a-Endoplasmic Reticulum - Wrapping it Up

Another organelle in the cell is the endoplasmic reticulum(ER).

While the function of the nucleus is to act as the cell brain, the ER functions as a
manufacturing and packaging system. It works closely with the Golgi
apparatus, ribososmes, mRNA, and tRNA.
Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes found throughout the
cell and connected to the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from cell to cell
and a cell’s function determines the size and structure of the ER. For example, some cells,
such as prokaryotes or red blood cells, do not have an ER of any kind. Cells that
synthesize and release a lot of proteins would need a large amount of ER. You might look
at a cell from the pancreas or liver for good examples of cells with large ER structures.

Rough and Smooth

There are two basic types of ER. Both rough ER and
smooth ER have the same types of membranes but they
have different shapes. Rough ER looks like sheets or disks
of bumpy membranes while smooth ER looks more like
tubes. Rough ER is called rough because it has ribosomes
attached to its surface.

The double membranes of

smooth and rough ER form
sacs called cisternae. Protein
molecules are synthesized
and collected in the cisternal
space/lumen. When enough
proteins have been
synthesized, they collect and
are pinched off in vesicles.
The vesicles often move to
the Golgi apparatus for
additional protein packaging
and distribution.

Smooth ER (SER) acts as a

storage organelle. It is
important in the creation and storage of lipids
and steroids. Steroids are a type of ringed organic
molecule used for many purposes in an organism. They
are not always about building the muscle mass of a weight
lifter. Cells in your body that release oils also have more
SER than most cells.

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a variation of the

SER. It is able to store many ions in solution that the cell
will need at a later time. When a cell needs to do
something immediately, it doesn’t make sense to search
the environment for extra ions that may or may not be
floating around. It is easier to have them stored in a pack
for easy use. For example, when you are running around
and your muscle cells are active, they need calcium (Ca)
ions. The SR can release those ions immediately. When
you are resting, they are able to store them for later use.

Rough ER (RER) was also mentioned in the section on

ribosomes and is very important in the synthesis and
packaging of proteins. Ribosomes are attached to the
membrane of the ER, making it “rough.” The RER is also
attached to the nuclear envelope that surrounds the
nucleus. This direct connection between the perinuclear
space and the lumen of the ER allows for the movement of
molecules through both membranes.

The process of protein synthesis starts when mRNA moves

from the nucleus to a ribosome on the surface of the RER.
As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain, the chain is
pushed into the cisternal space of the RER. When
the proteins are complete, they collect and the RER
pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small membrane
bubble, can move to the cell membrane or the Golgi
apparatus. Some of the proteins will be used in the cell
and some will be sent out into intercellular space.

b-Chromatin
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The major structures in DNA compaction: DNA, the nucleosome, the 10 nm "beads-on-a-string" fibre,
the 30 nm chromatin fibre and the metaphase chromosome.
Chromatinis a complex of DNA and proteinfound in eukaryoticcells.[1] Its primary function
is packaging very long DNA molecules into a more compact, denser shape, which prevents
the strands from becoming tangled and plays important roles in reinforcing the DNA
during cell division, preventing DNA damage, and regulating gene expression and DNA
replication. During mitosis and meiosis, chromatin facilitates proper segregation of
the chromosomes in anaphase; the characteristic shapes of chromosomes visible during this
stage are the result of DNA being coiled into highly condensed networks of chromatin.
The primary protein components of chromatin are histones, which bind to DNA and function
as "anchors" around which the strands are wound. In general, there are three levels of
chromatin organization:

1. DNA wraps around histone proteins, forming nucleosomes and the so-called "beads
on a string" structure (euchromatin).
2. Multiple histones wrap into a 30-nanometer fibre consisting of nucleosome arrays in
their most compact form (heterochromatin).[a]
3. Higher-level DNA supercoiling of the 30-nm fiber produces
the metaphase chromosome (during mitosis and meiosis).

Many organisms, however, do not follow this organization scheme. For

example, spermatozoa and avian red blood cells have more tightly packed chromatin than
most eukaryotic cells, and trypanosomatid protozoa do not condense their chromatin into
visible chromosomes at all. Prokaryotic cells have entirely different structures for organizing
their DNA (the prokaryotic chromosome equivalent is called a genophore and is localized
within the nucleoid region).
The overall structure of the chromatin network further depends on the stage of the cell cycle.
During interphase, the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA
polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA. The local structure of chromatin during
interphase depends on the specific genes present in the DNA. Regions of DNA containing
genes which are actively transcribed ("turned on") are less tightly compacted and closely
associated with RNA polymerases in a structure known as euchromatin, while regions
containing inactive genes ("turned off") are generally more condensed and associated with
structural proteins in heterochromatin.[3][4] Epigenetic modification of the structural proteins in
chromatin via methylation and acetylation also alters local chromatin structure and therefore
gene expression. The structure of chromatin networks is currently poorly understood and
remains an active area of research in molecular biology.
c-A ribosome is a cell organelle. It functions as a micro-machine for making proteins.
Ribosomes are composed of special proteins and nucleic acids. The TRANSLATION
of information and the Linking of AMINO ACIDS are at the heart of the protein
production process.A ribosome, formed from two subunits locking together, functions to:
(1) Translate encoded information from the cell nucleus provided by messenger ribonucleic
acid (mRNA), (2) Link together amino acids selected and collected from the cytoplasm by
transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA). (The order in which the amino acids are linked together is
determined by the mRNA) and, (3) Export the polypeptide produced to the cytoplasm where
it will form a functional protein.
Ribosomes are found ‘free’ in the cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to
form rough ER. In a mammalian cell there can be as many as 10 million ribosomes. Several
ribosomes can be attached to the same mRNA strand, this structure is called a polysome.
Ribosomes have only a temporary existence. When they have synthesised a polypeptide the
two sub-units separate and are either re-used or broken up.
Ribosomes can join up amino acids at a rate of 200 per minute. Small proteins can therefore
be made fairly quickly but two to three hours are needed for larger proteins such as the
massive 30,000 amino acid muscle protein titin.
Ribosomes in prokaryotes use a slightly different process to produce proteins than do
ribosomes in eukaryotes. Fortunately this difference presents a window of molecular
opportunity for attack by antibiotic drugs such as streptomycin. Unfortunately some bacterial
toxins and the polio virus also use it to enable them to attack the translation mechanism.
For an overview diagram of protein production click here.
(The diagram will open in a separate window)


This is an electron microscope image showing part of the rough endoplasmic
reticulum in a plant root cell from maize. The dark spots are ribosomes.
d-Lipids are a group of biological molecules that include
fats, oils and some steroids. They are built from fatty
acids bonded to a wide range of other compounds.

Their importance in the biological world is immense. They

fill a number of important roles in the cells of all of Earth’s
organisms. Of the four molecules of life, lipids arguably
have the greatest variation in their basic structure and
are far more difficult to define
than proteins, carbohydrate and nucleic acids.
Almost all lipids are insoluble in water. They are known as
hydrophobic molecules because they are repelled by
water.

d-DNA vs. RNA – A Comparison Chart

Comparison DNA RNA

Full Name Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Function DNA replicates and stores genetic
information. It is a blueprint for
all genetic information
contained within an organism
Structure DNA consists of two strands,
arranged in a double helix.
These strands are made up of
subunits called nucleotides.
Each nucleotide contains a
phosphate, a 5-carbon sugar
molecule and a nitrogenous
base.
Length DNA is a much longer polymer than RNA molecules are variable in
RNA. A chromosome, for
example, is a single, long DNA
molecule, which would be
several centimetres in length
when unravelled.
Sugar The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose,
which contains one less
hydroxyl group than RNA’s
ribose.
Bases The bases in DNA are Adenine (‘A’),
Thymine (‘T’), Guanine (‘G’)
and Cytosine (‘C’).
Base Pairs Adenine and Thymine pair (A-T)
Cytosine and Guanine pair (C-G)
RNA converts the genetic
information contained
within DNA to a format
used to build proteins, and
then moves it to ribosomal
protein factories.
RNA only has one strand, but
like DNA, is made up of
nucleotides. RNA strands
are shorter than DNA
strands. RNA sometimes
forms a secondary double
helix structure, but only
intermittently.
length, but much shorter
than long DNA polymers. A
large RNA molecule might
only be a few thousand
base pairs long.
RNA contains ribose sugar
molecules, without the
hydroxyl modifications of
deoxyribose.
RNA shares Adenine (‘A’),
Guanine (‘G’) and Cytosine
(‘C’) with DNA, but
contains Uracil (‘U’) rather
than Thymine.
Adenine and Uracil pair (A-U)
Cytosine and Guanine pair (C-
G)
Location DNA is found in the nucleus, with a
small amount of DNA also
present in mitochondria.
RNA forms in the nucleolus, and
then moves to specialised
regions of the cytoplasm
depending on the type of
RNA formed.

Reactivity Due to its deoxyribose sugar, which contains
one less oxygen-containing hydroxyl group,
DNA is a more stable molecule than RNA,
which is useful for a molecule which has the
task of keeping genetic information safe.
RNA, containing a ribose sugar, is more
reactive than DNA and is not stable in
alkaline conditions. RNA’s larger helical
grooves mean it is more easily subject to
attack by enzymes.

Ultraviolet DNA is vulnerable to damage by ultraviolet RNA is more resistant to damage from
(UV) light. UV light than DNA.
Sensitivity

What are the key differences between DNA and RNA?

Function
DNA encodes all genetic information, and is the blueprint from which all biological life
is created. And that’s only in the short-term. In the long-term, DNA is a storage device, a
biological flash drive that allows the blueprint of life to be passed between generations . 2

RNA functions as the reader that decodes this flash drive. This reading process is multi-
step and there are specialized RNAs for each of these steps. Below, we look in more
detail at the three most important types of RNA.

What are the three types of RNA?

 Messenger RNA (mRNA) copies portions of genetic code, a process called
transcription, and transports these copies to ribosomes, which are the cellular
factories that facilitate the production of proteins from this code.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) is responsible for bringing amino acids, basic protein
building blocks, to these protein factories, in response to the coded instructions
introduced by the mRNA. This protein-building process is called translation.
 Finally, Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a component of the ribosome factory itself
without which protein production would not occur . 3

Sugar
Both DNA and RNA are built with a sugar backbone, but whereas the sugar in DNA is
called deoxyribose (left in image), the sugar in RNA is called simply ribose (right in
image). The ‘deoxy’ prefix denotes that, whilst RNA has two hydroxyl (-OH) groups
attached to its carbon backbone, DNA has only one, and has a lone hydrogen atom
attached instead. RNA’s extra hydroxyl group proves useful in the process of converting
genetic code into mRNAs that can be made into proteins, whilst the deoxyribose sugar
gives DNA more stability .4

The Chemical Structures of Deoxyribose (left)

and Ribose (right) Sugars

Bases
The nitrogen bases in DNA are the basic units of genetic code, and their correct ordering
and pairing is essential to biological function. The four bases that make up this code are
adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Bases pair off together in a
double helix structure, these pairs being A and T, and C and G. RNA doesn’t contain
thymine bases, replacing them with uracil bases (U), which pair to adenine . 1

Structure
Whilst the ubiquity of Francis Crick and James Watson’s (or should that be Rosalind
Franklin’s?) DNA double helix means that the two-stranded structure of DNA structure is
common knowledge, RNA’s single stranded format is not as well known. RNA can form
into double-stranded structures, such as during translation, when mRNA and tRNA
molecules pair. DNA polymers are also much longer than RNA polymers; the 2.3m long
human genome consists of 46 chromosomes, each of which is a single, long DNA
molecule. RNA molecules, by comparison, are much shorter . 4

Location
Eukaryotic cells, including all animal and plant cells, house the great majority of their
DNA in the nucleus, where it exists in a tightly compressed form, called a chromosome . 5

This squeezed format means the DNA can be easily stored and transferred. In addition to
nuclear DNA, some DNA is present in energy-producing mitochondria, small organelles
found free-floating in the cytoplasm, the area of the cell outside the nucleus.

The three types of RNA are found in different locations. mRNA is made in the nucleus,
with each mRNA fragment copied from its relative piece of DNA, before leaving the
nucleus and entering the cytoplasm. The fragments are then shuttled around the cell as
needed, moved along by the cell’s internal transport system, the cytoskeleton. tRNA, like
mRNA, is a free-roaming molecule that moves around the cytoplasm. If it receives the
correct signal from the ribosome, it will then hunt down amino acid subunits in the
cytoplasm and bring them to the ribosome to be built into proteins . rRNA, as previously
5

mentioned, is found as part of ribosomes. Ribosomes are formed in an area of the nucleus
called the nucleolus, before being exported to the cytoplasm, where some ribosomes float
freely. Other cytoplasmic ribosomes are bound to the endoplasmic reticulum, a
membranous structure that helps process proteins and export them from the cell . 6