explained to the participants and then scales were given to
them. Participation was voluntary and their answers were kept anonymously. The appli-
cation of scales took 30–45 min.

1.3 Measures

1.3.1 Demographic Information

The questionnaire included demographic characteristics such as: age, level of education,
marital status and the place where they spent the majority of their lives, monthly income
and number of different workplaces they were employed. Also, their perception of the risk
level of their jobs was measured on a seven point Likert-type scale ranging from not at all
risky (1) to very risky (7).

1.3.2 Stress Scale

The Stress scale was developed by Miller et al. (1988) and adapted to Turkish culture by
Şahin and Durak (1994). Stress audit 4.2-OS consists of three parts (stress symptoms, and
vulnerability to stress, stress related factors). The vulnerability to stress scale has 20 items
and in a study conducted with bankers (1994), Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient was found .74.
Higher scores indicate vulnerability to stress. Stress symptoms scale consist of seven sub-
scales: muscular system (a = .92), parasympathetic nervous system (a = .91), sympa-
thetic nervous system (a = .94), emotional system (a = .93), cognitive system (a = .91),
endocrine system (a = .95), immune system (a = .96). In current study total scores
(a = .96) were used. Higher scores indicate the presence of more symptoms.

1.3.3 Job Satisfaction Scales

This is a 32 item inventory developed by Durak-Batıgün and Şahin (2006) to measure job
satisfaction. This scale has six factors: Organisational policies (a = .94), individual factors
(a = .87), physical conditions (a = .74), control/autonomy (a = 76), wage (a = .64),
interpersonal factors (a = .60). The Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of the total scale was
found to be .94.

2 Results

MANOVA was performed treating occupational groups (dock workers, factory workers,
jean sandblasting workers and miners) as the independent variables and perceived job risk,

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A Comparison of Workers Employed in Hazardous jobs 269

JS subscales (organisational policies, physical conditions, interpersonal factors, individual

factors, autonomy and wage), total JS, stress symptoms and vulnerability to stress as the
dependent variables., p \ .05. The MANOVA revealed that, occupation (Wilks’
Lambda = .26, F (27, 608) = 13.38, p \ .001, g2 = .37) was the main effecting factor on
all the following: for perceived risk, F(3,219) = 43.30, p \ .001, g2 = .38; for organi-
sational policies, F(3,219) = 57.97, p \ .001, g2 = .45; for physical conditions,
F(3,219) = 33.13, p \ .001, g2 = .32; for interpersonal factors, F(3,219) = 16.07,
p \ .001, g2 = .18; for individual factors, F(3,219) = 72.41, p \ .001, g2 = .50; for
control/autonomy, F(3,219) = 59.47, p \ .001, g2 = .45; for wage, F(3,219) = 36.26,
p \ .001, g2 = .34; for total job satisfaction, F(3,219) = 83.94, p \ .001, g2 = .54; for
stress symptoms, F(3,219) = 5.56, p \ .001, g2 = .10; for vulnerability to stress,
F(3,219) = 17.54, p \ .001, g2 = .20, The results for the post hoc (Scheffe) comparisons
are presented in Table 1.
Results showed that dock and jean sandblasting workers perceived their works more
risky compared to factory workers and miners. These findings were consistent with
Hypothesis 1. Unexpectedly, miners did not differ from factory workers in terms of per-
ceived job risk level. Pair wise comparisons demonstrated that factory workers had higher
scores on total job satisfaction than dock workers and sandblasting workers. Inconsistent
with our assumption, miners did not differ on total job satisfaction from factory workers.
Compared with other worker groups, jean sandblasting workers obtained the lowest scores
on job satisfaction subscales (organisational policies, physical conditions, interpersonal
relations, individual factors, control/autonomy, pay) and total job satisfaction scale. Dock
workers also obtained lower scores on total job satisfaction than miners and factory
workers did. In other words, consistent with Hypothesis 2, factory workers had higher job
satisfaction levels than sandblasting workers and dock workers. Jean sandblasting workers

Table 1 Workers’ perceived risk, job satisfaction (JS), total stress symptoms, vulnerability to stress in
terms of occupational group
Dock workers Factory Jean Miners F (3.219)
(N = 44) workers sandblasting (N = 59)
(N = 78) workers
(N = 39)

X S X S X S X S

Perceived job risk 6.93a 0.45 4.74b 1.36 7.00a 0.00 5.30b 1.65 43.30*
JS-organizational policies 35.18a 12.68 43.88c 12.31 18.21b 4.36 48.66 cd 14.12 57.97*
JS-physical conditions 11.02a 4.32 13.54ac 3.07 4.97b 2.19 14.24c 7.84 33.13*
JS-interpersonal relations 9.45a 3.66 11.47a 8.32 4.54b 1.9 11.39a 2.8 16.07*
JS-individual factors 13.89a 5.58 17.87b 4.06 6.15c 2.08 18.31b 5.23 72.41*
JS-control/autonomy 8.61a 3.79 11.11b 2.62 4.28c 1.79 11.19b 2.94 59.47*
JS-wage 3.7a 1.81 5.96b 2.29 2.2c 0.4 5.12b 2.19 36.26*
JS-total 81.86a 25.57 103.85b 22.24 40.35c 10.89 108.90b 27.87 83.94*
Total stress symptoms 159.86a 72.21 121.12b 75.40 163.18a 38.13 107.24b 85.84 7.57*
Vulnerability to stress 57.86a 17.56 49.08a 12.84 72.46b 20.08 50.62a 20.65 17.54*

In each row, means with different subscripts differ at the .05 level significance according to a Scheffe test
* p \ .001

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270 A. B. Sunal et al.

obtained the highest scores on vulnerability to stress. In addition, dock and sandblasting
workers reported more stress symptoms than others. This is consistent with Hypothesis 3.

2.1 Correlation Between Variables and Variables Predicting Job Satisfaction

The correlation analyses revealed that ‘‘perceived job risk’’, ‘‘total stress symptoms’’ and
‘‘vulnerability to stress’’ had the highest negative correlations with total job satisfaction
scores (-.37, -.26, -.41, respectively). Perceived job risk also was correlated signifi-
cantly with organisational policies (-.34), individual factors (-.35), physical conditions
(-.23), control/autonomy (-.32), wage (-.35) and interpersonal relations (-.25). Vul-
nerability to stress also was correlated significantly with organisational policies (-.41),
individual factors (-.37), physical conditions (-.27), control/autonomy (-.38), wage
(-.20) and interpersonal relations (-.24) (Table 2).
Hierarchical multiple regression analyses was conducted to determine the predictive
values of all the variables regarding job satisfaction. For this analysis, a stepwise method
was used. The independent variables were inserted into the equation in four blocks;
demographic variables (age, education level, income level, number of job experiences)
entered the equation as first block; then came the perceived risk level, stress symptoms and
vulnerability to stress. In the first equation, education and age were found to be positive
predictors of job satisfaction. These variables accounted for 11% of the variance
(F = 13.40; df = 2–219, p \ .05). When perceived risk level was entered in the second
equation, this variable significantly predicted job satisfaction negatively. Addition of this
variable increased the variance explained to 19% (F = 18.54; df = 3–219, p \ .05). Total
score of stress symptoms was entered in the third equation; this variable was found to be a
negative predictor of job satisfaction. Inclusion of this variable increased the variance
explained to 25% (F = 17.46; df = 4–219, p \ .05). The vulnerability to stress variable
which was entered in the last equation was found to be a significant negative predictor of
job satisfaction and addition of this variable increased the total variance explained to 32%
(F = 19.79; df = 5–219, p \ .05). Consequently, perceived job risk, stress symptoms and
vulnerability to stress were negative predictors of job satisfaction (Hypothesis 4) (Table 3).

Table 2 Correlations between job satisfaction subscales and other variables

Job Organisational Individual Physical Control/ Wage Interpersonal
satisfaction policies factors conditions Autonomy relations
total score

Age .17* .14* .16* .15* .16* .08 .17*

Income .11 .06 .14* .05 .18* .22* .11
Number of .12 .06 .16* .06 .20* .14* .12
job
experiences
Perceived job -.37* -.34* -.35* -.23* -.32* -.35* -.25*
risk
Total stress -.26* -.24* -.28* -.20* -.25* -.16 -.09
symptoms
Vulnerability -.41* -.41* -.37* -.27* -.38* -.20* -.24*
to stress
* p \ .05

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A Comparison of Workers Employed in Hazardous jobs 271

Table 3 Hierarchical regressions: prediction of job satisfaction

Variables B Beta R2 change R2 Adjusted R2 Residual mean F
square (df)

Demographic variables
Education level 5.57 .18 .07 .07 .06 1,075.30 (1-219) 15.23
Age .84 .18 .05 .11 .10 1,028.68 (2-219) 13.40
Perceived job risk
Perceived job risk level -4.91 -.23 .10 .21 .19 923.31 (3-219) 18.54
Stress symptoms
Total stress symptoms -.07 -.14 .04 .25 .23 880.44 (4-219) 17.46
Vulnerability to stress
Vulnerability to stress -.50 -.28 .07 .32 .30 801.37 (5-219) 19.79

(For all F values p \ .05)

3 Discussion

In this study our purpose was to compare workers’ job satisfaction, perceived job risk
level, stress symptoms, and vulnerability to stress in different occupational groups (dock
workers, jean sandblasting workers, miners and factory workers). As previously men-
tioned, dock workers, jean sandblasting workers and miners have hazardous occupations.
Therefore, ordinary factory workers were also included in this study to make comparisons,
as they are thought to have relatively less hazardous jobs. In addition, variables that predict
the level of job satisfaction were considered.
Results showed that occupational groups differ in terms of job satisfaction, perceived
job risk, stress levels and vulnerability to stress. Pair way comparisons revealed that dock
workers and jean sandblasting workers perceived their jobs more risky than factory
workers and miners. Consistent with expectations, jean sandblasting workers and dock
workers perceive their jobs more risky than factory workers. Jean sandblasting workers and
dock workers are employed in workplaces where occupational safety and health measures
are very poor. As a consequence, jean sandblasting workers carry a high risk of acquiring
silicosis, a fatal occupational illness, (Şahbaz et al. 2007) and dock workers carry high risk
of facing occupational accidents such as fall from heights, electrical shocks, confined
spaces, etc. (ILO 1998). A previous study (Akgun et al. 2005) conducted in Turkey also
revealed that sandblasting was one of the major risk factors for acquiring silicosis. In the
current study, unexpectedly, miners did not significantly perceive their jobs as risky as jean
sandblasting workers and dock workers do. This finding can be related to the fact that
miners are more likely to be members of a trade union. As unionized workers are more
likely to benefit from social protection, social insurance and occupational safety and health
practices, they tend to perceive their jobs as less risky.
As expected, factory workers had higher scores on job satisfaction. Jean sandblasting
workers also had the lowest scores on job satisfaction subscales (organisational policies,
physical conditions, individual factors, control/autonomy, interpersonal relations) and total
job satisfaction scale. Dock workers obtained lower scores on total job satisfaction than
miners and factory workers did. These results can be explained by the fact that these
workers have very hazardous jobs and perceive their jobs as very risky. Unexpectedly,
miners do not differ on job satisfaction from factory workers, which might be related to
working in a more formal sector where workers are unionized. In addition, in the current

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study, jean sandblasting workers obtained the highest scores on vulnerability to stress.
Dock and sandblasting workers also reported more stress symptoms than others. These
findings were consistent with earlier studies (Goldenhar et al. 2003; Mack 2007) showing
that workers having risky jobs are more likely to display stress symptoms.
When the relationship between job satisfaction, stress symptoms, vulnerability to stress
and perceived risk level was assessed, it was found that job satisfaction is significantly
related with vulnerability to stress (-.41) and perceived job risk (-. 37). Moreover, step-
wise regression analysis showed that vulnerability to stress and perceived job risk were the
best predictors of job satisfaction. These findings are consistent with expectations and
earlier research (Chen et al. 2005) in which occupational stressors especially occupational
safety and health conditions, physical environment and ergonomic hazards were important
predictors of illness and psychological symptoms. Many studies (Christopher 2006; Gellis
2002; Şahin and Durak-Batıgün 1997) also revealed the negative correlation between job
stress and job satisfaction.
In conclusion, the present study illustrated whether perceived job risk, job satisfaction,
stress symptoms and vulnerability to stress levels differ among workers who have haz-
ardous jobs. In this study, although numerous comparisons were made, Type I errors are
unlikely to be a problem for interpretation (all scales were also significant at .001 level).
This study showed that especially jean sandblasting workers and dock workers reported
lower job satisfaction, perceived their jobs as riskier and displayed more stress symptoms
and vulnerability to stress. As mentioned before, these findings can be related to very poor
occupational safety and health conditions in their workplaces. The present study also
demonstrated that miners had lower stress symptoms and did not perceive their jobs as
risky as dock and jean sandblasting workers, despite the similarity hazardous nature of
mining. Moreover, miners had higher job satisfaction levels than dock and jean sand-
blasting workers.
There are some limitations to the current study. The present sample was composed of
miners, jean sandblasting, dock and factory workers within Istanbul, Bursa and Kocaeli. As
the findings only represent three industrial cities in the Marmara Region, the results of this
study may not be generalised to Turkish workers in the rest of the country. Another
limitation of this study is that male workers were the only participants. In further studies,
samples can be included which represent the whole working population including all
regions and other hazardous occupations such as construction workers, firefighters, fur-
niture workers, metal processing and foundry workers.

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