U N I V E R S I T Y O F C E B U – M AI N

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

H I G H W A Y E N G I N E E R I N G

ROAD MATERIALS
Aggregates

In ASTM D8 (ASTM, 2003), aggregate is defined as “a granular material of mineral composition such as sand, gravel, shell,
slag or crushed stone, used with cementing medium to form mortars or concrete or alone as in base courses, railroad ballasts,
etc.”

- Aggregates comprises 60 to 80% of the total volume of concrete and 75 to 85% of the total Hot mix asphalt volume

General Classifications of Aggregates

1. Natural Aggregates - Natural aggregates are mined from river or glacial deposits. They are frequently referred to as
pit- or bank-run materials. Gravel and sand are examples of natural aggregates. Aggregates in their natural form tend
to be smooth and round.

2. Processed Aggregates - processed materials include gravel or stones that havebeen crushed, washed, screened, or
otherwise treated to enhance the performance of (Hot mixed asphalt concrete) HMAC. Processed materials tend to
be more angular and better graded

3. Synthetic Aggregates - Synthetic aggregates are not mined or quarried. Rather, they are manufactured through the
application of physical and/or chemical processes as either a principal product or aby-product. They are often used to
improve the skid resistance of HMAC. Blast furnace slag, lightweight expanded clay, shale or slate are examples of
synthetic aggregates.

Classification of Aggregates according to shape

1. Rounded Aggregate

The rounded aggregates are completely shaped by attrition and available in the form of seashore gravel. Rounded
aggregates result the minimum percentage of voids (32 – 33%) hence gives more workability. They require lesser amount
of water-cement ratio. They are not considered for high strength concrete because of poor interlocking behavior and weak
bond strength.

2. Irregular Aggregates

The irregular or partly rounded aggregates are partly shaped by attrition and these are available in the form of pit sands
and gravel. Irregular aggregates may result 35- 37% of voids. These will give lesser workability when compared to
rounded aggregates. The bond strength is slightly higher than rounded aggregates but not as required for high strength
concrete.

3. Angular Aggregates

The angular aggregates consist well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planar surfaces and these are
obtained by crushing the rocks. Angular aggregates result maximum percentage of voids (38-45%) hence gives less
workability. They give 10-20% more compressive strength due to development of stronger aggregate-mortar bond. So,
these are useful in high strength concrete manufacturing.

4. Flaky Aggregates

When the aggregate thickness is small when compared with width and length of that aggregate it is said to be flaky
aggregate. Or in the other, when the least dimension of aggregate is less than the 60% of its mean dimension then it is
said to be flaky aggregate.
 5. Elongated Aggregates

When the length of aggregate is larger than the other two dimensions then it is called elongated aggregate or the length of
aggregate is greater than 180% of its mean dimension.

6. Flaky and Elongated Aggregates

When the aggregate length is larger than its width and width is larger than its thickness then it is said to be flaky and
elongated aggregates. The above 3 types of aggregates are not suitable for concrete mixing. These are generally
obtained from the poorly crushed rocks.

Classification of Aggregates according to size

1. Coarse Aggregate

Coarse aggregate or gravel are aggregates retained on a 4.75 mm sieve (No. 4)

According to source, gravels may be classified as

- Uncrushed Gravel or Stone – it results from natural disintegration of rock

- Crushed Gravel or Stone – it results from crushing of gravel or hard stone.
- Partially Crushed Gravel or Stone – it is a product of the blending of the above two aggregate.

2. Fine Aggregate

fine aggregates or sand are aggregates passing the 4.75 mm sieve but retained on 75 μm sieve (No. 200)

According to source, gravels may be classified as

- Natural Sand – it is the aggregate resulting from the natural disintegration of rock and which has been deposited by
streams or glacial agencies
- Crushed Stone Sand – it is the fine aggregate produced by crushing hard stone.
- Crushed Gravel Sand – it is the fine aggregate produced by crushing natural gravel.

In order to decide the suitability of the aggregate for use in pavement construction, following tests are carried out:

1. Crushing test - One of the model in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under compressive stress. The
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied crushing load.

2. Abrasion test - Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to decide whether they are
suitable for different pavement construction works.

3. Impact test - The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of aggregates.

4. Soundness test - Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering action, by conducting
accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates subjected to freezing and thawing is likely to disintegrate
prematurely. To ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated soundness test

5. Shape test - The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky and elongated particles
in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are detrimental to higher workability and stability of mixes. All aggregate
classifications according to shape are mentioned above.

6. Specific gravity and water absorption test - The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important
properties that are required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific gravity of a solid is the ratio
of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled water at a specified temperature.

7. Bitumen adhesion test - Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are dry and free
from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion problem of bituminous construction.
 Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can be dealt with by removing moisture
from the aggregate by drying and increasing the mixing temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of
binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs when bitumen mixture is permeable to water.

Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of bitumen binder to an aggregate in the
presence of water. Static immersion test is one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test is by
immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at 400C temperature for 24 hours.

Asphalt pavement

Asphalt pavements consist of selected mineral aggregates bound together by a bituminous binder. Asphalt includes a
multitude of different pavement types, ranging from thin surface dressings to thick layers of asphalt concrete.

Bitumen

Bitumen (called ‘asphalt cement in the United States) is a black to dark brown sticky material, composed principally of high
molecular-weight hydrocarbons. Bitumen is a thermoplastic material that gradually softens, and eventually liquefies when
heated. Bitumen is characterized by its consistency at certain temperatures. The consistency is measured by a penetration
test, a softening point test and a viscosity test. More recently developed characterization methods use a ‘complex modulus at
different temperatures.

Types of Bitumen

1. Cutback Bitumen - Cutback bitumen is produced with different rates of curing (hardening) and different degrees of
viscosity. The rate of curing is controlled by the volatility of the solvent used. The viscosity depends principally on the
proportion of solvent to bitumen. The more viscous grades require heating to make them fluid enough for use.
Cutbacks are popular because of their ease of handling and application – they tend to be ‘forgiving’ of poor
workmanship. However, their use is decreasing because of safety concerns (flammability) and for environmental
reasons related to the evaporation of hydrocarbons into the atmosphere. Their role is being taken over by emulsions.

2. Emulsified Bitumen - In the emulsification process, hot bitumen is divided into minute globules and dispersed in
water. The machine used in this process is called a colloid mill. An emulsifying agent is added to the water to assist
the emulsification and discourage coagulation of the bitumen globules. The emulsifying agent provides the bitumen
globules with electrical surface charges that prevent the small particles from coalescing. If the charges are negative,
the emulsion is called ‘anionic’. If the charges are positive, the emulsion is called ‘cationic’. Emulsions may require a
small amount of heating to make them fluid enough for use. When emulsified bitumen is sprayed onto a road surface
or mixed with aggregate, the bitumen separates from the water. This is either through evaporation of the water
(anionic emulsions) and/or neutralization of the electric charges (cationic emulsions). The manner and rate at which
the emulsion breaks, or sets, depends largely on the properties of the emulsifying agent and the relative proportions
of bitumen and water. Both anionic and cationic emulsions are manufactured in several grades. BS distinguishes
between ‘rapid’, ‘medium’ and ‘slow breaking’types of emulsified bitumen. AASHTO uses the terms ‘rapid’, ‘medium’
and ‘slow setting’. Rapid and medium setting emulsions are generally of a cationic nature. They are used in surface
dressings because the contact with the stone initiates breaking and shortens the time for the road to be opened to
traffic. Slow setting emulsions are generally anionic and are used in asphalt mixes as they allow more homogeneous
mixing with the aggregate before setting.

3. Modified Bitumen - The addition of polymers can make the bitumen more resistant to loading and/or less susceptible
to temperature variations. In addition, some polymers will improve adhesion of the bitumen to the stones, particularly
in the wet, and improve the resistance to cracking. However, not all polymers and all bitumens are compatible, in the
sense that they will form a homogeneous dispersion and are stable during storage. Polymer-modified bitumens are
considerably more expensive than conventional bitumens. Their use is only justified where traffic loading is heavy, or
where other severe conditions exist, and where their use results in lower road maintenance requirements

Asphalt concrete pavement

Asphalt concrete (commonly called asphalt, blacktop, or pavement in North America, and tarmac,bitumen macadam or rolled
asphalt in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland) is a composite material commonly used to surface roads, parking
lots, airports, as well as the core of embankment dams.
Bituminous Pavement Failure

Pavement failure occurs when an asphalt surface no longer holds its original shape and develops material stress which
causes issues.

Pavement failure issues

1. Alligator Cracking

Alligator cracking is a load associated structural failure. The failure can be due to weakness in the surface, base or sub
grade; a surface or base that is too thin; poor drainage or the combination of all three. It often starts in the wheel path as
longitudinal cracking and ends up as alligator cracking after severe distress.

2. Block Cracking

Block cracks look like large interconnected rectangles (roughly). Block cracking is not load-associated, but generally
caused by shrinkage of the asphalt pavement due to an inability of asphalt binder to expand and contract with
temperature cycles. This can be because the mix was mixed and placed too dry; Fine aggregate mix with low penetration
asphalt & absorptive aggregates; poor choice of asphalt binder in the mix design; or aging dried out asphalt.

3. Longitudinal (Linear) Cracking

Longitudinal cracking are cracks that are parallel to the pavements centerline or laydown direction. These can be a result
of both pavement fatigue, reflective cracking, and/or poor joint construction. Joints are generally the least dense areas of
a pavement

4. Transverse Cracking

Transverse cracks are single cracks perpendicular to the pavement's centerline or laydown direction. Transverse cracks
can be caused by reflective cracks from an underlying layer, daily temperature cycles, and poor construction due to
improper operation of the paver.

5. Edge Cracks

Edge Cracks travel along the inside edge of a pavement surface within one or two feet. The most common cause for this
type of crack is poor drainage conditions and lack of support at the pavement edge. As a result underlying base materials
settle and become weakened. Heavy vegetation along the pavement edge and heavy traffic can also be the instigator of
edge cracking.

6. Joint Reflection Cracks

These are cracks in a flexible pavement overlay of a rigid pavement (i.e., asphalt over concrete). They occur directly over
the underlying rigid pavement joints. Joint reflection cracking does not include reflection cracks that occur away from an
underlying joint or from any other type of base (e.g., cement or lime stabilized).

7. Slippage Cracks

Slippage cracks are crescent-shaped cracks or tears in the surface layer(s) of asphalt where the new material has slipped
over the underlying course. This problem is caused by a lack of bonding between layers. This is often because a tack coat
was not used to develop a bond between the asphalt layers or because a prime coat was not used to bond the asphalt to
the underlying stone base course. The lack of bond can be also caused by dirt, oil, or other contaminants preventing
adhesion between the layers.

8. Pot Holes

Small, bowl-shaped depressions in the pavement surface that penetrate all the way through the asphalt layer down to the
base course. They generally have sharp edges and vertical sides near the top of the hole. Potholes are the result of
moisture infiltration and usually the end result of untreated alligator cracking. As alligator cracking becomes severe, the
interconnected cracks create small chunks of pavement, which can be dislodged as vehicles drive over them. The
remaining hole after the pavement chunk is dislodged is called a pothole.
 9. Depressions (bird baths)

Depressions are localized pavement surface areas with slightly lower elevations than the surrounding pavement.
Depressions are very noticeable after a rain when they fill with water.

10. Rutting

Ruts in asphalt pavements are channelized depressions in the wheel-tracks. Rutting results from consolidation or lateral
movement of any of the pavement layers or the subgrade under traffic. It is caused by insufficient pavement thickness;
lack of compaction of the asphalt, stone base or soil; weak asphalt mixes; or moisture infiltration.

11. Shoving

Shoving is the formation of ripples across a pavement. This characteristic shape is why this type of distress is sometimes
called wash-boarding. Shoving occurs at locations having severe horizontal stresses, such as intersections. It is typically
caused by: excess asphalt; too much fine aggregate; rounded aggregate; too soft an asphalt; or a weak granular base.

12. Upheaval

Upheaval is a localized upward movement in a pavement due to swelling of the subgrade. This can be due to expansive
soils that swell due to moisture or frost heave (ice under the pavement).

13. Raveling (very porous asphalt)

Raveling is the on-going separation of aggregate particles in a pavement from the surface downward or from the edges
inward. Usually, the fine aggregate wears away first and then leaves little "pock marks" on the pavement surface. As the
erosion continues, larger and larger particles are broken free and the pavement soon has the rough and jagged
appearance typical of surface erosion.

Aggregates for bituminous concrete

1. Asphalt Concrete is composite material commonly used in construction projects such as road surfaces, airport and
parking lots. It consist of asphalt (such as bitumen) and mineral aggregate mixed together

2. Hot Mix Asphalt (commonly abbreviated as HMAC or HMA) is produced by heating asphalt binder decrease is
viscosity, and dying the aggregate to remove moisture from it prior to mixing

3. Warm Mix Asphalt Concrete (commonly abbreviated as WMA) is produced by adding either zeo-lites waxes, asphalt
emulsions, or sometimes even water to the asphalt binder prior to mixing

4. Cold Mix Asphalt concrete is produced by emulsifying the asphalt in water (essentially) soap prior to mixing
aggregates .

5. Cut-back asphalt concrete is produced by dissolving binder in kerosene or another lighter fraction of petroleum prior
to mixing with aggregate.

Prime coat, tack coat and seal coat

Prime coat - is an application of a low viscosity asphalt to a granular base in preparation for an initial layer (or surface course
layer) of asphalt.

Tack coat - a thin coating of tar or asphalt applied before a road is paved to form an adhesive bond.

Seal coat - is a mixture of emulsified asphalt, water, mineral fillers, and various other mixtures. Seal coats are applied directly
to the surface of an asphalt pavement. It can be applied by rubber squeegee, broom, or mechanical spray.
Geoplastic fabrics

Geotextiles are a kind of geosynthetic material that has become more and more popular over the past fifteen years. The
material owes its success in more than 80 applications to a large extent to its resistance to biodegradation. Geotextiles are
indeed textiles, however not in the traditional sense of the word. They are no natural materials like cotton, wool or silk.
Geotextiles are synthetic fibers that can be made into a flexible, porous, nonwoven needlefelt fabric. They are porous to water
flow, to a varying degree.

They can be applied in at least five different ways:

1. Separation - Geotextiles will prevent two soil layers of different particle sizes from mixing with each other, as is illustrated
the image below.

2. Drainage - Geotextiles will efficiently collect superfluous water from structures, such as rainwater or surplus water, from the
soil and discharge it.

3. Filtration - Geotextiles are an ideal interface for reverse filtration in the soil adjacent to the geotextile. In all soils water allows
fine particles to be moved. Part of these particles will be halted at the filter interface; some will be halted within the filter itself
while the rest will pass into the drain. The complex needle-punched structure of the geotextile enables the retention of fine
particles without reducing the permeability of the drain.

4. Reinforcement - Heavy geotextiles can be used to reinforce earth structures by means of fill materials. Thanks to their high
soil fabric friction coefficient and high tensile strength, they are an ideal reinforcement solution.

5. Protection - Geotextiles are an ideal protection from erosion of earth embankments by wave action, currents or repeated
drawdown. A layer of geotextiles can be placed so as to prevent leaching of fine material. They can be used for rock beaching
or as mattress structures. They can even easily be placed under water.