GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Chapter 8
Properties of Solutions

Dr. Huỳnh Kỳ Phương Hạ

Office: 112 B2 Building
Phone: 38650484
Email: hkpha@hcmut.edu.vn
 The Solution
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of solute (present in
smallest amount) and solvent (present in largest amount).
• Solution may be gas, liquid, or solids
• Each substance present is a component of the solution.
• Solvent is the substances used to dissolve the solute.
• In the process of making solutions with condensed phases,
intermolecular forces become rearranged.
• Intermolecular forces hold the solute particle and the solvent
that surrounds it together.
• Solutions form when the attractive forces between solute and
solvent can overcome the attractive forces with in the solute or
solvent particles.
Types of Solutions
 AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a
solute dissolved in a solvent.
The solvent is generally in excess.
Example
The solution NaCl(aq) is
sodium chloride NaCl(s) dissolved in water H2O(l)

The solute is NaCl(s) and the solvent is H2O(l)

 saturated sugar solution
• Imagine there is a saturated sugar
solution. (Saturated means that the
maximum amount is dissolved in the
solution, under normal conditions.)
There are undissolved sugar crystals at
the bottom of the solution. This can be
shown by the equation,

The equation describes that sugar

crystals (sugar(s)) will dissolve in water
(H2O) and produce sugar molecules in
solution (sugar(aq)).
 saturated sugar solution
• Since the amount of sugar at the bottom
does not change once equilibrium is
attained, it would seem that the process
stops. In other words, it seems that
sugar does not go into solution or come
out of solution anymore.
• However, this is not true. The amounts
of undissolved sugar crystals and sugar
in solution do not change because the
rate at which sugar molecules go into
solution is the same rate as sugar
 saturated sugar solution
• The animation represents this process:

• the blue "molecules" escape into solution

from the ordered crystal. At the same time,
molecules are coming out of solution and
depositing on the solid. Since this is a
continual process and the concentrations
Saturated solution
Solubility curve

Saturated
Supersaturated

Unsaturated
 Solubility curve
• Any point on a line
represents a
saturated solution.
• In a saturated
solution, the solvent
contains the
maximum amount of
solute.
• Example
• At 90oC, 40 g of NaCl(s) in
100g H2O(l) represent a
saturated solution.
 Solubility curve
• Any point below a
line represents an
unsaturated
solution.
• In an unsaturated
solution, the solvent
contains less than the
maximum amount of
solute.
• Example
• At 90oC, 30 g of
NaCl(s) in 100g
H2O(l) represent an
unsaturated solution.
 Solubility curve
• Any point above a line
represents a
supersaturated solution.
• In a supersaturated solution,
the solvent contains more
than the maximum amount
of solute. A supersaturated
solution is very unstable and
the amount in excess can
precipitate or crystallize.
• Example
• At 90oC, 50 g of NaCl(s) in
100g H2O(l) represent a
supersaturated solution.
Eventually, 10 g of NaCl(s)
will precipitate.
 Solubility curve
Any solution can be made saturated,
unsaturated, or supersaturated by changing
the temperature.
 SOLUBILITY
The solubility of a solute in a given amount
of solvent is dependent on the

temperature,

the pressure,

and the chemical natures of the solute and

solvent.
 Temperature
•In general, as the temperature of a
solution increases the solubility
increases.
•Increasing the solution temperature
allows more sugar to go into solution.
Therefore, it is an endothermic process
(heat is on the reactant side).
 Effect of Temperature on Solubility
• The solubility of solutes is dependent
on temperature. When a solid dissolves
in a liquid, a change in the physical
state of the solid analogous to melting
takes place. Heat is required to break
the bonds holding the molecules in the
solid together.
• At the same time, heat is given off
during the formation of new solute --
solvent bonds.
 Increase in solubility with temperature
• If the heat given off in the hydration process is less
than the heat required to break apart the solid, the
net dissolving reaction is endothermic (energy
required). The addition of more heat facilitates the
dissolving reaction by providing energy to break
bonds in the solid. This is the most common
situation where an increase in temperature produces
an increase in solubility for solids.
• The use of first-aid instant cold packs is an
application of this solubility principle. A salt such as
ammonium nitrate is dissolved in water after a sharp
blow breaks the containers for each. The dissolving
reaction is endothermic - requires heat. Therefore
the heat is drawn from the surroundings, the pack
feels cold.
Molecules in a cold liquid are
moving relatively slowly and
therefore do not have much
energy.
Molecules in a hot liquid are
moving fast. Fast moving
molecules have a significant
kinetic energy.
 Decrease in solubility with temperature
• If the heat given off in the hydration
process is greater than the heat
required to break apart the solid, the
net dissolving reaction is exothermic
(energy given off).
• The addition of more heat (increases
temperature) inhibits the dissolving
reaction since excess heat is already
being produced by the reaction. This
situation is not very common where an
increase in temperature produces a
decrease in solubility.
In a few instances (e.g., Li2SO4 below) the solubility
of the salt will decrease with temperature. This
observation does not invalidate the above
explanantion but rather suggests that several
competing ideas need to be taken into account to
fully understand chemical processes.
 Solubility of Gases vs. Temperature
• The variation of solubility for a gas with temperature
can be determined by examining the graph below:

• As the temperature increases, the solubility of a gas

decrease as shown by the downward trend in the
graph .
 Solubility of Gases vs. Temperature
• More gas is present in a solution with a lower
temperature compared to a solution with a higher
temperature.
• The reason for this gas solubility relationship with
temperature is very similar to the reason that vapor
pressure increases with temperature. Increased
temperature causes an increase in kinetic energy.
The higher kinetic energy causes more motion in
molecules which break intermolecular bonds and
escape from solution.
• This gas solubility relationship can be remembered if
you think about what happens to a "soda pop" as it
stands around for awhile at room temperature. The
taste is very "flat" since more of the "tangy" carbon
dioxide bubbles have escaped. Boiled water also
tastes "flat" because all of the oxygen gas has been
removed by heating.
 Summary of temperature effect on solubility

• solid in liquid:
• solubility of an endothermic dissolving solid in a liquid
increases with increasing temperature,
• but for an exothermic dissolving one solubility decreases
with increasing temperature.
• liquid in liquid:
• for partially dissolving liquids like dimethyl ether(CH3-O-
CH3 ) in water (H2O), solubilty increases with increasing
temperature,
• but for a completely dissolving liquids like ethyl alcohol(
C2H5OH) in water( H2O) , solubility decreases with
increasing temperature.
• gas in liquid:
• solubility of a gas in a liquid almost always decreases with
increasing temperature
Reading graph: at 38 °C the solubility of copper sulphate, CuSO4, is

28g of anhydrous salt per 100g of water.

Reading graph: at 84 °C the solubility of potassium sulphate, K2SO4, is

22g per 100g of water.

Ex Q1: How much potassium nitrate will dissolve in 20g of water at 34 °C?

At 34 °C the solubility is 52g per 100g of water, so scaling down, 52 x 20 / 100 = 10.4g
will dissolve in 20g of water.
Ex Q2: At 25 °C 6.9g of copper sulphate dissolved in 30g of water, what is
its solubility in g/100cm3 of water?

Scaling up, 6.9 x 100 / 30 = 23g/100g of water (check on graph, just less than
23g/100g water).
Ex Q3: 200 cm3 of saturated copper sulphate solution was prepared at a temperature of
90 °C. What mass of copper sulphate crystals form if the solution was cooled to 20 °C?

Solubility of copper sulphate at 90 °C is 67g/100g water, and 21g/100g water at 20 °C. Therefore for
mass of crystals formed = 67 - 21 = 46g (for 100 cm3 of solution). However, 200 cm3 of solution
was prepared, so total mass of copper sulphate crystallised = 2 x 46 = 92g
 Pressure
The solubility of a gas increases as the pressure
increases.

Example
Carbon dioxide, CO2(g) in carbonated drinks is dissolved in the solvent by
increasing the pressure and also decreasing the temperature.
 Gas Pressure and Solubility
• Liquids and solids exhibit
practically no change of
solubility with changes in
pressure. Gases as might be
expected, increase in solubility
with an increase in pressure.
• Henry's Law states that: The
solubility of a gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the
pressure of that gas above the
surface of the solution.
• If the pressure is increased,
the gas molecules are "forced"
into thesolution since this will
best relieve the pressure that
has been applied.The number
of gas molecules is decreased.
The number of gas molecules
dissolved in solution has
increased as shown in the
graphic on the right.
 Gas Pressure and Solubility
• Carbonated beverages provide the best example of
this phenomena. All carbonated beverages are
bottled under pressure to increase the carbon
dioxide dissolved in solution.
• When the bottle is opened, the pressure above the
solution decreases. As a result, the solution
effervesces and some of the carbon dioxide bubbles
off.
• Quiz: Champagne continues to ferment in the bottle.
The fermentation produces CO2. Why is the cork
wired on a bottle of champagne?
• Answer: As more CO2 is formed , the pressure of the
gas increase.The wire is to prevent the cork from
blowing off.
 Gas Pressure and Solubility
• Deep sea divers may experience a condition called
the "bends" if they do not readjust slowly to the
lower pressure at the surface.
• As a result of breathing compressed air and being
subjected to high pressures caused by water depth,
the amount of nitrogen dissolved in blood and other
tissues increases.
• If the diver returns to the surface too rapidly, the
nitrogen forms bubbles in the blood as it becomes
less soluble due to a decrease in pressure. The
nitrogen bubbles can cause great pain and possibly
death.
• To alleviate this problem somewhat, artificial
breathing mixtures of oxygen and helium are used.
Helium is only one-fifth as soluble in blood as
nitrogen. As a result, there is less dissolved gas to
form bubbles.
 Gas Pressure and Solubility
• Quiz: If a diver had the "bends",
describe how this can be treated.
• Answer: Decompression chambers are
used to keep a high pressure and
gradually lower the pressure.
• Another application of Henry's Law is in
the administration of anesthetic gases. If
the partial pressure of the anesthetic
gas is increased, the anesthetic
solubility increases in the blood.
 Gas Pressure and Solubility
• Quiz: The amount of dissolved oxygen
in a mountain lake at
10,000 ft and 50oF is __?_ than the
amount of dissolved oxygen in a lake
near sea level at 50oF.
• Answer: Less at higher altitude
because less pressure.
• A Coke at room temperature will have
__?_ carbon dioxide in the gas space
above the liquid than an ice cold bottle.
• Answer: More gas, because the warm
coke can hold less of the gas in
solution.
 Gas Pressure and Solubility
• Hyperbaric therapy, which involves
exposure to oxygen at higher than
atmospheric pressure may be used to
treat hypoxia (low oxygen supply in the
tissues). Explain how the treatment
works.
• Answer: The increase in pressure in the
chamber will cause more gases to enter
into lungs.
 The rate of solution
The rate of solution is a measure of how fast a substance
dissolves. Some of the factors determining the rate of
solution are:
• size of the particles -- When a solute dissolves, the
action takes place only at the surface of each particle.
When the total surface area of the solute particles is
increased, the solute dissolves more rapidly. Breaking a
solute into smaller pieces increases its surface area and
hence its rate of solution. (Sample problem: a cube with
sides 1.0 cm long is cut in half, producing two pieces
with dimensions of 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 0.50 cm. How much
greater than the surface area of the original cube is the
combined surface areas of the two pieces?
• 2.0 cm2
• stirring -- With liquid and solid solutes, stirring brings
fresh portions of the solvent in contact with the solute,
thereby increasing the rate of solution.
 The rate of solution
• amount of solute already dissolved --
When there is little solute already in
solution, dissolving takes place
relatively rapidly. As the solution
approaches the point where no solute
can be dissolved, dissolving takes
place more slowly.
• temperature -- For solid, liquid and
gaseous solutes, changing the
temperature not only changes the
amount of solute that will dissolve but
 Chemical natures of the solute
and solvent
A polar solute will dissolve in a polar
solvent but not in a nonpolar solvent. The
adage "like dissolves like" is very useful.
Example
Alcohol (polar substance) dissolves in
water (polar substance)
Water (polar substance) does not dissolve
in oil (nonpolar substance)
 Nature of the solute and solvent
“Likes dissolve likes”

When two similar liquids - here water and methanol-

are mixed, the molecules are intermingled. The
mixture has a more disorderly arrangement of
molecules than the separate liquids. It is this
disordering process that largely drives solution
formation.

• polar solute/polar solvent:

• ethanol, salt, sugar in water

• nonpolar solute/nonpolar solvent:

• Iodine in carbontetrachloride, gasoline or benzene
 Formation of a Solution
• Consider NaCl (solute) dissolving in water (solvent):
• The water H-bonds have to be interrupted,
• NaCl dissociates into Na+ and Cl-,
• Ion-dipole forces form: Na+ … -OH2 and Cl- … +H2O.
• Such interaction between solute and solvent are called
solvation.
– If water is the solvent, we say the ions are hydrated.
 Energy Changes in Solution
Formation
• There are three energy steps in forming a solution:
– Separation of solute molecules (H1),
– Separation of solvent molecules (H2), and
formation of solute-solvent interactions (H3).
• We define the enthalpy change in the solution process as
Hsoln = H1 + H2 + H3.
• Hsoln can either be positive or negative depending on the
intermolecular forces.
Enthalpic Contributions

• Breaking attractive intermolecular

forces is always endothermic.
• Forming attractive intermolecular
forces is always exothermic.
 Enthalpy Properties of a Solution
• To determine whether Hsoln is positive or negative, we
consider the strengths of all solute-solute and solute-
solvent interactions:
• H1 and H2 are both positive.
• H3 is always negative.
• Solutions will not form under certain conditions.
• “like substances dissolve like substance”.
 The Solution Process
• “Rule”: polar solvents dissolve polar solutes. Non-polar
solvents dissolve non-polar solutes. Why?
• If Hsoln is too endothermic a solution will not form.
• NaCl in gasoline: the ion-dipole forces are weak because
gasoline is non-polar. Therefore, the ion-dipole forces do
not compensate for the separation of ions.
• Water in octane: water has strong H-bonds. There are no
attractive forces between water and octane to compensate
for the H-bonds.
 The Solution Process
• Solution can either be endothermic or exothermic:
• For example:
– NaOH added to water has Hsoln = -44.48 kJ/mol.
– NH4NO3 added to water has Hsoln = + 26.4 kJ/mol.
• Endothermic meaning heat has been gained by the
system.
• This is represented by a Hsoln > 0.
• Exothermic meaning heat has been released (or lost) from
the system.
• This is represented by a Hsoln < 0.
 The Spontaneity of Solutions
(Energy Decrease)
• A spontaneous process occurs without outside
intervention.
• When energy of the system decreases (e.g. dropping a
book and allowing it to fall to a lower potential energy),
the process is spontaneous.
• Some spontaneous processes do not involve the system
moving to a lower energy state (e.g. an endothermic
reaction).
 The Spontaneity of Solutions
(Increasing Disorder)
• If the process leads to a greater state of disorder, then the
process is spontaneous.
• Example: a mixture of CCl4 and C6H14 is less ordered than
the two separate liquids. Therefore, they spontaneously
mix even though Hsoln is very close to zero.
• There are solutions that form by physical processes and
those by chemical processes.
 Ways of Expressing Concentration
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb
• All methods involve quantifying amount of solute per
amount of solvent (or solution).
• Generally amounts or measures are masses, moles or
liters.
• Qualitatively solutions are dilute or concentrated.
• Definitions:
mass of component in solution
mass % of component   100
total mass of solution
 Ways of Expressing Concentration
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb
mass of component in solution
ppm of component   106
total mass of solution
• Parts per million (ppm) can be expressed as 1 mg of
solute per kilogram of solution.
– If the density of the solution is 1g/mL, then 1 ppm = 1 mg
solute per liter of solution.
• Parts per billion (ppb) are 1 g of solute per kilogram of
solution.
 Ways of Expressing Concentration
Mass Percentage, ppm, and ppb
mass of component in solution
ppb of component   109
total mass of solution
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality
• Recall mass can be converted to moles using the molar
mass.
moles of component in solution
Mole fraction of component 
total moles of solution
moles solute
Molarity 
liters of solution
 Ways of Expressing Concentration
Mole Fraction, Molarity, and Molality
• We define
moles solute
Molality, m 
kg of solvent
• Converting between molarity (M) and molality (m)
requires density.
 Class Guided Practice Problems
1) A solution containing equal masses of glycerol,
C3H8O3, and water has a density of 1.10g/mL.
Calculate the: (a) Molarity, (b) Mole Fraction of
glycerol, (c) Molality of the solution.

2) Calculate the percent by mass of CaCl2 in a

solution containing 5.2g CaCl2 in 450g of water.

3) Calculate the ppm, by mass, of CaCl2 in a

solution containing 0.149 moles of CaCl2 in 443g
of water.
 Class Guided Practice Problems
1) Calculate the molarity when 0.020 moles of
glycerol, C3H8O3, is dissolved in 50 g of water at
room temperature. Water has a density of
1.00g/mL.
 Class Practice Problem
1)A 0.500 L hydrochloric acid (HCl) solution,
which has a density of 1.10 g/mL, contains 36%
HCl by mass. Calculate the mole fraction of HCl.

2) A solution containing equal masses of NaCl and

water has a density of 1.10g/mL. Calculate the
molality of the solution.

3) Calculate the ppm, by mass, of CaCl2 in a

solution containing 0.149 moles of CaCl2 in 443g
of water.
 Saturated Solutions and Solubility
• Dissolve: solute + solvent  solution. Dynamic
equilibrium
• Crystallization: solution  solute + solvent.
• Saturation: crystallization and dissolution are in equilibrium.
• Solubility: amount of solute required to form a saturated
solution.
• Example, only 35.7g of NaCl will dissolve at 0 oC in 100 mL of
H2O.
• Dissolving less solute than needed to saturate is called an
unsaturated solution.
• Supersaturated: a solution formed when more solute is
dissolved than in a saturated solution.
 Factors Affecting Solubility
Solute-Solvent Interaction
• Polar liquids tend to dissolve in polar solvents.
• Miscible liquids: mix in any proportions.
• Immiscible liquids: do not mix.
• Intermolecular forces are important: water and ethanol
are miscible because the broken hydrogen bonds in both
pure liquids are re-established in the mixture.
• The number of carbon atoms in a chain affect solubility:
the more C atoms the less soluble in water.
 Factors Affecting Solubility Cont.
Solute-Solvent Interaction
• The number of -OH groups within a molecule increases
solubility in water.
• Remember, as a generalization: “like dissolves like”.
• The more polar bonds contained in the molecule, the
better it dissolves in a polar solvent.
• The less polar the molecule the less it dissolves in a polar
solvent and the better is dissolves in a non-polar solvent.
• The magnitude of H3 must be comparable in magnitude to
H1+ H2 before the solute will dissolve in the solvent.
Factors Affecting Solubility Cont.
Solute-Solvent Interaction
 Pressure Effects on Solubility
• Solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly related to the pressure of the
gas.
 Solubility of a Gas
Pressure Effects
• The higher the pressure, the more molecules of gas are
close to the solvent and the greater the chance of a gas
molecule striking the surface and entering the solution.
– Therefore, the higher the pressure, the greater the solubility.
– The lower the pressure, the fewer molecules of gas are close to
the solvent and the lower the solubility.
• If Sg is the solubility of a gas, k is a constant, and Pg is
the partial pressure of a gas, then Henry’s Law gives:
S g  kPg
 Compression of CO2
Pressure Effects
• Carbonated beverages are bottled with a partial pressure
of CO2 > 1 atm.
• As the bottle is opened, the partial pressure of CO2
decreases and the solubility of CO2 decreases.
• Therefore, bubbles of CO2 escape from solution.
 Temperature Effects on Solubility
• Experience tells us that sugar dissolves better in warm
water than cold.
• As temperature increases, solubility of solids generally
increases.
• Sometimes, solubility decreases as temperature increases
(e.g. Ce2(SO4)3, Cerous Sulfate).
• See Table 13.15
Temperature Solubility Table 13.15
 Colligative Properties
• Colligative properties depend on quantity of solute
molecules. (E.g. freezing point depression and melting
point elevation.)
Lowering Vapor Pressure
• Non-volatile solutes reduce the ability of the surface
solvent molecules to escape the liquid.
• Therefore, vapor pressure is lowered.
• The amount of vapor pressure lowering depends on the
amount of solute present.
Colligative Properties
Lowering Vapor Pressure
 Raoult’s Law
• Raoult’s Law: PA is the vapor pressure with solute, PA is
the vapor pressure without solvent, and A is the mole
fraction of A, then
PA   AP A
• Recall Dalton’s Law:
PA   APtotal
• Raoult’s law breaks down when the solvent-solvent and
solute-solute intermolecular forces are greater than
solute-solvent intermolecular forces.
• An ideal gas is a gas that obeys Raoult’s law
 Phase Diagram
Pure Solvent and Nonvolatile Solute Solution

• The triple point - critical • Tb is directly related to

point curve is lowered. the number of solute
molecules present.
 Boiling-Point Elevation
• At the normal boiling point of pure liquid, the vapor
pressure the solution will be < 1atm . Therefore, a higher
temperature is required to attain a vapor pressure of 1 atm
for the solution (Tb).
• Molal boiling-point-elevation constant, Kb, expresses
how much Tb changes with molality, m:
Tb  Kbm

• Kb is dependent only on the solvent used in the making of

the solution.
 Freezing Point Depression
• Lower vapor pressure also affects the freezing point of
the solution.
• The freezing point is the temperature at which the first
crystal forms.
• When a solution freezes, almost pure solvent is formed
first.
• Therefore, the sublimation curve for the pure solvent is the
same as for the solution.
• Therefore, the triple point occurs at a lower temperature
because of the lower vapor pressure for the solution.
 Freezing Point Depression Cont.
• The change in freezing point can be defined by

T f  K f m

• Decrease in freezing point (Tf) is directly proportional

to molality (Kf is the molal freezing-point-depression
constant):
• Lowering of freezing points by added solute explains the
use of antifreeze in cars and the use of calcium chloride
to melt ice.
 Osmosis
• Osmosis: the movement of a solvent from low solute
concentration to high solute concentration.
• Semipermeable membrane: permits passage of some
components of a solution. Example: cell membranes
• There is movement in both directions across a
semipermeable membrane.
• As solvent moves across the membrane, the fluid levels
becomes uneven.
 Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic pressure, , is the pressure required to stop osmosis:
V  nRT
 n
    RT
V 
 MRT
• Isotonic solutions: two solutions with the same  separated by a
semipermeable membrane.
• Hypotonic solutions: a solution of lower  with respects to the
more concentrated solution.
• The osmotic process is spontaneous.
• Exercise:
• Solution of glucose in water with mass percentage is
15% with d = 1.12, at 250C. Calculate:
• a/ Mole fraction , molality, molarity, and ppm of glucose
in solution.
• b/ Calculate vapor pressure of solution, knew P0 of water
is 26 mmHg.
• c/ Calculate boiling temperature and freezing temp.,
knew Kb = 0.52 and Kf = -1.86.
• d/ Calculate the osmotic pressure of this solution at 250C.
ELECTROLYTE SOLUTION
 Electrolyte and Non-electrolyte
• Electrolyte: a substance that conducts
electricity when dissolved in water.
– Acids, bases and soluble ionic solutions are
electrolytes.

• Non-electrolyte: a substance that does

not conduct electricity when dissolved in
water.
– Molecular compounds and insoluble ionic
compounds are non-electrolytes.
 Electrolytes

• Some solutes can

dissociate into ions.
• Electric charge can
be carried.
 Types of solutes
high conductivity

Strong Electrolyte -
100% dissociation,
all ions in solution

Na+
Cl-
 Types of solutes
slight conductivity

Weak Electrolyte -
partial dissociation,
molecules and ions in
solution

CH3COOH
CH3COO-
H+
 Types of solutes
no conductivity

Non-electrolyte -
No dissociation,
all molecules in
solution

sugar
 Types of Electrolytes
• Strong electrolyte dissociates
completely.
– Good electrical conduction.

• Weak electrolyte partially

dissociates.
– Fair conductor of electricity.
• Non-electrolyte does not dissociate.
– Poor conductor of electricity.
 Representation of Electrolytes
using Chemical Equations

A strong electrolyte:

MgCl2(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2 Cl- (aq)

A weak electrolyte:
CH3COOH(aq) →
← 3
CH COO -(aq) +H+(aq)

A non-electrolyte:
CH3OH(aq)
 Strong Electrolytes
Strong acids: HNO3, H2SO4, HCl, HClO4
Strong bases: MOH (M = Na, K, Cs, Rb etc)
Salts: All salts dissolving in water are completely ionized.

Stoichiometry & concentration

relationship
NaCl (s)  Na+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
Ca(OH)2 (s)  Ca2+(aq) + 2 OH– (aq)
AlCl3 (s)  Al3+ (aq) + 3 Cl– (aq)
(NH4)2SO4 (s)  2 NH4 + (aq) + SO42– (aq)
 Acid-base Reactions
HCl (g)  H+ (aq) + Cl– (aq)
NaOH (s)  Na+ (aq) + OH– (aq)
neutralization reaction: H+ (aq) + OH– (aq)  H2O (l)

Explain these reactions

Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2 H+ Mg2+ (aq) + 2 H2O (l)
CaCO3 (s) + 2 H+ Ca2+ (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2 HC2H3O2  Mg2+ (aq) + 2 H2O (l) + 2 C2H3O2 – (aq)
acetic acid
 Precipitation Reactions
Heterogeneous Reactions
Spectator ions or bystander ions

Ag+ (aq) + NO3– (aq) + Cs+ (aq) + I– (aq)  AgI (s) + NO3– (aq) + Cs+
(aq)
Ag+ (aq) + I– (aq)  AgI (s) (net reaction)
or
Ag+ + I– AgI (s)

Soluble ions Mostly insoluble

Mostly soluble Silver halides
Alkali metals, NH4+
ions Metal sulfides,
nitrates, ClO4-,
acetate Halides, sulfates hydroxides
carbonates, phosphates
AgI+ NaCl  AgCl + NaI
Product solubility (P):
Ex. : AgI
PAgI = [Ag+][I-]. In general:
AmBn, P = [A+n]m[B-m]n
• In general
 PAm Bn  mS  nS   mmn n S mn 
m n

• Where the solubility can be calculated by:

PAm Bn
S  m  n  m n
m n
Calculate solubility base on P.
Ag2SO4, P. If solubility of Ag2SO4 is s (mol/l),
we have
Ag2SO4  2Ag+ + SO42-.
s 2s s
P = [2s]2[s] = 22s2+1 = 4s3. s =
 Product solubility
Compound Formula Temp. P
Aluminum Hydroxide anhydrous Al(OH)3 25°C 3×10–34
Aluminum Phosphate AlPO4 25°C 9.84×10–21
Barium Bromate Ba(BrO3)2 25°C 2.43×10–4
Barium Carbonate BaCO3 25°C 8.1×10–9
Barium Sulfate BaSO4 25°C 1.08×10–10
Barium Sulfate BaSO4 50°C 1.98×10–10
Beryllium Hydroxide Be(OH)2 25°C 6.92×10–22
Cadmium Sulfide CdS 18°C 3.6×10–29
Calcium Carbonate calcite CaCO3 25°C 0.87×10–8
Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 25°C 5.02–6
Calcium Phosphate tribasic Ca3(PO4)2 25°C 2.07×10–33
Calcium Sulfate CaSO4 25°C 4.93×10–5
 Compound Formula Temp. P
Cupric Hydroxide Cu(OH)2 25°C 4.8×10–20
Cupric Sulfide CuS 18°C 8.5×10–45
18°C-
Cuprous Iodide CuI 5.06×10–12
20°C
Ferric Hydroxide Fe(OH)3 18°C 1.1×10–36
18°C-
Ferrous Carbonate FeCO3 2×10–11
25°C
Ferrous Hydroxide Fe(OH)2 25°C 1×10–15; 8.0×10–16
Ferrous Sulfide FeS 18°C 3.7×10–19
Lead Chloride PbCl2 25.2°C 1.0×10–4
1×10–16; 1.43×10–
Lead Hydroxide Pb(OH)2 25°C 20

Lead Sulfate PbSO4 18°C 1.06×10–8

Lead Sulfide PbS 18°C 3.4×10–28
Magnesium Carbonate MgCO3 12°C 2.6×10–5
Magnesium Hydroxide Mg(OH)2 18°C 1.2×10–11
 Compound Formula Temp. P
Manganese Hydroxide Mn(OH)2 18°C 4×10–14
Manganese Sulfide
MnS 25°C 10–22
(green)
Mercuric Chloride HgCl2 25°C 2.6×10–15
Mercuric Hydroxide
Hg(OH)2 25°C 3.6×10–26
(equilib. with HgO + H2O)
Mercuric Iodide HgI2 25°C 3.2×10–29
4×10–53 to 2×10–
Mercuric Sulfide HgS 18°C 49

Nickel Hydroxide Ni(OH)2 25°C 5.48×10–16

Silver Bromide AgBr 25°C 7.7×10–13
Silver Chloride AgCl 25°C 1.56×10–10
Silver Chloride AgCl 50°C 13.2×10–10
Silver Chloride AgCl 100°C 21.5×10–10
Silver Iodide AgI 25°C 1.5×10–16
18°C-
Zinc Hydroxide Zn(OH)2 1.8×10–14
20°C
• Ex.: Calculate solubility of BaSO4, knew P
is 1.08x10-10.
• Conditions to dissolve a solid and
precipitate

• Dissolve
m
C C
An
n
B m  PAm Bn
• Precipitate

C Cm
A n
n
Bm
 PAm Bn
• Ex.:

1. Knew P of AgCl is 1.56x10-10 at 25oC. Pls

calculate the amount of water to dissolve
100 g AgCl.

2. Mix 200 ml of AgNO3 0.05M and 400 ml of

NaCl 0.02 M in a beacher. Is there
precipitate? Calculate the amount of solid
(if there is).
 Net Ionic Equation
Overall Precipitation Reaction:
AgNO3(aq) +NaI (aq) → AgI(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Complete ionic equation:

Spectator ions
Ag+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + Na+(aq) + I-(aq) →
AgI(s) + Na+(aq) + NO3-(aq)

Net ionic equation:

Ag+(aq) + I-(aq) → AgI(s)
• Application:
• Calculate the equilibrium constant base on
net ion equation and constants in a
reaction.
How to write chemical equations

Suppose copper (II) sulfate reacts with sodium sulfide.

a) Write out the chemical reaction and name the
precipitate.
CuSO4 (aq) + Na2S (aq) CuS (s) + Na2SO4 (aq)
a) Write out the net ionic equation.
Cu+2 (aq) SO4-2 (aq) + 2Na+ (aq) + S-2 (aq) CuS (s) + 2Na+ + SO4-2 (aq)

Cu+2 (aq) + S-2 (aq) CuS (s)

Suppose potassium hydroxide reacts with magnesium
chloride.
a) Write out the reaction and name the precipitate.
b) Write out the net ionic equation.
 Units of Concentrations
amount of solute per amount of solvent or solution

g solute g solute x 100

Percent (by mass) = x 100 =
g solution g solute + g solvent

moles of solute
Molarity (M) =
volume in liters of solution

moles = M x VL
 Examples
What is the percent of KCl if 15 g KCl are
placed in 75 g water?

%KCl = 15g x 100/(15 g + 75 g) = 17%

What is the molarity of the KCl if 90 mL of

solution are formed?

mole KCl = 15 g x (1 mole/74.5 g) = 0.20 mole

molarity = 0.20 mole/0.090L = 2.2 M KCl

 Examples:
Example 1: What is the concentration when 5.2 moles of
hydrosulfuric acid are dissolved in 500 mL of water?

Step one: Convert volume to liters, mass to moles.

500 mL = 0.500 L

Step two: Calculate concentration.

C = 5.2 mol/0.500 L
= 10mol/L
• Example 2:
What is the volume when 9.0 moles are
present in 5.6 mol/L hydrochloric acid?

• Example 3:
How many moles are present in 450 mL of
1.5 mol/L calcium hydroxide?

• Example 4:
What is the concentration of 5.6 g of
magnesium hydroxide dissolved in 550
mL?

• Example 5:
 How many Tums tablets, each 500 mg CaCO3,
would it take to neutralize a quart of vinegar,
0.83 M acetic acid (CH3COOH)?

2CH3COOH(aq) + CaCO3(s)  Ca(CH3COO)2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

a quart

moles acetic acid = 0.83 moles/L x 0.95 L = 0.79 moles AA

the mole ratio

mole CaCO3 = 0.79 moles AA x (1 mole CaCO3/2 moles AA)

= 0.39 moles CaCO3
molar mass
mass CaCO3 = 0.39 moles x 100 g/mole = 39 g CaCO3

number of tablets = 39 g x (1 tablet/0.500g) = 79 tablets