ENERGY PERFORMANCE

ASSESSMENT OF BOILERS
Performance Terms and Definitions

Boiler Efficiency, η = Heat output

Heat Input
Heat in steam output (kCals)
Heat in Fuel Input (kCals)

Evaporation Ratio = Quantity of Steam Generation

Quantity of fuel Consumption

The efficiency of a boiler is expressed as the % of useful heat

available from the total energy available by burning the fuel.
This is expressed on the basis of gross calorific value (GCV) .
 Standards
British standards, BS845: 1987
This describes the methods and conditions under which a boiler should
be tested.Boiler should be operated under steady load conditions
(generally full load) for a period of one hour before taking reading

ASME Standard: PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating

Units

‰ Part One: Direct method (also called as Input -output method)

‰ Part Two: Indirect method (also called as Heat loss method)

IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing

All standards do not include blow down as a loss in the efficiency

determination process.
 Direct Method Testing

Steam Output
Flue
Gas

Fuel Input 100%

Boiler
+ Air

Water

Efficiency = Heat addition to Steam x 100

Gross Heat in Fuel

Steam flow rate x (steam enthalpy − feed water enthalpy)

Boiler Efficiency = x 100
Fuel firing rate x Gross calorific value
 Indirect Method Testing

Steam Output
1. Dry Flue gas loss
2. H2 loss
6. Surface loss 3. Moisture in fuel
4. Moisture in air
5. CO loss

7. Fly ash loss

Fuel Input, 100%
Boiler Flue gas sample

Air
Water

8. Bottom ash loss

Blow down

Efficiency = 100 – (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8) (by Indirect Method)

Instruments used for Boiler Performance
Assessment.
Instrument Type Measurements

Flue gas Portable or fixed % CO2 , O2 and CO

analyzer

Temperature Thermocouple, Fuel temperature, flue gas

indicator liquid in glass temperature, combustion
air temperature, boiler
surface temperature,
steam temperature

Draft gauge Manometer, Amount of draft used or

differential available
pressure

TDS meter Conductivity Boiler water TDS, feed

water TDS, make-up
water TDS.

Flow meter As applicable Steam flow, water flow,

fuel flow, air flow
1.Technical specification of boiler
1 Boiler ID code and Make

2 Year of Make

3 Boiler capacity rating

4 Type of Boiler

5 Type of fuel used

6 Maximum fuel flow rate

7 Efficiency by GCV

8 Steam generation pressure &superheat temperature

9 Heat transfer area in m2

10 Is there any waste heat recovery device installed

11 Type of draft

12 Chimney height in metre

2 - Fuel analysis details

Fuel Fired

GCV of fuel

Specific gravity of fuel (Liquid)

Bulk density of fuel (Solid)

Proximate Analysis Date of Test:

1 Fixed carbon %

2 Volatile matter %

3 Ash %

4 Moisture %
Ultimate Analysis Date of Test:
Carbon %
Hydrogen %
Sulphur %
Nitrogen %
Ash %
Moisture %
Oxygen %

Water Analysis Date of Test:

Feed water TDS ppm
Blow down TDS ppm
PH of feed water
PH of blow down

Flue gas Analysis Date of Test:

CO2 %
O2 %
CO %
Flue gas temperature OC
 4. Format sheet for boiler efficiency testing
Date: ………………… Boiler Code No. …………………
S T Ambient air Fuel Feed water Steam Flue gas Surface
. i analysis Temp of
N m boiler, oC
o e Dry Wet Flow T Flow T Flo Pr T O C C T
bulb Bulb Rate, e rate, e w e 2
O e
Temp, Temp, kg/hr m m3/hr m rat ess m % 2 O m
1
o
C o
C p p e, ur p % p
o o
m3
o % 0
. C C e C C
/hr kg
2 /c
. m2
3 g
.
4
.
5
.
6
.
7
.
8
.

Boiler Supervisor Energy Manager Energy Auditor

 Fuel firing rate = 5599.17 kg/hr
Steam generation rate = 21937.5 kg/hr
Steam pressure = 43 kg/cm2(g)
The data collected are Steam temperature = 377 oC
for a boiler using coal Feed water temperature = 96 oC
as the fuel. %CO2 in Flue gas = 14
%CO in flue gas = 0.55
Find out the boiler Average flue gas temperature = 190 oC
efficiency by indirect Ambient temperature = 31 oC
method. Humidity in ambient air = 0.0204 kg / kg dry air
Surface temperature of boiler = 70 oC
Wind velocity around the boiler = 3.5 m/s
Total surface area of boiler = 90 m2
GCV of Bottom ash = 800 kCal/kg
GCV of fly ash = 452.5 kCal/kg
Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash = 90:10
Fuel Analysis (in %)
Ash content in fuel = 8.63
Moisture in coal = 31.6
Carbon content = 41.65
Hydrogen content = 2.0413
Nitrogen content = 1.6
Oxygen content = 14.48
GCV of Coal = 3501 kCal/kg
Boiler efficiency by indirect method

Step – 1 Find theoretical air

requirement
= [(11.43 x C) + {34.5 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.32 x S)] /
Theoretical air required for 100 kg/kg of coal
complete combustion
= [(11.43 x 41.65) + {34.5 x (2.0413 – 14.48/8)} +
(4.32 x 0)] / 100

= 4.84 kg / kg of coal
Step – 2 Find theoretical CO2 %
Moles of C
% CO2 at theoretical condition =
( CO2 )t Moles of N2 + Moles of C

Where,
4.84 x 77/100 0.016
Moles of N2 = + = 0.1332
28 28

Where moles of C = 0.4165/12 = 0.0347

0.0347
( CO2 )t =
0.1332 + 0.0347

= 20.67
Step – 3 To find Excess air
supplied

Actual CO2 measured in flue gas = 14.0%

% Excess air supplied (EA) = 7900 x [ ( CO2)t – (CO2)a]

(CO2)a x [100 – (CO2)t ]

= 7900 x [20.67 – 14 ]

14a x [100 – 20.67]

= 47.44 %
Step – 4 to find actual mass of air supplied

Actual mass of air supplied = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air

= {1 + 47.44/100} x 4.84

= 7.13 kg/kg of coal

Step –5 to find actual mass of dry flue gas

Mass of dry flue gas consists of Mass of CO2 +Mass of N2 content in the fuel+ Mass
of N2 in the combustion air supplied + Mass of
oxygen in combustion air supplied

0.4165 x 44 7.13 x 77 (7.13-4.84) x 23

Mass of dry flue gas = + 0.016 + +
12 100 100

= 7.562 kg / kg of coal
Step – 6 to find all losses

1. % Heat loss in dry flue gas (L1) = m x cp x (Tf – Ta )

x 100
GCV of fuel

7.562 x 0.23 x (190 – 31)

= x 100
3501

L1 = 7.89 %
2. % Heat loss due to formation = 9 x H2 x {584 + Cp (Tf – Ta )}
of water from H2 in fuel (L2) x 100
GCV of fuel

9 x .02041 x {584 + 0.45(190-31)}

= x 100
3501
L2 = 3.44 %

M x {584 + Cp ( Tf – Ta )}
3. % Heat loss due to moisture in = X 100
fuel (L3) GCV of fuel

0.316 x {584 + 0.45 ( 190 – 31) }

= x 100
3501

L3 = 5.91 %
 AAS x humidity x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100
4. % Heat loss due to moisture in =
air (L4) GCV of fuel

7.13 x 0.0204 x 0.45 x (190 – 31) x 100

=
3501
L4 = 0.29 %

%CO x %C 5744
5. % Heat loss due to partial = x x 100
conversion of C to CO (L5) % CO + (% CO2)a GCV of fuel

0.55 x 0.4165 5744

x x 100
= 0.55 + 14 3501

L5 = 2.58 %
6. Heat loss due to radiation and = 0.548 x [ (343/55.55)4 – (304/55.55)4] + 1.957 x
convection (L6)
(343 - 304)1.25 x sq.rt of [(196.85 x 3.5 + 68.9) /
68.9]
= 633.3 w/m2
= 633.3 x 0.86
= 544.64 kCal / m2
Total radiation and convection = 544.64 x 90
loss per hour
= 49017.6 kCal
% radiation and convection loss = 49017.6 x 100

3501 x 5591.17
L6 = 0.25 %
7. % Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash

% Ash in coal = 8.63

Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash
GCV of fly ash
Amount of fly ash in 1 kg of coal
Heat loss in fly ash
% heat loss in fly ash
L7
= 90:10
= 452.5 kCal/kg
= 0.1 x 0.0863
= 0.00863 kg
= 0.00863 x 452.5
= 3.905 kCal / kg of coal
= 3.905 x 100 / 3501
= 0.11 %

8. % Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash

GCV of bottom ash = 800 kCal/kg
Amount of bottom ash in 1 kg of = 0.9 x 0.0863
coal
= 0.077 kg
Heat loss in bottom ash = 0.077 x 800
= 62.136 kCal/kg of coal
% Heat loss in bottom ash = 62.136 x 100 / 3501
L8 = 1.77 %
Boiler efficiency by indirect = 100 – (L1+ L2+ L3+ L4+ L5+ L6+ L7+ L8)
method

= 100-(7.89 + 3.44+ 5.91+ 0.29+ 2.58+ 0.25+

0.11+1.77)

= 100-22.24
= 77.76 %

Summary of Heat Balance for Coal Fired Boiler

Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of % loss
coal
Heat Input = 3501 100
Losses in boiler
1. Dry flue gas, L1 = 276.23 7.89
2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel, L2 = 120.43 3.44
3. Loss due to moisture in fuel, L3 = 206.91 5.91
4. Loss due to moisture in air, L4 = 10.15 0.29
5. Partial combustion of C to CO, L5 = 90.32 2.58
6. Surface heat losses, L6 = 8.75 0.25
7. Loss due to Unburnt in fly ash, L7 = 3.85 0.11
8. Loss due to Unburnt in bottom ash, = 61.97 1.77
L8
Boiler Efficiency = 100 – (L1 + L2+ L3+ L4+ L5+ L6+ L7+ L8) = 77.76 %
 Factors Affecting Boiler
Performance
• Periodical cleaning of boilers
• Periodical soot blowing
• Proper water treatment programme and blow down
control
• Draft control
• Excess air control
• Percentage loading of boiler
• Steam generation pressure and temperature
• Boiler insulation
• Quality of fuel
ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF
FURNACES
Pusher-Type 3-Zone Reheating
Furnace
 Performance Terms and Definitions

Heat in stock (material) (kCals)

Furnace Efficiency, η = Heat in Fuel /electricity (kCals)

Specific Energy Consumption = Quantity of fuel or energy consumed

Quantity of material processed.
 Direct Method Testing
Measurement Parameters

The following measurements are to be made for doing the

energy balance in oil fired reheating furnaces (e.g.
Heating Furnace)

i) Weight of stock / Number of billets heated

ii) Temperature of furnace walls, roof etc
iii) Flue gas temperature
iv) Flue gas analysis
v) Fuel Oil consumption
 Example: Energy Efficiency by Indirect Method
An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around
1340oC. Average fuel consumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit
temperature is 750 oC. Air is preheated from ambient temperature of 40
oC to 190 oC through an air pre-heater. The furnace has 460 mm thick

wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m high (D) and 1
m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the
furnace by both indirect and direct method.
flue gas temperature before air preheater = 750oC
Ambient temperature = 40oC
Preheated air temperature = 190oC
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92
Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr
= 400 x 0.92 =368 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12%
Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr
Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/0C
Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Heat input = 400 litres / hr

= 368 kg/hr
Heat output = m x Cp x ∆T
= 6000 kg x 0.12 x (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal

Efficiency = 936000 x 100 / (368 x 10000)

= 25.43 %
= 25% (app)

Total Losses = 75% (app)

1. Sensible Heat Loss in Flue Gas:
O %
Corresponding excess air =
2
x100
21 − O %
(Where O2 is the % of oxygen in flue gas = 12% )
2

= 12 x 100 / (21 – 12)

= 133% excess air
Theoretical air required to burn 1 kg of oil=14 kg (Typical value for all fuel oil)
Total air supplied = Theoretical air x (1 + excess air/100)
Total air supplied = 14 x 2.33 kg / kg of oil
= 32.62 kg / kg of oil
Sensible heat loss = m x Cp x ∆T
m = Weight of flue gas
= Actual mass of air supplied / kg of fuel + mass of fuel (1kg)
= 32.62 + 1.0 = 33.62 kg / kg of oil.
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas
= 0.24 kCal/kg/oC
∆T = Temperature difference
Heat loss = 33.62 x 0.24 x (750– 40)
= 5729 kCal / kg of oil
% Loss = 5729 = 57.29%
10000

% Heat gain by combustion air = 32.62 x 0.24 x (190 – 40)

----------------------------------- x 100
10000
= 11.74 %
Net % sensible heat loss in flue gas = (57.29 – 11.74) % = 45.55%
2. Loss Due to Evaporation of Moisture Present in Fuel

M {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)}

% Loss = x100
GCV of Fuel

Where,
M - % Moisture of in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.15 kg/kg of fuel oil)
Tfg - Flue Gas Temperature
Tamb - Ambient temperature
GCV - Gross Calorific Value of Fuel

0.15 {584 +0.45 (750-40)}

% Loss = ------------------------------ x 100
10000
= 1.36 %

3. Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed due to Hydrogen in Fuel

% Loss = 9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)}

---------------------------------------- x 100
GCV of Fuel

Where, H2 – % of H2 in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.1123 kg/kg of fuel oil)

= 9 x 0.1123 {584 + 0.45 (750-40)}

------------------------------------- x 100
10000
= 9.13 %
Graph for Determining Black Body Radiation
at a Particular Temperature
Factor for Determining the Equivalent of Heat Release from
Openings to the Quality of Heat Release from Perfect
Black Body
The reheating furnace in example has 460mm thick wall (X) on the billet extraction outlet
side, which is 1m high (D) and 1m wide. With furnace temperature of 1340 0C, the
quantity (Q) of radiation heat loss from the opening is calculated as follows:

The shape of the opening is square and D/X = 1/0.46 = 2.17

The factor of radiation (Refer Figure 2.5) = 0.71
Black body radiation corresponding to 1340oC = 36.00 kCal/cm2/hr
(Refer Figure 2.4 On black body radiation)
Area of opening = 100 cm x 100 cm
= 10000 cm2
Emissivity = 0.8

Total heat loss = Black body radiation x area of opening x factor of radiation x emissivity

=36 x 10000 x 0.71 x 0.8

= 204480 kCal/hr

Equivalent Oil loss = 204480/10,000

= 20.45 kg/hr

% of heat loss = 20.45 /368 x 100

= 5.56 %
Quantity of Heat Release at Various Temperatures
 5a). Heat loss through roof and sidewalls:

Total average surface temperature = 122oC

Heat loss at 122 oC = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr
Total area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18 m2
Heat loss = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr x 70.18 m2
= 87865 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (a) = 8.78 kg / hr

6. Unaccounted Loss

These losses comprises of heat storage loss, loss of furnace gases around charging door
and opening, heat loss by incomplete combustion, loss of heat by conduction through
hearth, loss due to formation of scales.
Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method)

1. Sensible heat loss in flue gas = 45.55%

2. Loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel = 1.36 %
3. Loss due to evaporation of water
formed from H2 in fuel = 9.13 %
4. Heat loss due to openings = 5.56 %
5. Heat loss through skin = 2.64%
6. Unaccounted losses = 10.76%
(Assessed by subtracting summation of losses 1 to 5 from the losses worked out by
direct method i.e. [75 – (45.55+1.36+9.13+5.56+2.64) ] )

Total losses = 75%

Furnace Efficiency = 100 – 75

= 25 %

Specific Energy Consumption = 400 litre /hour (fuel consumption)

6Tonnes/hour (Wt of stock)

= 66.6 Litre of fuel /tonne of Material (stock)

Theoretical Heat

Example of melting one tonne of steel from an ambient temperature of 20oC . Specific
heat of steel = 0.186 Wh/kg/0C, latent heat for melting of steel = 40 Wh/kg/0C. Melting
point of steel = 1600 oC.

Theoretical Total heat = Sensible heat + Latent heat

Sensible Heat = 1000 kg x 0.186 Wh /kg oC x (1600-20)oC = 294 kWh

Latent heat = 40 Wh/ kg x 1000 kg = 40 kWh

Total Heat = 294 + 40 = 334 kWh.

So the theoretical energy needed to melt one tonne of steel from 20o C = 334 kWh.

Actual Energy used to melt to 1600o C is 700 kWh

Efficiency = 334 kWh x 100 = 48%

700 kwh
 Factors Affecting Furnace
Performance
• The important factors, which affect the efficiency, are
listed below for critical analysis.
• Under loading due to poor hearth loading and
improper production scheduling
Improper Design
• Use of inefficient burner
• Insufficient draft/chimney
• Absence of Waste heat recovery
• Absence of Instruments/Controls
• Improper operation/Maintenance
• High stack loss, waste heat recovery device
• Improper insulation /Refractories
 Steam turbine analysis

h1

h11
Boiler

Extraction cum

S
condensing
Turbine Power output
h11 kW

Boiler h2 H1
1st Extraction
h3 H2 h4 H3
2st Extraction

Condenser

Figure 3.1 Process Flow Diagram for Cogeneration Plant

 Actual heat extraction

Calculate the actual heat extraction in turbine at each stage,

Steam Enthalpy at turbine inlet : h1 kCal / kg

Steam Enthalpy at 1st extraction : h2 kCal / kg
Steam Enthalpy at 2nd extraction : h3 kCal / kg
Steam Enthalpy at Condenser : h4* kCal / kg

* Due to wetness of steam in the condensing stage, the enthalpy of steam cannot be
considered as equivalent to saturated steam. Typical dryness value is 0.88 – 0.92. This
dryness value can be used as first approximation to estimate heat drop in the last stage.
However it is suggested to calculate the last stage efficiency from the overall turbine
efficiency and other stage efficiencies.
 Calculate enthalpy drop

Heat extraction from inlet : h1 – h2 kCal / kg

to stage –1 extraction (h5)

Heat extraction from : h2-h3 kCal / kg

1st –2nd extraction (h6)

Heat extraction from 2nd : h3-h4 kCal / kg

Extraction – condenser (h7)
 Calculate theoretical enthalpy drops
From Mollier diagram (H-φ Diagram) estimate the theoretical heat
extraction for the conditions mentioned in Step 1. Towards this:

a) Plot the turbine inlet condition point in the Mollier chart

– corresponding to steam pressure and temperature
b) Since expansion in turbine is an adiabatic process, the
entropy is constant. Hence draw a vertical line from inlet
point (parallel to y-axis) upto the condensing conditions.
c) Read the enthalpy at points where the extraction and
condensing pressure lines meet the vertical line drawn.
d) Compute the theoretical heat drop for different stages of
expansion
 Theoretical enthalpy drop
Theoretical Enthalpy after 1st extraction : H1
Theoretical Enthalpy after 2nd extraction : H2
Theoretical Enthalpy at condenser conditions : H3

Theoretical heat extraction from inlet to : h1 – H1

stage 1 extraction, h8

Theoretical heat extraction from : H1-H2

1st – 2nd extraction, h9

Theoretical heat extraction from : H2-H3

2nd extraction – condensation, h10
 Compute turbine cylinder efficiency

Efficiency of 1st stage : h5 Heat extraction-actual h1- h2

h8 Heat extraction theoretical h1 – H1

Efficiency of 2nd stage : h6 Heat extraction-actual h2- h3

h9 Heat extraction theoretical H1 – H 2

Efficiency of condensing stage : h7

h10
 Calculate plant heat rate

M x (h1 – h11)
Heat rate, kCal / kWh =
P

M – Mass flow rate of steam in kg/hr

h1 - Enthalpy of inlet steam in kCal/kg
h11 - Enthalpy of feed water in kCal/kg
P - Average Power generated in kW

*Alternatively the following guiding parameter can be utilised

Plant heat consumption = fuel consumed for power generation, kg/hr

Power generated, kW
 Example: Small Cogeneration Plant
A distillery plant having an average production of 40 kilolitres of ethanol is having a
cogeneration system with a backpressure turbine. The plant steam and electrical
demand are 5.1 Tons/hr and 100 kW. The process flow diagram is shown in figure
3.2.Gross calorific value of Indian coal is 4000kCal/kg

Steam to turbine
Q – 5100 kg/hr
P – 15 kg/cm2g Back
T – 250oC Pressure

S
Boiler
Coal Turbine
1550 kg/hr Power output
100kW

Process Steam
Q – 5100 kg/hr
P – 2 kg/cm2g
T – 130oC

Figure 3.2 Process Flow Diagram for Small Cogeneration Plant

 Calculation steps
Step 1 :

Total heat of steam at turbine inlet conditions at 15kg / cm2 and 250oC, h1 =698kCal/kg

Step 2 :

Total heat of steam at turbine outlet conditions at 2 kg/cm2 and 130oC, h2 = 648 kCal/kg

Step 3 :

Heat energy input to turbine per kg of inlet steam (h1- h2) = (698-648) = 50 kCal/kg

Step 4 :

Total steam flow rate, Q1 = 5100 kg/hr

Power generation = 100 kW
Equivalent thermal energy = 100 x 860 = 86,000 kCal /hr

Step 5 :

Energy input to the turbine = 5100 x 50 = 2,55,000 kCal/hr.

 Step 6 :

Energy output
Power generation efficiency of the turbo alternator = --------------------- x 100
Energy Input

86,000
= ------------- x 100 = 34%
2,55,000
Step 7 :
Efficiency of the turbo alternator = 34%
Efficiency of Alternator = 92 %
Efficiency of gear transmission = 98 %

Power generation efficiency of turbo alternator 0.34

Efficiency ofTurbine = = = 0.38
Efficiency of gear transmissi on * Efficiency of Alternator 0.98 * 0.92
Step 8 :

Quantity of steam bypassing the turbine = Nil

Step 9 :

Coal consumption of the boiler = 1550 kg/hr.

Step 10:

Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh

= Mass flow rate of steam x ((Enthalpy of steam, kCal/kg – Enthalpy of feed water,kCal/kg)
Power output, kW
= 5100 x (698 – 30)
100

= 34068 kCal/kWh*

*Note: The plant heat rate is in the order of 34000 kCal/kWh because of the use of backpressure turbine. This
value will be around 3000 kcal/kWh while operating on fully condensing mode. However with backpressure
turbine, the energy in the steam is not wasted, as it is utilised in the process.

Overall plant fuel rate including boiler = 1550/100

= 15.5 kg coal / kW
 Gas turbine and Waste heat
recovery steam generator
T h e o re tic a l te m p e ra tu re ris e a c ro s s th e c o m p re s s o r, o C
A ir C o m p re s s o r e ffic ie n c y, % =
A c tu a l te m p e ra tu re ris e , o C

Power output, kW x 860

Overall Gas turbine efficiency (Compressor + Gas turbine), % =
Fuel input for Gas turbine, kg/hr x GCV of fuel, kCal/kg

Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) Performance

Heat Recovery Steam Generator efficiency, %

steam generated, kg/hr x (hs, kCal/kg - hw,kCal/kg)

=
[Mass flow of flue gas, kg/hr x Cp x ( tin - tout)] + [ auxiliary fuel consumption, kg/hr x GCV of fuel, kCal/hr ]
where, hs = Enthalpy of steam
hw = Enthalpy of feed water
tin = inlet temperature of flue gas
tout = outlet temperature of flue gas
Energy Performance Assessment
of Heat Exchangers
 Purpose of the Performance
Test

To determine the overall heat transfer

coefficient for assessing the performance of
the heat exchanger. Any deviation from the
design heat transfer coefficient will indicate
occurrence of fouling.
 Overall heat transfer
coefficient, U
Heat exchanger performance is normally evaluated by the overall
heat transfer coefficient U that is defined by the equation

Q=UxAx LMTD

Where
Q = Heat transferred in kCal/hr
A = Heat transfer surface area in m2
LMTD = Log Mean Temperature Difference in 0C
U = Overall heat transfer Coefficient kCal/hr/m2/0C
 Nomenclature
Cold fluid in w, ti Hot fluid out W, To
Shell

Hot fluid in W, Ti
Baffles Cold fluid out w, to
 Heat Duty

Heat duty of the exchanger can be calculated either on the hot side fluid or cold side
fluid as given below.

Heat Duty for Hot fluid, Qh = Wx Cph x (Ti-To) ………..Eqn-1,

Heat Duty for Cold fluid, Qc = Wx Cpc x ( to-ti) ………...Eqn-2

If the operating heat duty is less than design heat duty, it may be due to heat losses,
fouling in tubes, reduced flow rate (hot or cold) etc. Hence, for simple performance
monitoring of exchanger, efficiency may be considered as factor of performance
irrespective of other parameter. However, in industrial practice, fouling factor method
is more predominantly used.
 Methodology of Heat Exchanger
Performance Assessment
Procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer
Coefficient, U at field

This is a fairly rigorous method of monitoring the heat exchanger

performance by calculating the overall heat transfer coefficient
periodically. Technical records are to be maintained for all the
exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced efficiency and heat
transfer can be identified easily. The record should basically contain
historical heat transfer coefficient data versus time / date of observation.
A plot of heat transfer coefficient versus time permits rational planning
of an exchanger-cleaning program.
 Step – A
Monitoring and reading of steady state parameters of the heat exchanger
under evaluation are tabulated as below:

Parameters Units Inlet Outlet

Hot fluid flow,W kg/h
Cold fluid flow,w kg/h
O
Hot fluid Temp, T C
O
Cold fluid Temp,t C
Hot fluid Pressure,P bar g
Cold fluid Pressure, p bar g
 Step – B
With the monitored test data, the physical properties of the stream can be tabulated as
required for the evaluation of the thermal data
Parameters Units Inlet Outlet
Hot fluid density, ρh kg/m3
Cold fluid density, ρc kg/m3
Hot fluid Viscosity, µh MpaS*
Cold fluid Viscosity, µc MPaS
Hot fluid Thermal kW/(m. K)
Conductivity, kh
Cold fluid Thermal kW/(m. K)
Conductivity, kc
Hot fluid specific heat kJ/(kg. K)
Capacity, Cph
Cold fluid specific heat kJ/(kg. K)
Capacity, Cpc
* MpaS – Mega Pascal Second

Density and viscosity can be determined by analysis of the samples taken from the flow stream at the recorded
temperature in the plant laboratory. Thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity if not determined from the
samples can be collected from handbooks.
 Step – C
Calculate the thermal parameters of heat exchanger and compare with the design data

Parameters Units Test Data Design Data

Heat Duty, Q kW
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ∆Ph bar *
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ∆Pc bar *
O
Temperature Range hot fluid , ∆T C
O
Temperature Range cold fluid , ∆t C
Capacity ratio, R -----
Effectiveness, S -----
O
Corrected LMTD, MTD C
Heat Transfer Coefficient, U kW/(m2. K)
* - The pressure drop for the design flow can be rated with the relation , Pressure drop is proportional to (Flow)1.75
 Examples
Liquid – Liquid Exchanger
A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for oil
cooler with oil at the shell side and cooling water at the tube side.

Tube Side Shell Side

460 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 2.11mm thick x 7211mm long 787 mm ID
Pitch – 31.75mm 30o triangular Baffle space – 787 mm
2 Pass 1 Pass
The monitored parameters are as below:

Parameters Units Inlet Outlet

Hot fluid flow, W kg/h 719800 719800
Cold fluid flow, w kg/h 881150 881150
O
Hot fluid Temp, T C 145 102
O
Cold fluid Temp, t C 25.5 49
Hot fluid Pressure, P bar g 4.1 2.8
Cold fluid Pressure, p bar g 6.2 5.1
 Calculation of Thermal data
Heat Transfer Area = 264.55 m2

1.Heat Duty:
Q = qs = ql
Hot fluid, Q = 719800 x 2.847 x (145 –102) = 24477.4 kW
Cold Fluid, Q = 881150 x 4.187 x (49 – 25.5) = 24083.4 kW

2. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop = Pi – Po = 4.1 – 2.8 = 1.3 bar g.

3. Cold Fluid Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop = pi – po = 6.2 – 5.1 = 1.1 bar g.

4. Temperature range hot fluid

Temperature Range ∆T = Ti – To = 145 – 102 = 43 o C.

5. Temperature Range Cold Fluid

Temperature Range ∆t = ti – to = 49 – 25.5 = 23.5 0C.

6. Capacity Ratio
Capacity ratio, R = 23.5/43 = 0.547.
7. Effectiveness
Effectiveness, S = (to – ti) / (Ti – ti) =(49 – 25.5)/(145-25.5) =23.5/119.5 = 0.20.
8. LMTD
a). LMTD, Counter Flow = (96 – 76.5)/ ln (96/76.5) = 85.9 0C.
b). Correction Factor to account for Cross flow
(R + 1)1/2 x ln ((1- SR)/ (1- S )
F = (R + 1)1/2 x ln ((1- SR)/ (1- S )
( 1 – R) x ln 2- S ( R + 1 – (R2 +1)1/2)
2- S ( R + 1 + (R2 +1)1/2)
F = 0.977.
9. Corrected LMTD
= F x LMTD = 0.977 x 85.9 = 83.9 oC.
10. Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient
U = Q/ A ∆T = 24477.4/ (264.55 x 83.9) = 1.104 kW/m2. K
 Comparison of Calculated data
with Design Data

Parameters Units Test Data Design Data

Duty, Q kW 24477.4 25623
1.3
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ∆Ph Bar 1.34
1.1
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ∆Pc Bar
0.95
O 43
Temperature Range hot fluid, ∆T C 45
O
Temperature Range cold fluid, ∆t C 23.5 25
Capacity ratio, R ----- 0.547 0.556
Effectiveness, S ----- 0.20 0.375
O
Corrected LMTD, MTD C 83.8 82.2
Heat Transfer Coefficient, U kW/(m2. K) 1.104 1.178
 Inferences
• Heat Duty: Actual duty differences will be practically negligible as these duty
differences could be because of the specific heat capacity deviation with the
temperature. Also, there could be some heat loss due to radiation from the hot
shell side.
• Pressure drop: Also, the pressure drop in the shell side of the hot fluid is
reported normal (only slightly less than the design figure). This is attributed
with the increased average bulk temperature of the hot side due to decreased
performance of the exchanger.

• Temperature range: As seen from the data the deviation in the temperature
ranges could be due to the increased fouling in the tubes (cold stream), since a
higher pressure drop is noticed.

• Heat Transfer coefficient: The estimated value has decreased to increased

fouling that has resulted in minimized active area of heat transfer.

• Physical properties: If available from the data or Lab analysis can be used for
verification with the design data sheet as a cross check towards design
considerations.

• Troubleshooting: Fouled exchanger needs cleaning.

 ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS /
VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
Motor efficiency vs loading
 Performance Terms and
Definitions
Efficiency :
The efficiency of the motor is given by

P out P loss
η= = 1−
P in P in

Where Pout – Output power of the motor

Pin – Input power of the motor
PLoss – Losses occurring in motor

Motor Loading :

Motor Loading % = Actual operating load of the motor

Rated capacity of the motor
Field Tests for Determining
Efficiency
 No Load Test

The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft
load. Input power, current, frequency and voltage are noted. The no
load P.F. is quite low and hence low PF watt meters are required.
From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are subtracted
to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To
separate core and F & W losses, test is repeated at variable voltages.
It is worthwhile plotting no-load input kW versus Voltage; the
intercept is F & W kW loss component.

F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) – (No load current)2 × Stator resistance
 Stator and Rotor I2R Losses :

The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge or volt amp

method. The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For
modern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 1000C
to 1200C and necessary correction should be made. Correction to 750C may be
inaccurate. The correction factor is given as follows :
R 2 235 + t 2
=
R 1 235 + t 1
where, t1 = ambient temperature, oC & t2 =- operating temperature, oC.
The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced
frequency, but rotor I2R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip.
Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input – Stator I2R Losses – Core Loss)
Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type
tachometer. Slip also must be corrected to operating temperature.
 Stray Load Losses
These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard
112 gives a complicated method, which is rarely used on shop floor. IS
and IEC standards take a fixed value as 0.5 % of output. It must be
remarked that actual value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE –
112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 %.

Motor Rating Stray Losses

1 – 125 HP 1.8 %
125 – 500 HP 1.5 %
501 – 2499 HP 1.2 %
2500 and above 0.9 %
 Points for Users
It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The
same motor tested by different methods and by same methods by different
manufacturers can give a difference of 2 %.
Estimation of efficiency in the field can be summarized as follows:

1. Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current
value, I2R losses are calculated.
2. From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
3. From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss
 Example
Motor Specifications

Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP

Voltage = 415 Volt
Current = 57 Amps
Speed = 1475 rpm
Insulation class = F
Frame = LD 200 L
Connection = Delta
 No load test Data

Voltage, V = 415 Volts

Current, I = 16.1 Amps
Frequency, F = 50 Hz
Stator phase resistance at = 0.264 Ohms
300C
No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts
 Try to calculate the following

Calculate iron plus friction and windage losses

Calculate stator resistance at 1200C

235 + t 2
R2 = R1 ×
235 + t 1

Calculate stator copper losses at operating temperature of resistance at 1200C

Calculate full load slip(s) and rotor input assuming rotor losses are slip times
rotor input.

Determine the motor input assuming that stray losses are 0.5 % of the motor
rated power

Calculate motor full load efficiency and full load power factor
 Solution

Let Iron plus friction and windage loss, Pi + fw

No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts
Stator Copper loss, P st-300C (Pst.cu)
= 3 × (16.1 / √3)2 × 0.264
= 68.43 Watts
Pi + fw = Pnl – Pst.cu
= 1063.74 – 68.43
= 995.3 W
 0
Stator Resistance at 120 C,
120 + 235
C = 0.264 ×
0
R120
30 + 235
= 0.354 ohms per phase

0
Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 120 C
= 3 × (57 / √3) × 0.354
2

= 1150.1 Watts
 Full load slip
S = (1500 – 1475) / 1500
= 0.0167

Rotor input, Pr = Poutput/ (1-S)

= 34000 / (1-0.0167)
= 34577.4 Watts

Motor full load input power, P input

= Pr + Pst.cu 1200C + (Pi + fw) + Pstray
= 34577.4 + 1150.1 + 995.3 + (0.005* × 34000)
= 36892.8 Watts
*
where, stray losses = 0.5% of rated output (assumed)
Motor efficiency at full load

Poutput
Efficiency = × 100
Pinput

34000
= × 100
36892.8

= 92.2 %

Pinput
Full Load PF =
3 × V × I fl

36892.8
=
3 × 415 × 57

= 0.90
 Comments
• The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and not practical
even on test beds.
• The actual value of stray loss of motors up to 200 HP is likely to be 1
% to 3 % compared to 0.5 % assumed by standards.
• The value of full load slip taken from the nameplate data is not
accurate. Actual measurement under full load conditions will give
better results.
• The friction and windage losses really are part of the shaft output;
however, in the above calculation, it is not added to the rated shaft
output, before calculating the rotor input power. The error however is
minor.
• When a motor is rewound, there is a fair chance that the resistance per
phase would increase due to winding material quality and the losses
would be higher. It would be interesting to assess the effect of a
nominal 10 % increase in resistance per phase.
 Determining Motor Loading
By Input Power Measurements
First measure input power Pi with a hand held or in-line power meter
Pi = Three-phase power in kW

Note the rated kW and efficiency from the motor name plate

The figures of kW mentioned in the name plate is for output conditions.

So corresponding input power at full-rated load

ηfl = Efficiency at full-rated load

Pir = Input power at full-rated power in kW

The percentage loading can now be calculated as follows

 Example

The nameplate details of a motor are given as power = 15 kW, efficiency η = 0.9. Using a
power meter the actual three phase power drawn is found to be 8 kW. Find out the loading of
the motor.

Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 /0.9

= 16.7 kW
Percentage loading = 8/16.7
= 48 %
 By Line Current Measurements

The line current load estimation method is used when input power cannot be measured and
only amperage measurements are possible. The amperage draw of a motor varies
approximately linearly with respect to load, down to about 75% of full load. Below the 75%
load point, power factor degrades and the amperage curve becomes increasingly non-linear.
In the low load region, current measurements are not a useful indicator of load.
However, this method may be used only as a preliminary method just for the purpose of
identification of oversized motors.

Input load current

% Load = * 100 (Valid up to 75% loading)
Input rated current
 Slip Method
In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used which requires a tachometer.
This method also does not give the exact loading on the motors.
Slip
Load = *100%
Ss − Sr

Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm at the operating frequency
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed

Example: Slip Load Calculation

Given: Synchronous speed in rpm = 1500 at 50 HZ operating frequency.

( Synchronous speed = 120f/P) f: frequency, P: Number of poles
Nameplate full load speed = 1450
Measured speed in rpm = 1480
Nameplate rated power = 7.5 kW

Determine actual output power.

1500 − 1480
Load = *100% = 40%
1500 − 1450
From the above equation, actual output power would be 40% x 7.5 kW = 3 kW

The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often favored due to its simplicity
and safety advantages. Most motors are constructed such that the shaft is accessible to a
tachometer or a strobe light.
 The accuracy of the slip
method, however, is limited
The largest uncertainty relates to the accuracy with which manufacturers report the nameplate
full-load speed. Manufacturers generally round their reported full-load speed values to some
multiple of 5 rpm. While 5 rpm is but a small percent of the full-load speed and may be
considered as insignificant, the slip method relies on the difference between full-load
nameplate and synchronous speeds. Given a 40 rpm “correct” slip, a seemingly minor 5 rpm
disparity causes a 12% change in calculated load.

Slip also varies inversely with respect to the motor terminal voltage squared. A voltage
correction factor can, also, be inserted into the slip load equation. The voltage compensated
load can be calculated as shown

Where:

Load = Output power as a % of rated power

Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
V = RMS voltage, mean line to line of 3 phases
Vr = Nameplate rated voltage
 Performance Evaluation of
Rewound Motors

Ideally, a comparison should be made of the efficiency before and after a rewinding. A
relatively simple procedure for evaluating rewind quality is to keep a log of no-load input
current for each motor in the population. This figure increases with poor quality rewinds. A
review of the rewind shop’s procedure should also provide some indication of the quality of
work. When rewinding a motor, if smaller diameter wire is used, the resistance and the I2R
losses will increase.
 Application of Variable Speed
Drives (VSD)
Concept of Variable Frequency Drive

The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC voltage applied to
it, as well as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation:

RPM = (f x 120) / p

Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2.

Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in direct
proportion to the frequency change. The control of frequency applied to the motor is the job
given to the VSD.

The VSD's basic principle of operation is to convert the electrical system frequency and
voltage to the frequency and voltage required to drive a motor at a speed other than its rated
speed. The two most basic functions of a VSD are to provide power conversion from one
frequency to another, and to enable control of the output frequency
 VSD Power Conversion

There are two basic components, a rectifier and an inverter, to accomplish power conversion.

The rectifier receives the 50-Hz AC voltage and converts it to direct current (DC) voltage. A
DC bus inside the VSD functions as a "parking lot" for the DC voltage. The DC bus
energizes the inverter, which converts it back to AC voltage again. The inverter can be
controlled to produce an output frequency of the proper value for the desired motor shaft
speed.
 Factors for Successful Implementation of
Variable Speed Drives
Load Type for Variable Frequency Drives
The main consideration is whether the variable frequency drive application require a variable
torque or constant torque drive. If the equipment being driven is centrifugal, such as a fan
or pump, then a variable torque drive will be more appropriate. Energy savings are usually
the primary motivation for installing variable torque drives for centrifugal applications. For
example, a fan needs less torque when running at 50% speed than it does when running at full
speed. Variable torque operation allows the motor to apply only the torque needed, which
results in reduced energy consumption.

Conveyors, positive displacement pumps, punch presses, extruders, and other similar type
applications require constant level of torque at all speeds. In which case, constant torque
variable frequency drives would be more appropriate for the job. A constant torque drive
should have an overload current capacity of 150% or more for one minute. Variable torque
variable frequency drives need only an overload current capacity of 120% for one minute
since centrifugal applications rarely exceed the rated current.

If tight process control is needed, then you may need to utilize a sensor less vector, or flux
vector variable frequency drive, which allow a high level of accuracy in controlling speed,
torque, and positioning.
 Motor Information

• Full Load Amperage Rating. Using a motor's horsepower

is an inaccurate way to size variable frequency drives.
• Speed Range. Generally, a motor should not be run at any
speed less than 20% of its specified maximum speed
allowed. If it is run at a speed less than this without
auxiliary motor cooling, the motor will overheat. Auxiliary
motor cooling should be used if the motor must be
operated at very slow speeds.
• Multiple Motors. To size a variable frequency drive that
will control more than one motor, add together the full-
load amp ratings of each of the motors. All motors
controlled by a single drive must have an equal voltage
rating.
 Efficiency and Power Factor
• The variable frequency drive should have
an efficiency rating of 95% or better at
full load.
• Variable frequency drives should also offer
a true system power factor of 0.95 or
better across the operational speed range, to
save on demand charges, and to protect the
equipment (especially motors).
 Protection and Power Quality

• Motor overload Protection for instantaneous trip and motor over

current.
• Additional Protection: Over and under voltage, over temperature,
ground fault, control or microprocessor fault. These protective circuits
should provide an orderly shutdown of the VFD, provide indication of
the fault condition, and require a manual reset (except under voltage)
before restart. Under voltage from a power loss shall be set to
automatically restart after return to normal. The history of the previous
three faults shall remain in memory for future review.
• If a built-up system is required, there should also be externally-
operated short circuit protection, door-interlocked fused disconnect
and circuit breaker or motor circuit protector (MCP)
 To determine if the equipment under
consideration is the right choice for a variable
speed drive
The load patterns should be thoroughly studied before exercising the option of
VSD. In effect the load should be of a varying nature to demand a VSD

Figure 5.3 Example of an excellent variable speed Figure 5.4 Example of a poor variable speed
drive candidate drive candidate
 Information needed to Evaluate Energy
Savings for Variable Speed Application
Method of flow control to which adjustable speed is compared:
o output throttling (pump) or dampers (fan)
o recirculation (pump) or unrestrained flow (fan)
o adjustable-speed coupling (eddy current coupling)
o inlet guide vanes or inlet dampers (fan only)
o two-speed motor.
Pump or fan data:
o head v's flow curve for every different type of liquid (pump) or gas
(fan) that is handled
o Pump efficiency curves.
Process information:
o specific gravity (for pumps) or specific density of products (for fans)
o system resistance head/flow curve
o equipment duty cycle, i.e. flow levels and time duration.
Efficiency information on all relevant electrical system apparatus:
o motors, constant and variable speed
o variable speed drives
o gears
o transformers.

If we do not have precise information for all of the above, we can make reasonable
assumptions for points 2 and 4.
 ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF FANS AND
BLOWERS
 Purpose of the Performance
Test

The purposes of such a test are to determine, under actual operating conditions, the volume
flow rate, the power input and the total pressure rise across the fan.

These test results will provide actual value for the flow resistance of the air duct system,
which can be compared with the value specified by supplier.
 Performance Terms and
Definitions
Static Pressure: The absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.

Dynamic Pressure: The rise in static pressure which occurs when air moving with specified velocity at a point is
bought to rest without loss of mechanical energy. It is also known as velocity pressure.

Total Pressure: The sum of static pressures and dynamic pressures at a point.

Fan Shaft Power: The mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft

Motor Input Power: The electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor drive.

Fan Efficiency: The air power static divided by impeller power

Static Fan Efficiency % = Volume in m3 / Sec x total pressure in mmwc

102 x Power input to the shaft in (kW)
Pressures in a duct
Pitot tube
Traverse readings
 Example

The following is a typical report on measurements taken and calculations made for a
double inlet fan in a palletizing plant.

(a) Design Parameters:

Volume = 292 m3/sec.

Static Pressure = 609.6 mmwc

(b) Measurements:

Temperature = 32oC
Speed = 740 RPM
 Inlet Suction Outlet Measured Volume Amps Power
Damper Pressure Pressure Velocity M3/Sec. (I) Consumption
Position (-) mmwc (+) mmwc Pressure (U p), (kW)
% mmwc
80% ONE SIDE 455, 462, Average = 70
25, 22, 20 480,478
Average=22.33 Avg.=468.75

ANOTHER 166.6 220 2127 KW

SIDE

15, 18, 23, 21 459, 464, 473

Average=19.25 479, 480, 470
Avg.=470.83 Average = 70

Instruments used
a) Suction pressure, outlet pressure = ‘U’ tube manometer
b) For differential pressure = Inclined tube manometer
c) For temperature = Mercury in glass thermometer
d) Fan speed = Tachometer
e) Line current = Tong tester
c) (P1) = Power input to the motor (kW) = √ 3 x V x I x Cos ∅
1000
= √ 3 x 6600 x 220 x 0.9
1000

= 2263 kW

d) P = Power input to the fan shaft

= Power input to the motor (kW) x Efficiency of motor (%) at the

operating load x transmission efficiency

Motor efficiency = 0.94

P = 2263 x 0.94 x 1 (as motor was direct coupled)

= 2127 kW
e) Fan Efficiency % = Volume in m3 / Sec x total pressure in mmwc
(a) x Power input to the shaft in (kW)

Where 102 is a conversion constant

For double inlet fan,

The total Volume of air,m3 / Sec = 166.6 x 2 = 333.2

Total static pressure, mmwc = 468.75- (-22.33) = 491

(U p Static ,across the fan)

Fan Efficiency = 333.2 x 491 x 100

102 x 2127

Static Fan Efficiency = 75%

Performance calculations
a) Gas Density = 273 x 1.293
(Corrected to NTP) 273 + ToC (at site condition)

= 273 x 1.293
273 + 32oC (at site condition)

= 1.15 kg/m3

b) Volume = Cp x A √ 2 x 9.81 x U p x γ
1.15
Cp = Pitot tube constant, 0.85

A = Area of rectangular duct in m2, 1.029 x 5.502

p = Average velocity pressure measured by pitot tube by

taking measurement at number of points over the entire
cross section of the duct.(see Table)

γ = Density at test condition, 1.15 kg/m3

Flow (v) = 0.85 x 1.029 x 5.502 √ 2 x 9.81 x 70 x 1.15

1.15
3
v = 166.6 m / Sec
ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF WATER
PUMPS
 Purpose of the Performance
Test

• Determination of the pump efficiency

during the operating condition
• Determination of system resistance and the
operating duty point of the pump and
compare the same with design.
 Performance Terms and
Definitions
Pump Capacity, Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit time,m3/hr or m3/sec
Q is proportional to N, where N- rotational speed of the pump

Total developed head, H= The sum of suction and discharge pressures

The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from
inlet of the pump to the discharge of the pump.

There are three heads in common use in pumps namely

1.0. Static head
2.0. Velocity head
3.0. Friction head.

The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings varies as a function (roughly
as the square) of the capacity flow through the system.

System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance & total static head.
.
 Pump Efficiency

Pump efficiency = Hydraulic power, Ph x 100

Power input to the pump shaft

Where,

Hydraulic power Ph(kW)

= Q (m3/s) x Total head,(hd - hs) (m) x r(kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000

Q = Volume flow rate, r= density of the fluid, g = acceleration due to gravity

 Field Testing for Determination
of Pump Efficiency

To determine the pump efficiency, three key parameters are required: Flow, Head and Power.
Of these, flow measurement is the most crucial parameter as normally online flow meters are
hardly available, in a majority of pumping system. The following methods outlined below
can be adopted to measure the flow depending on the availability and site conditions.
 Flow Measurement, Q
• Tracer method BS5857
• Ultrasonic flow measurement
• Tank filling method
• Installation of an on-line flowmeter
 Tracer Method

The Tracer method is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because
of their sensitivity and accuracy.

This method is based on injecting a tracer into the cooling water for a few minutes at an
accurately measured constant rate. A series of samples is extracted from the system at a point
where the tracer has become completely mixed with the cooling water. The mass flow rate is
calculated from:

qcw = q1 x C1/C2

where qcw = cooling water mass flow rate, kg/s

q1 = mass flow rate of injected tracer, kg/s
C1 = concentration of injected tracer, kg/kg
C2 = concentration of tracer at downstream position during the ‘plateau’ period
of constant concentration, kg/kg

The tracer normally used is sodium chloride.

 Ultrasonic Flow meter
Operating under Doppler effect principle these meters are non-invasive, meaning
measurements can be taken without disturbing the system. Scales and rust in the pipes are
likely to impact the accuracy.

Ensure measurements are taken in a sufficiently long length of pipe free from flow
disturbance due to bends, tees and other fittings.
The pipe section where measurement is to be taken should be hammered gently to enable
scales and rusts to fall out.
For better accuracy, a section of the pipe can be replaced with new pipe for flow
measurements.
 Tank filing method

In open flow systems such as water getting pumped to an overhead tank or a sump, the flow
can be measured by noting the difference in tank levels for a specified period during which
the outlet flow from the tank is stopped. The internal tank dimensions should be preferable
taken from the design drawings, in the absence of which direct measurements may be
resorted to.
 Installation of an on-line
flowmeter

If the application to be measured is going to be critical and periodic then the best option
would be to install an on-line flowmeter which can rid of the major problems encountered
with other types.
 Determination of total head, H

Suction head (hs)

This is taken from the pump inlet pressure gauge readings and the value to be
converted in to meters (1kg/cm2 = 10. m). If not the level difference between sump water
level to the centerline of the pump is to be measured. This gives the suction head in
meters.

Discharge head (hd)

This is taken from the pump discharge side pressure gauge. Installation of the pressure gauge
in the discharge side is a must, if not already available.
 Pump efficiency example
Example of pump efficiency calculation

Illustration of calculation method outlined

A chemical plant operates a cooling water pump for process cooling and refrigeration
applications. During the performance testing the following operating parameters were
measured;

Measured Data

Pump flow, Q 0.40 m3/ s

Power absorbed, P 325 kW
Suction head (Tower basin level), h1 +1 M
Delivery head, h2 55 M
Height of cooling tower 5M
Motor efficiency 88 %
Type of drive Direct coupled
Density of water 996 kg/ m3
 Pump efficiency

Flow delivered by the pump 0.40 m3/s

Total head, h2 -(+h1) 54 M
Hydraulic power 0.40 x 54 x 996 x 9.81/1000 = 211 kW
Actual power consumption 325 kW
Overall system efficiency 211/325 = 65 %
Pump efficiency 65/0.88 = 74 %
ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF
COMPRESSORS
 Purpose of the Performance
Test
• Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the
compressor
• Isothermal power required
• Volumetric efficiency
• Specific power requirement
 Performance Terms and
Definitions
Compression ratio : Absolute discharge pressure of last stage
Absolute intake pressure

Isothermal Power : It is the least power required to compress the air

assuming isothermal conditions.

Isothermal Efficiency : The ratio of Isothermal power to shaft power

Volumetric efficiency : The ratio of Free air delivered to compressor swept

volume

Specific power requirement: The ratio of power consumption (in kW ) to the

volume delivered at ambient conditions.
 Measurement of Free Air Delivery
(FAD) by Nozzle method

Principle: If specially shaped nozzle discharge air to the atmosphere from a receiver
getting its supply from a compressor, sonic flow conditions sets in at the nozzle throat
for a particular ratio of upstream pressure (receiver) to the downstream pressure
(atmospheric) i.e. Mach number equals one.

When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for a reasonable intervals of time,
the airflow output of the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be
calculated from the known characteristic of the nozzle.
Arrangement of test equipment
 Test nozzle sizes

Nozzle size Capacity (m3/hr)

6 3–9
10 9 –30
16 27 –90
22 60 – 170
33 130 – 375
50 300 – 450
80 750 – 2000
125 1800 – 5500
165 3500 - 10000
 Measurements and duration of
the test
The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere
through the flow nozzle. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle
valve should be equal to or twice the pressure beyond the throttle. After the system is
stabilized the following measurements are carried out:

Receiver pressure
Pressure and temperature before the nozzle
Pressure drop across the nozzle
Speed of the compressor
kW, kWh and amps drawn by the compressor

The above readings are taken for the 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of discharge pressure
values.
Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method

I. Free Air delivered Qf = k x π x d2 x T1 x 2 (P3-P4) (P3 x Ra)

in m3/sec 4 P1 T3

k : Flow coefficient – as per IS

d : Nozzle diameter M
T1 : Absolute inlet temperature oK
P1 : Absolute inlet pressure kg/cm2
P3 : Absolute Pressure before nozzle kg/cm2
T3 : Absolute temperature before nozzle oK
Ra : Gas constant for air 287.1 J/kg k
P3-P4 : Differential pressure across the nozzle kg/cm2

II. Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal power/Input power

Isothermal power(kW) = P1 x Qf x loger

36.7
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2
Qf = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1

III. Specific power consumption = Power consumption ,kW

at rated discharge pressure Free Air Delivered, m3/hr
 Volumetric efficiency

IV. Volumetric efficiency = Free air delivered m3/min x 100

Compressor displacement, m3/min

Compressor Displacement = π x D2 x L x S x χ x n
4
D = Cylinder bore, metre
L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
 Example
Calculation of Isothermal Efficiency for a Reciprocating Air Compressor.

Step – 1 : Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate

k : Flow coefficient (Assumed as 1)

d : Nozzle diameter : 0.08 metre
P2 : Receiver Pressure - 3.5 kg / cm2 (a)
P1 : Inlet Pressure - 1.04 kg / cm2(a)
T1 : Inlet air temperature 30oC or 303oK
P3 : Pressure before nozzle – 1.08 kg / cm2
T3 : Temperature before the nozzle 40oC or 313oK
P3 – P4 : Pressure drop across the nozzle = 0.036 kg / cm2
Ra : Gas constant : 287 Joules / kg K

Free Air Delivered Qf = k x π x d2 x T1 x 2 (P3-P4) (P3 x Ra)

4 P1 T3

= 1 x π ?x (0.08)2 x 303 x 2 x 0.036 x 1.08 x 287

4 1.04 313
3
= 0.391 m /sec
= 1407.6 m3 / h.
Step – 2 : Calculate Isothermal Power Requirement

Isothermal Power (kW) = P1 x Qf x loger

36.7

P1 - Absolute intake pressure = 1.04 kg / cm2 (a)

Qf -Free Air Delivered = 1407.6 m3 / h.

Compression ratio r = 3.5 = 3.36

1.04

∴ Isothermal Power = 1.04 x 1407.6 x loge3.36 = 48.34 kW

36.7
Step – 3 : Calculate Isothermal Efficiency

Motor input power = 100 kW

Motor and drive efficiency = 86 %
Compressor input power = 86 kW

Isothermal efficiency = Isothermal Power x 100

Compressor input Power

= 48.34 x 100 = 56%

86.0
 Assessment of Specific Power
requirement

Specific power consumption = Actual power consumed by the compressor

Measured Free Air Delivery

In the above example the measured flow is 1407.6 m3/hr and actual power consumption is
100 kW.

Specific power requirement = 100

1407.6

= 0.071 kW/m3/hr
Measurement of FAD by Pump
Up Method:Example
An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final
compressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) – Comment?

Piston displacement : 16.88 m3/minute

Theoretical compressor capacity : 14.75 m3/minute @ 7 kg/cm2
Compressor rated rpm 750 : Motor rated rpm : 1445
Receiver Volume : 7.79 m3
Additional hold up volume,
i.e., pipe / water cooler, etc., is : 0.4974 m3
Total volume : 8.322 m3
Initial pressure P1 : 0.5 kg/cm2
Final pressure P2 : 7.03 kg/cm2
Atmospheric pressure P0 : 1.026 kg/cm2,a
(P2 − P1 ) × Total Volume
Compressor output m3/minute :
Atm. Pressure × Pumpup time
(7.03 − 0.5) × 8.322
: = 13.17 m3/minute
1.026 × 4.021
Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m /minute rating is 1.577 m3/minute i.e.,
3

10.69 %, which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.

ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF HVAC
SYSTEMS
Purpose of the Performance Test

The purpose of performance assessment is

to verify the performance of a refrigeration
system by using field measurements.

The test will measure net cooling capacity (tons of

refrigeration) and energy requirements, at the
actual operating conditions. The objective of the
test is to estimate the energy consumption at actual
load vis-à-vis design conditions
 Performance Terms and
Definition
Tons of refrigeration (TR): One ton of refrigeration is the amount of cooling obtained
by one ton of ice melting in one day: 3024 kCal/h, 12,000 Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW.

Net Refrigerating Capacity. A quantity defined as the mass flow rate of the evaporator
water multiplied by the difference in enthalpy of water entering and leaving the cooler,
expressed in kCal/h, tons of Refrigeration.

kW/ton rating: Commonly referred to as efficiency, but actually power input to

compressor motor divided by tons of cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton (kW/ton).
Lower kW/ton indicates higher efficiency.

Coefficient of Performance (COP): Chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling)

divided by Btu input (electric power).

Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): Performance of smaller chillers and rooftop units is
frequently measured in EER rather than kW/ton. EER is calculated by dividing a chiller's
cooling capacity (in Btu/h) by its power input (in watts) at full-load conditions. The
higher the EER, the more efficient the unit.
To determine the net refrigeration capacity
The net refrigeration capacity in tons shall be obtained by
the following equation:
Net refrigeration Capacity (TR) = m x cp x (tin –tout)
3024
Where m – mass flow rate of chilled water, m3/hr
cp - Specific heat, kcal/kg oC
tin – Chilled water temperature at evaporator inlet oC
tout- Chilled water temperature at evaporator outlet oC

a. Water flow rate

b. Temperature difference between entering and leaving water
 Methods of measuring the flow
In the absence of an on-line flow meter the chilled water flow can be measured by the
following methods

•In case where hot well and cold well are available, the flow can be
measured from the tank level dip or rise by switching off the
secondary pump.

•Non invasive method would require a well calibrated ultrasonic

flow meter using which the flow can be measured without
disturbing the system

•If the waterside pressure drops are close to the design values, it
can be assumed that the water flow of pump is same as the design
rated flow.
 Measurement of compressor
power

The compressor power can be measured by a portable power analyser

which would give reading directly in kW.

If not, the ampere has to be measured by the available on-line ammeter

or by using a tong tester. The power can then be calculated by
assuming a power factor of 0.9

kW = √3 x V x I ξ χοσφ
The energy efficiency of a chiller is commonly expressed in
one of the three following ratios:

1.Coefficient of
performance
COP = kW refrigeration effect
kW input
2. Energy efficiency
ratio
EER = Btu/h refrigeration effect
Watt input
3. Power per Ton
kW/Ton = kW input
Tons refrigeration effect
First calculate the kW/ton rating from the measured parameters.

a) kW/ton rating = Measured compressor power, kW

Net refrigeration Capacity (TR)

Use this data to calculate other energy efficiency parameters with the following relations

COP = 0.293 EER EER = 3.413 COP

kW/Ton = 12 / EER EER = 12 / (kW/Ton)
kW/Ton = 3.516 / COP COP = 3.516 / (kW/Ton)
* Source : American Refrigeration Institute

b) Coefficient of performance (COP)

COP = 3.516
kW/ton rating

c) Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) = 12

kW/ton rating
 Example
In a brewery chilling system, ethylene glycol is used a secondary refrigerant. The
designed capacity is 40 TR. A test was conducted to find out the operating capacity
and energy performance ratios. The flow was measured by switching off the
secondary pump and measuring the tank level difference in hot well.
measurements data:

Temperature of ethylene glycol entering evaporator = (-) 1oC

Temperature of ethylene glycol leaving evaporator = (-) 4 oC
Ethylene glycol flow rates = 13200 kg/hr
Evaporator ethylene glycol pressure drop (inlet to outlet) = 0.7 kg/cm2

Power input to compressor electrical power, kW = 39.5 kW

Specific heat capacity of ethylene glycol = 2.34 kCal/kgoC
Calculations
Net refrigeration Capacity (TR) = m x cp x (tin –tout)
3024

= 13200 x 2.34 x (-1 – (-4))

3024
= 30.65 TR

kW/ton rating = Measured compressor power, kW

Net refrigeration Capacity (TR)

= 39.5 kW
30.65 TR
= 1.29 kW/TR

Coefficient of performance (COP) = 3.516

kW/ton rating

= 3.516
1.29
= 2.73

Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) = 12

kW/ton rating
= 12
1.29
= 9.3
 ENERGY PERFORMANCE
ASSESSMENT OF LIGHTING
SYSTEMS
 Purpose of the Performance Test
The purpose of performance test is
• to calculate the installed efficacy in terms of
lux/watt/m² (existing or design) for general
lighting installation.
• The calculated value can be compared with the
norms for specific types of interior installations
for assessing improvement options.
• The installed load efficacy of an existing (or
design) lighting installation can be assessed by
carrying out a survey.
 Performance Terms
and Definitions
Lumen is a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The lumen rating of a
lamp is a measure of the total light output of the lamp. The most
common measurement of light output (or luminous flux) is the lumen.
Light sources are labeled with an output rating in lumens.

Lux is the metric unit of measure for illuminance of a surface. One lux
is equal to one lumen per square meter.

Circuit Watts is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a

lighting circuit under assessment.
Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained illuminance provided on a
horizontal working plane per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior.
Unit: lux per watt per square metre (lux/W/m²)

Lamp Circuit Efficacy is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for
each watt of power consumed by the lamp circuit, i.e. including control gear
losses. This is a more meaningful measure for those lamps that require control
gear. Unit: lumens per circuit watt (lm/W)

Installed Power Density. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power
needed per square metre of floor area to achieve 100 lux of average maintained
illuminance on a horizontal working plane with general lighting of an interior.
Unit: watts per square metre per 100 lux (W/m²/100
Installed power density (W/m²/100 lux) = 100
Installed load efficacy (lux/W/m²)

Installed Load Efficacy Ratio (ILER)

= Actual Lux/W/m² or Target W/m²/100lux

Target Lux/W/m² Actual W/m²/100lux

Average maintained illuminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points
in a defined area.

Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived
color of objects. To determine the CRI of a lamp, the color appearances of a set of
standard color chips are measured with special equipment under a reference light
source with the same correlated color temperature as the lamp being evaluated. If the
lamp renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light source, its CRI is
100. If the color rendering differs from the reference light source, the CRI is less
than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when
illuminated by the lamp.
 Preparation (before Measurements)
Before starting the measurements, the following care should be
taken:
• All lamps should be operating and no luminaires should be dirty or
stained.
There should be no significant obstructions to the flow of
light throughout the interior, especially at the measuring points.
Accuracies of readings should be ensured by
− Using accurate illuminance meters for measurements
− Sufficient number and arrangement of measurement points
within the interior
− Proper positioning of illuminance meter
Ensuring that no obstructions /reflections from surfaces affect
measurement
To Determine the Minimum Number and Positions of Measurement Points

Calculate the Room Index: RI = LxW

Hm(L + W)

Where L = length of interior; W = width of interior; Hm = the mounting height,

which is the height of the lighting fittings above the horizontal working plane. The
working plane is usually assumed to be 0.75m above the floor in offices and at
0.85m above floor level in manufacturing areas.
It does not matter whether these dimensions are in metres, yards or
feet as long as the same unit is used throughout. Ascertain the
minimum number of measurement points from Table
For example, the dimensions of an interior are:

Length = 9m, Width = 5m, Height of luminaires above working plane (Hm) = 2m

Calculate RI = 9 x 5 = 1.93
2(9 + 5)
From Table 10.1 the minimum number of measurement points is 16

As it is not possible to approximate a “square array” of 16 points within such a

rectangle it is necessary to increase the number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3.
These should be spaced as shown below:
Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows
along the length of the interior = 9 ÷ 6 = 1.5m and the distance of
the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 ÷ 2 = 0.75m.

Similarly the distance between points across the width of the

interior = 5 ÷ 3 = 1.67m with half this value, 0.83m, between the
'end' points and the walls.

If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the

lighting fittings, large errors are possible and the number of
measurement points should be increased to avoid such an
occurrence.
 Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load Efficacy Ratio of
a General Lighting Installation in an Interior

STEP 1 Measure the floor area of the interior:

Area = -------------------- m²
STEP 2 Calculate the Room Index
RI = --------------------
STEP 3 Determine the total circuit watts of the
installation by a power meter if a separate feeder
for lighting is available. If the actual value is not Total circuit watts = -------------
known a reasonable approximation can be
obtained by totaling up the lamp wattages
including the ballasts:
STEP 4 Calculate Watts per square metre, Value of step
3 ÷ value of step 1 W/m² = ------------
STEP 5 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance by
using lux meter, Eav. Maintained Eav.maint. = ------------
STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate lux per watt per square
Metre Lux/W/m² = ------------
STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m² lux for type of the type
of interior/application and RI (2): Target Lux/W/m² =
STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 ÷ 7 ). ILER =
Example of ILER Calculation
STEP 1 Measure the floor area of the interior:
Area = 45 m²
STEP 2 Calculate the Room Index
RI = 1.93
STEP 3 Determine the total circuit watts of the
installation by a power meter if a separate
feeder for lighting is available. If the actual Total circuit watts = 990 W
value is not known a reasonable approximation
can be obtained by totaling up the lamp
wattages including the ballasts:

STEP 4 Calculate Watts per square metre, 3 ÷1 :

W/m² = 22
STEP 5 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance,
Eav. Maintained (average lux levels measured Eav.maint. = 700
at 18 points)
STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate the actual lux per
watt per square Metre Lux/W/m² = 31.8
STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m² lux for type of the
type of interior/application and RI (2):(Refer Target Lux/W/m² = 46
Table 10.2)
STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 ÷ 7 ILER = 0.7
).
Referring to table 3, ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting
system.
Annual energy wastage = (1 – ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours
= (1 – 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days
= 712 kWh/annum
Table 10.4 IES Illuminance Categories and Values - For Generic Indoor Activities

ACTIVITY CATEGORY LUX FOOTCANDLES

Public spaces with dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5
Simple orientation for short temporary B 50-75-100 5-7.5-10
visits
Working spaces where visual tasks are only C 100-150-200 10-15-20
occasionally performed
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast D 200-300-500 20-30-50
or large size
Performance of visual tasks of medium E 500-750-1000 50-75-100
contrast or small size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast F 1000-1500-2000 100-150-200
or very small size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500
or very small size over a prolonged period
Performance of very prolonged and exacting H 5000-7500-10000 500-750-1000
visual tasks
Performance of very special visual tasks of I 10000-15000- 1000-1500-2000
extremely low contrast 20000

A-C for illuminances over a large area (i.e. lobby space)

D-F for localized tasks
G-I for extremely difficult visual tasks
 Areas for Improvement

• Look for natural lighting opportunities

through windows and other openings
• In the case of industrial lighting, explore the
scope for introducing translucent sheets
• Assess scope for more energy efficient lamps
and luminaries
• Assess the scope for rearrangement of
lighting fixtures
 PERFORMING FINANCIAL
ANALYSIS
Introduction
Planning an energy efficiency or energy management projec
Energy auditor who advises the senior management of an
organisation that capital should be invested in new PROJECTt.
Inevitably, the management of the organisation would ask:
How much will the proposal cost?
How much money will be saved by the proposal?
 What is Fixed and Variable Costs?
Example: The capital cost of the DG set is Rs.9,00,000, the annual
output is 219 MWh, and the maintenance cost is Rs.30,000 per annum.
The cost of producing each unit of electricity is 3.50 Rs./kWh. The
total cost of a diesel generator operating over a 5-year period, taking
into consideration both fixed and variable cost is
Item Type of cost Calculation Cost

Capital cost of generator Fixed - 9,00,000

Annual maintenance Fixed 30,000 x 5 1,50,000

(years)
Fuel cost Variable 219,000 x 3.50 7,66,500

Total cost 18,16,500

 Interest Charges
SSimple interest: If simple interest is applied, then charges
are calculated as a fixed percentage of the capital that is
borrowed. A fixed interest percentage is applied to each
year of the loan and repayments are calculated using the
equation
Compound interest: Compound interest is usually calculated
annually (although this is not necessarily the case). The interest
charged is calculated as a percentage of the outstanding loan at the end
of each time period. It is termed 'compound' because the outstanding
loan is the sum of the unpaid capital and the interest charges up to that
point. The value of the total repayment can be calculated using the
equation.
 Simple Payback Period
Example
A new small cogeneration plant installation is
expected to reduce a company's annual energy bill by
Rs.4,86,000. If the capital cost of the new boiler
installation is Rs.22,20,000 and the annual
maintenance and operating costs are Rs. 42,000, the
expected payback period for the project can be
worked out as.
Solution
PB = 22,20,000/(4,86,000- 42,000)= 5.0 years
 Net Present Value Method,NPV
The net present value method considers the fact that a
cash saving (often referred to as a 'cash flow') of Rs.1000
in year 10 of a project will be worth less than a cash flow
of Rs.1000 in year 2. The net present value method
achieves this by quantifying the impact of time on any
particular future cash flow. This is done by equating each
future cash flow to its current value today, in other words
determining the present value of any future cash flow.
The present value (PV) is determined by using an
assumed interest rate, usually referred to as a discount
rate. Discounting is the opposite process to
compounding. Compounding determines the future value
of present cash flows, where" discounting determines the
present value of future cash flows.
In order to understand the concept of present vale, consider the case described in
Example 3.
If instead of installing a new cogeneration system, the company invested
Rs.22,20,000 in a bank at an annual interest rate of 8%, then:
The value of the sum at the end of year 2 = 23,97,600 + (0.08 x 23,97,600) = Rs.25,89,4 08

The value of the sum at the end of year 1 = 22,20,000 + (0.08 x 22,20,000) = Rs.23,97,6 00

The value of the investment would grow as compound interest is added, until after n years the
value of the sum would be:
FV = D x (1 + IR/100) n

Where FV is the future value of investment in Rs., and D is the value of initial deposit
(or investment) in Rs., IR is Interest Rate and n is number of years.
The future value of the investment made at present, after 5 years
will be:
FV = 22,20,000 x (1 + 8/100) 5
= Rs. 32,61,908.4
 Present value
The present value of an amount of money at any specified time in the future can
be determined by the following equation.

Where PV is the present value of S in n years time (Rs.), and S is the value of
cash flow in n years time (Rs.).

PV = S x (1 + IR/100) -n

The net present value method calculates the present value of all the
yearly cash flows (i.e. capital costs and net savings) incurred or
accrued throughout the life of a project, and summates them. Costs
are represented as a negative value and savings as a positive value.
The sum of all the present values is known as the net present value
(NPV). The higher the net present value, the more attractive the
proposed project.
Solution
The annual cash flows should be multiplied by the annual discount factors for a rate of
8% to determine the annual present values, as shown in the Table below:

Year Discount Project 1 Project 2

Factor for 8% Net Present Net Present
(a) savings (Rs.) value (Rs.) savings (Rs.) value (Rs.)
(b) (a x b) (c) (a x c)
0 1.000 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 -30 000.00 -30 000.00
1 0.926 +6 000.00 +5 556.00 +6 600.00 +6 111.60
2 0.857 +6 000.00 +5 142.00 +6 600.00 +5 656.20
3 0.794 +6 000.00 +4 764.00 +6 300.00 +5 002.20
4 0.735 +6 000.00 +4 410.00 +6 300.00 +4 630.50
5 0.681 +6 000.00 +4 086.00 +6 000.00 +4 086.00
6 0.630 +6 000.00 +3 780.00 +6 000.00 +3 780.00
7 0.583 +6 000.00 +3 498.00 +5 700.00 +3323.10
8 0.540 +6 000.00 +3 240.00 +5 700.00 +3 078.00
9 0.500 +6 000.00 +3 000.00 +5 400.00 +2 700.00
10 0.463 +6 000.00 +2 778.00 +5 400.00 +2 500.20
NPV = +10 254.00 NPV = +10 867.80
It can be seen that over a 10 year life-span the net present value for Project 1 is
Rs.10,254.00, while for Project 2 it is Rs.10,867.80. Therefore Project 2 is the
preferential proposal.
Internal rate of return method
IRR
• The discount rate which achieves a net
present value of zero is known as the
internal rate of return (IRR). The higher the
internal rate of return, the more attractive
the project.
 Internal rate of return analysis
Example 6
A proposed project requires an initial capital investment of Rs.20 000. The cash flows
generated by the project are shown in the table below:

Year Cash flow (Rs.)

0 -20,000.00
1 +6000.00
2 +5500.00
3 +5000.00
4 +4500.00
5 +4000.00
6 +4000.00
Given the above cash flow data, let us find out the internal rate of return for the project.
Solution
Cash 8% discount rate 12% discount rate 16% discount rate
flow Discount Present Discount Present Discount Present
(Rs.) factor value factor value factor value
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
0 -20000 1.000 -20000 1.000 -20000 1.000 -20000
1 6000 0.926 5556 0.893 5358 0.862 5172
2 5500 0.857 4713.5 0.797 4383.5 0.743 4086.5
3 5000 0.794 3970 0.712 3560 0.641 3205
4 4500 0.735 3307.5 0.636 3862 0.552 2484
5 4000 0.681 2724 0.567 2268 0.476 1904
6 4000 0.630 2520 0.507 2028 0.410 1640
NPV = 2791 NPV = 459.5 NPV = -1508.5
It can clearly be seen that the discount rate which results in the net present value being
zero lies somewhere between 12% and 16%.
For12% discount rate, NPV is positive; for 16% discount rate, NPV is negative. Thus for
some discount rate between 12 and 16 percent, present value benefits are equated to
present value costs. To find the value exactly, one can interpolate between the two rates
as follows:
459.5
Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 - 0.12) x
(459.5 - (-1508.5))
459.5
Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 - 0.12) x = 12.93%
(459.5 + 1508.5)

Thus the internal rate of return for the project is 12.93 %.

 APPLICATION OF NON-
CONVENTIONAL & RENEWABLE
ENERGY SOURCES
 Various forms of renewable energy

• Solar energy
• Wind energy
• Bio energy
• Hydro energy
• Geothermal energy
• Wave and tidal energy
 Solar Energy

• Solar energy available is equivalent to

15000 times world’s commercial energy
consumption
• 5-7 kWh/m2 for 300-330 days in a year
• Applications are heating, lighting, cooking,
drying etc.
• Solar thermal or solar electric (photo-
voltaic)
 Solar Thermal Energy Applications

• Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the

temperature of 100° C.
• Medium-Grade Heating Devices -up to the
temperature of 100°-300°C
• High-Grade Heating Devices -above
temperature of 300.° C
 Solar Collector

• Flat rectangular box

with transparent cover
• Small tubes carrying
water or fluid attached
to black absorber plate
• Hot water transferred
to storage tank Figure 12.1 Solar Flat plate collector
 Solar Cooker

• FRP shell lined with Figure 12.2 Box Type solar collector

SS reflector foil or
aluminized polyester
film
• Cooking vessel at
focal point
• Can generate 500 kg
of steam enough to
cook for 500 people 2
twice a day
 Solar Photo-voltaic generation

• PV cells made of silicon which

releases current when exposed
to light
• Silicon cell covered with metal
grid to direct current to a
battery
• Group of cells connected
together to from an array-1 cell
can produce 1.5 W
• Modules are design to produce
12 V and rated by peak output
at solar noon on a clear day
• Efficiency –upto 15%
• Adds-on -Tracking system and
backup system
Figure 12.6 Photovoltic water pumping
 Wind Energy
• Kinetic energy of wind to electrical energy
• Annual Energy Output = Power x Time
• Example: For a 100 kW turbine producing 20 kW at an
average wind speed of 15 mph, the calculation would be:
• 100 kW x .20 (CF) = 20 kW x 8760 hours = 175,200 kWh
• Capacity factor is wind turbine's actual energy output for
the year divided by the energy output if the machine
operated at its rated power output for the entire year.
• Reasonable capacity factor would be 0.25 to 0.30. (0.40
will be good)
• Economic viability of wind power projects is extremely
sensitive to the capacity factor and, there fore careful site
selection is very important
 Wind speed vs. power generation potential

Average Wind Speed

Suitability
km/h (mph)
Up to 15 (9.5) No good
18 (11.25) Poor
22 (13.75) Moderate
25 (15.5) Good
29 (18) Excellent
 Biomass Energy
• Carbonaceous waste from human and
natural activities
• Byproducts from wood industry, human and
animal waste, agricultural crops, forest
• Main advantage is use of same equipment
for combustion as fossil fuel
• Biomass use does not add to GHG
emissions Carbon dioxide
 Direct Burning vs Biogas route

Biogas – 60%
methane and
40% carbon
dioxide
Safe for cooking
and also produce
high grade
manure
 Biomass Briquetting

• Process of densifying loose agro-waste into a solidified

biomass of high density for fuel
• Pollution free and eco-friendly
• Some agricultural and forestry wastes can be briquetted
after suitable treatment
• Can replace conventional fuels
• JuteStick, Sawdust, Bagasse, CoffeeSpent, Tamarind,
CoffeeHusk, AlmondShell, Groundnutshells, CoirPith,
BagaseePith, Barleystraw, Tobaccodust, RiceHusk,
Deoiled Bran etc
 Biomass gasifers

• Conversion of solid Biomass (wood waste,

agricultural residues etc) into a combustible gas
mixture normally called producer gas.
• Producer gas is basically CO2, NH4,H2 and
Nitrogen gas with calorific value of aroudn 1200
kCal/kg – Gasification Efficiency ~ 60%
• Suitable for IC engines for producing power
• Use of gasification instead of direct burring leads
to 50% savings in fuel
• Used along with diesel in dual firing mode in DG
set (70-80% substitution possible)
 Bipower

• Direct-fired
• Cofiring
• Gasification
• Anaerobic digestion
• Pyrolysis
• Small modular.
 Energy potential by source

Solar Energy 20 MW / sq. km

Wind Energy 20,000 MW
Small Hydro 10,000 MW
Ocean Thermal Power 50,000 MW
Sea Wave Power 20,000 MW
Tidal Power 10,000 MW
Bio energy 17,000 MW
Draught Animal Power 30,000 MW
Energy from MSW 1,000 MW
Biogas Plants 12 Million Plants
Improved Wood Burning Stoves 120 Million Stoves
Bagasse-based cogeneration 3500 MW
Waste Minimisation &
Resource Conservation
 What is Waste ?
Waste is a useful Material in wrong form in wrong
place
Waste can be in form of:
9 Defective product
9 Air Emissions
9 Waste Water Discharges
9 Solid Wastes
9 Hazardous Wastes
9 Production Loss
9 Excess Energy
9 Excess Water consumption
9 Inefficient use of labour
9 Inefficient use of raw materials
9 Unusable/Discarded Chemical Residues
 Cost of Waste ?
Cost is not only disposal cost, but includes;
• Disposal cost
• Inefficient energy use cost
• Purchase cost of wasted raw material
• Production cost for the waste material
• Management time spent on waste material
• Lost revenue for what could have been a product instead of
waste
• Potential liabilities due to waste.
 What Is Waste Minimisation ?

“Systematically reducing waste at source “. This means

¾ Prevention and/or reduction of waste generated

¾ Efficient use of raw materials and packaging

¾ Efficient use of fuel, electricity and water

¾ Improving the quality of waste generated to facilitate

recycling and/or reduce hazard

¾ Encouraging re-use, recycling and recovery.

 Waste Minimiation also means..

z Waste reduction
z Pollution prevention
z Source reduction
z Cleaner technology
z Sustainable Production
 Waste and Possible Resources

Wastes Resources

Fly ash from power plant Raw material for cement or

brick manufacture
Bagasse wastes from sugar Fuel for boiler
manufature
CO2 release from ammonia Raw material for Urea
plant manufacture
 WASTE MINIMISATION TECHNIQUES

RECYCLING
SOURCE REDUCTION (ONSITE & OFFSITE)

PRODUCT CHANGES SOURCE USE AND REUSE RECLAMATION

- PRODUCT SUBSTITUTION CONTROL - RETURN TO ORIGINAL - PROCESSED FOR
- PRODUCT CONSERVATION PROCESS RESOURCE
- CHANGE IN PRODUCT - RAW MATERIAL SUBSTITUTE RECOVERY
COMPOSITION FOR ANOTHER PROCESS - PROCESSED AS A
BY PRODUCT

INPUT MATERIAL TECHNOLOGY GOOD OPERATING PRACTICE

CHANGES CHANGES
- MATERIAL PURIFICATION - PROCESS CHANGES
- MATERIAL SUBSTITUTION - EQUIPMENT, PIPING
-OR LAYOUT CHANGES
- ADDITIONAL AUTOMATION
- CHANGES IN OPERATIONAL
SETTINGS
- PROCEDURAL MEASURES
- LOSS PREVENTION
- WASTE STREAM SEGREGATION
- MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
- MATERIAL HANDLING
IMPROVEMENTS
- PRODUCTION SCHEDULING
 Source Reduction
Good Housekeeping
z Preventing leakages and spillages through routine and
preventive maintenance
z Good working instructions
z Good supervisions
z Effective training of workforce

Regular cleaning of cartridge filters, inspection of tank

linings & piping & periodic lubrication and greasing of
pumps & blowers
 PROCESS CHANGES

Input Material Change

z Substitution of input materials by eco-friendly
(non-toxic or less toxic than existing and
renewable) material preferably having longer
service time.

z Mercury and Cadmium free batteries

 PROCESS CHANGES

Better Process Control

z Modifications of the working procedures,
machine-operating instructions and process
record-keeping in order to run the processes at
higher efficiency and with lower waste generation
and emissions.

z Excess control in boilers

 PROCESS CHANGES

Equipment Modifications
z Modification of existing production equipment
and utilities, for instance by the addition of
measuring and controlling devices, in order to run
the processes at higher efficiency and lower waste
and emission generation rates.

z Conversion of existing boiler to FBC boiler

 PROCESS CHANGES

Technology Change
z Replacement of the technology, processing
sequence and/or synthesis route in order to
minimise waste and emission generation during
production.

z Replacement of mercury process to membrane

process in caustic soda manufacture
 Recycling
On-site Recovery and Reuse
z Reuse of wasted materials in the same process or
for another useful application within the industry

z Use of bagasse from crushed sugar cane as fuel in

boiler
 Recycling
Production of Useful by-product
Modification of the waste generation process in
order to transform the wasted material into a
material that can be reused or recycled for another
application within or outside the company.
 Examples
z Recover Short fibre in pulp-making and use of etp
sludge from paper board industry to make waste paper
boards

z Useof press mud from sugar mill and treated spent

wash from distillery to manufacture bio-compost

z Use of tanned leather pieces to make leather board or

leather bags
 Product Modification
Characteristics of the product can be modified to
minimize the environmental impacts of its
production or those of the product itself during or
after its use (disposal)

Jute bag instead of plastic bag

Electricity or solar driven vehicles in place of
petrol or diesel driven vehicles
 MATERIAL PURIFICATION

z Use of purer anodes

z Coal Beneficiation

z De-sulfurisation of fuel

z Un-leaded petrol

z Use of lime with less inerts

 WASTE AUDIT
AUDIT PREPARATION
Step 1 Prepare and organise audit team and resources
PHASE 1 Step 2 Divide process into unit operations
PREASSESSMENT Step 3 Construct process flow diagrams linking unit operation

PROCESS INPUTS PROCESS OUTPUTS

Step 4 Determine Inputs Step 7 Quantify products/by products
Step 5 Record water usage Step 8 Account for waste water
Step 6 Measure current levels Step 9 Account for gaseous emissions
of waste reuse/recycling Step 10 Account for off-site wastes

PHASE 2
MATERIAL DERIVE A MATERIAL BALANCE
Step 11 Assemble input and output information
BALANCE Step 12 Derive a preliminary material balance
Step 13 & 14 Evaluate and refine material balance

IDENTIFY WASTE REDUCTION OPTIONS

Step 15 Identify obvious waste reduction measures
Step 16 Target and characterise problem wastes
Step 17 Investigate the possibility of waste segregation
Step 18 Identify long-term waste reduction measures

EVALUATE WASTE REDUCTION OPTIONS

PHASE 3 Step 19 Undertake environmental and economic evaluation
SYNTHESIS of waste reduction options
List viable options

WASTE REDUCTION ACTION PLAN

Step 20 Design and implement a waste reduction action
action plan to achieve improved process efficiency
 TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF A MATERIAL BALANCE

RAW MATERIALS GASEOUS EMISSIONS

CATALYST PRODUCT
PLANT
PROCESS
WATER/AIR BY PRODUCTS
OR
INCLUDING WASTES
UNIT OPERATIONS
POWER FOR RECOVERY

WASTE WATER

RECYCLE LIQUID WASTES FOR

STORAGE AND OR
REUSABLE WASTE IN OFF-SITE DISPOSAL
ANOTHER OPERATION
SOLID WASTES FOR
STORAGE AND OR
OFF-SITE DISPOSAL
 TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF AN ENERGY BALANCE

COOLING WATER PRODUCTION LOSS

STEAM ENERGY IN
VAPOURS
ENERGY IN PROCESS OR
RAW MATERIAL UNIT OPERATIONS
ENERGY IN
ELECTRICITY HOT PRODUCT

CONDENSATE ENERGY IN
HOT RESIDUE

ENERGY IN
COOLING WATER
 ASSIGN COST TO WASTE STREAMS
To Highlight the quantity of resources lost in waste streams
along with their associated cost.

Cost of wastes include:

↔ Cost of raw materials in waste
↔ Cost of product in waste
↔ Cost of waste treatment
↔ Cost of waste disposal
↔ Cost of waste transportation
↔ Environmental liability costs (future)
↔ Cost of maintaining required work
environment
↔ Cost due to waste cess
 REVIEW OF PROCESS TO IDENTIFY
CAUSES FOR WASTE GENERATION

> Carry out a Cause Analysis to locate

& pin -point the causes of waste
generation

> It could be as simple as poor house

keeping practice to complex
technological problems
 TYPICAL CAUSES OF WASTE
TECHNICAL CAUSES
* Poor housekeeping
*Operational and maintenance negligence
*Poor raw material quality
*Poor Process / equipment design
*Poor Lay-out
•Bad Technology
MANAGERIAL CAUSES
•Inadequately trained personnel
•Employee De-motivation
 BENEFITS OF WASTE MINIMISATION
DIRECT BENEFITS
REDUCTION IN
¾ Raw Material Use
¾ Energy Use
¾ Waste Quantity
¾ Capital Costs of new Pollution Control Systems
¾ Waste Treatment Cost
¾ Clean-up costs
¾ Rejects

IMPROVEMENTS IN
™ Working Conditions
™ Safety Aspects
™ Environmental Performance
 INDIRECT BENEFITS

⇒ Better public image

⇒ Improved Staff Motivation

⇒ Improved Customer Loyalty

⇒ Improved Access to capital

⇒ Reduced Risk & Liability