Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325

www.elsevier.com/locate/foodqual

The taste of calcium and magnesium salts and anionic modifications

Harry T. Lawless*, Frank Rapacki, John Horne, April Hayes
Department of Food Science, Stocking Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA

Abstract
Taste properties of divalent salts are complex. The first study examined the taste profiles of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride
and magnesium sulfate. These divalent cation salts were characterized primarily by bitter taste, with additional sensations described
as salty, metallic, astringent, sour and sweet, generally in decreasing order of intensity. A second study examined the taste proper-
ties of calcium salts other than chloride. Calcium gluconate, calcium glycerophosphate and calcium lactate had lower salty and
bitter responses than equimolar concentrations of calcium chloride, an effect suggesting anionic inhibition.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Calcium; Magnesium; Taste; Bitterness; Inhibition

1. Introduction Halpern, and Desimone (1999) pointed out that

Calcium fortification is an increasingly common
practice that is used to add nutritive value to many
foods and beverages. Insufficient consumption of diet-
ary calcium can contribute to risks for calcium defi-
ciency and osteoporosis, a condition affecting 20–30
million Americans and a major cause of bone fractures
among the elderly (Williams, 1999). Calcium addition
has provided a market niche for food and beverage
products in keeping with the recent trend to produce
multi-functional and nutritionally fortified food (Sloan
& Stiedman, 1996). According to FDA regulations, a
fortifying agent can be added to foods if it is used to
correct a dietary insufficiency recognized by the scien-
tific community that results in a nutritional deficiency
disease. Based on that interpretation, the food industry
is producing breakfast cereals, powered drink mixes and
waters fortified with calcium to help the consumer
achieve intakes consistent with recognized nutritional
requirements and aimed at preventing osteoporosis
(Weaver, 1998). In spite of these widespread applica-
tions, little has been published in the psychophysical
literature on the taste properties of calcium salts or
other multivalent ionic compounds in simple aqueous
solutions (Tordoff, 1996).
The general consensus about the tastes of divalent
salts is that they are complex. For example, Delwiche,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-607-255-7363; fax: +1-607-254-
4868.
E-mail address: htl1@cornell.edu (H.T. Lawless).
0950-3293/03/$ - see front matter # 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S0950-3293(02)00128-3
MgSO4, which has been used at times as a bitter taste
stimulus, has bitter, salty and sour tastes. Schiffman and
Erickson (1971) classified calcium and magnesium chlo-
ride as bitter-salty based upon their position in multi-
dimensional scaling space. Monovalent halides also
stimulate multiple taste qualities and the general pat-
terns are much better understood. In 1981, Murphy,
Cardello, and Brand published a landmark study that
systematically examined the two important columns of
the periodic table for monovalent salts. The taste prop-
erties of 15 monovalent halides, including the chloride,
bromide and iodide salts of lithium, sodium, potassium,
rubidium and cesium were profiled. As the atomic
weight of the anion or cation increased, bitter and sour
tastes increased and came to predominate over saltiness
(only sodium chloride and lithium chloride were
primarily salty).
A similar systematic evaluation of the tastes of multi-
valent salts is lacking, although they have been used
sporadically in taste research including studies of the
metallic taste of iron sulfate (e.g. Hettinger, Myers, &
Frank, 1990) and the use of magnesium sulfate (Del-
wiche, Butelic, & Breslin, 2000; Keast & Breslin, 2002;
McBurney, Smith, & Shick, 1972; Yokomukai, Cowart,
& Beauchamp, 1993) and magnesium chloride (Schiff-
man & Erickson, 1971) as bitter taste stimuli . Recently,
psychophysical characterization of calcium salts was
carried out by Tordoff (1996). He found thresholds for
chloride, lactate, hydroxide, phosphate and gluconate
salts to be in the range of 8–50 mM. Calcium chloride
was characterized as bitter, sour and sweet at 1 mM but
320 H.T. Lawless et al. / Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325
bitter, salty and sour at 100 mM. The purpose of
Experiment 1 was to extend those results to include
additional concentrations, to report intensity scaling of
all sensory attributes (not just the four classical taste
qualities), and to provide a comparison of magnesium
and calcium salts. Calcium was of interest because of its
use in nutritional fortification. Unfortunately, a direct
comparison of the taste properties of magnesium sulfate
to calcium sulfate proved difficult due to the solubility
limitations of calcium sulfate (Rapacki, 2001). There-
fore, calcium chloride was examined, as well as
magnesium chloride.
As shown by Murphy et al. (1981), the anion has an
effect on the taste properties of a salt. If it did not,
sodium chloride, bromide and iodide would all taste the
same, but they are perceptually different. Calcium is
added to foods as the cation in divalent salts with var-
ious anions. The idea that anions play an important role
in the perception of salts has been supported by studies
that show large organic anions prevent calcium from
acting on receptor sites in rats (Nakamura & Kurihara,
1991). Recent work from Desimone and colleagues in
physiological recordings from rat chorda tympani and
voltage clamping studies have helped explain decre-
ments in saltiness when anions other than chloride are
present (Ye, Heck, & Desimone, 1991, 1993). The dif-
fusion of larger anions across tight junctions and into
basolateral areas of taste receptor cell channels is lim-
ited, therefore salts with larger anions are less effective
stimuli. Delwiche et al. (1999) provided psychophysical
parallels in humans to these observations. Even when
the anions are not present in the stimulated area, they
may exert an inhibitory effect. Miller (1971) showed a
dramatic inhibition of response of a single fungiform
papilla to NaCl when the surrounding area was stimu-
lated with potassium benzoate. This converged with
earlier observations by Beidler that benzoate was largely
inhibitory. Tordoff (1996) also reported that calcium
lactate solutions were rated less bitter than equimolar
calcium chloride solutions. The purpose of Experiment
2 was to examine the taste properties of calcium salts
with different anions that are used in food products
(lactate, gluconate and gylcerophosphate).
2. Perception of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride
and magnesium sulfate
The purpose of Experiment 1 was to provide infor-
mation on the taste properties of salts of two common
and physiologically important elements, calcium and
magnesium. We had initially intended to complete a
factorial design of the chloride and sulfate salts of both
calcium and magnesium. A preliminary study used these
stimuli (Rapacki, 2001) but sensations in the con-
centration ranges selected (0.01 M or less) were only
weak on the labeled magnitude scale. Concentrations
were raised for this study to provide a clearer sensory
impressions. However, calcium sulfate was not soluble
above the second concentration step and was therefore
omitted.
2.1. Methods
Twenty-eight healthy subjects (11 female) with no
reported taste or smell problems from the Cornell Uni-
versity community in Ithaca, NY volunteered to parti-
cipate and completed this study. Informed consent was
given. Subjects were paid at the conclusion.
During orientation, panelists were given reference
samples of 0.15 M sucrose for sweetness, 0.32 M NaCl
for saltiness, 0.19 M citric acid for sourness, 0.00009 M
quinine HCl for bitterness, 0.009 M monosodium glu-
tamate for umami, and 0.002 M aluminum ammonium
sulfate for astringency. A sanitized copper penny was
used as a metallic reference. Panelists were instructed
that the ‘other’ category was to be used for oral sensa-
tions that did not fit into any of the other categories, for
example ‘irritation’. The experimental samples consisted
of calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, and magne-
sium sulfate, each prepared at concentrations of 0.01,
0.018, 0.032, 0.056, and 0.1M in deionized water (15 ml,
22 C) and labeled with three-digit random codes.
Panelists were required to complete a training session
and two experimental sessions. Vocabulary was based
on preliminary work with lower concentrations of cal-
cium and magnesium salts (Rapacki, 2001). Sensations
of sweetness, saltiness, sourness, bitterness, metallic
taste, umami, astringency and ‘other’ tastes were
described to panelists using examples as follows: sugar
for sweetness, table salt for saltiness, lemons for sour-
ness, black coffee for bitterness, placing a penny in the
mouth for metallic, red wine for astringent, and irrita-
tion from hot salsa as an example of ‘other’. Panelists
were then given the reference samples in random order
(15 ml at 22  C). Panelists rinsed with each solution for
5 s, expectorated, and described the oral sensation.
Panelists then placed a sanitized copper penny into their
mouth to familiarize themselves with metallic taste.
Panelists were allowed to rinse with Chemung Spring
water between all training samples. Finally, panelists
were asked to verbally describe ‘irritation’ in the mouth
and instructed that any sensations detected in the
experimental samples that cannot be sufficiently descri-
bed by one of the seven defined categories, should be
rated in the category labeled ‘other’.
Magnesium salt samples (12 total) were examined in
first experimental session and were balanced so half of
the panelists tested the magnesium sulfate set first, and
half the magnesium chloride set first. Calcium salt sam-
ples (6 total) were tasted in the second experimental
session. Panelists were instructed to swish each of the
 H.T. Lawless et al. / Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325
samples in the mouth for 15 s, expectorate, and then
rate the sample on eight attributes—sweetness, saltiness,
sourness, bitterness, metallic, astringent, umami, and
other—using a horizontal labeled magnitude scale
(Green, Shaffer, & Gilmore, 1993). Between each sam-
ple panelists were required to rinse with deionized
water, and eat a cracker if desired. All panelists received
15 ml of each sample and all samples were served at
room temperature, approximately 22  C. Sessions took
place on separate days. Data were collected using
Compusense 5 (Guelph, Ontario, Canada) along with
information regarding gender and age. Descriptive sta-
tistics were collected and a three-way repeated measures
ANOVA was performed with chemical and concentra-
tion as within subject factors using Statistica v.5.1
(Statsoft, Inc. Tulsa, OK). Statistics reported below are
significant at P < 0.05 unless stated otherwise.
2.2. Results and discussion
The predominant taste sensations were saltiness and
bitterness and both increased with concentration
[F(4,108)=10.2 for salty and 40.5 for bitter] as shown in
Fig. 1. Saltiness showed a concentration by substance
interaction as calcium chloride increased, while the
magnesium salts remained at a low but perceivable
intensity [interaction F(8, 216)=8.2]. Bitterness differed
Fig. 1. Taste intensity of calcium and magnesium chloride and mag-
nesium sulfate across concentrations for bitter and salty qualities.
321
[F(2,54)=11.2]; magnesium chloride and calcium
chloride were more bitter than magnesium sulfate
(Duncan tests).
The less salient taste properties are shown in
Fig. 2. Sweetness decreased with concentration
[F(4,108)=3.95] possibly due to intramolecular ‘mixture
suppression’ as the bitter tastes became more promi-
nent. Murphy et al. (1981) were able to show mixture
suppression by various taste qualities of monovalent
halide salts, and demonstrate release of mixture sup-
pression through cross adaptation for ionic salts. For
example, an increase in sweetness for sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, rubidium chloride, cesium chloride,
potassium bromide, and rubidium bromide occurred
after exposure to sodium chloride. The other more
intense tastes of these divalent salts may be suppressing
a low level intrinsic sweet taste (Bartoshuk, Murphy, &
Cleveland, 1978). Umami ratings increased with con-
centration but appeared to plateau [F(4,108)=3.73] and
there were slight differences among compounds
[F(2,54)=6.51] with calcium chloride being the most
umami at these concentrations. No differences among
the compounds or concentrations were noted for the
other taste qualities (sour, metallic, other).
3. Effects of organic anions on the taste of calcium
salts
In examining the calcium content of various fortified
foods, we determined that calcium was often added to
foods as the salt of organic anions such as lactate or
gluconate. Given the predominance of bitter taste of
CaCl2 noted in Experiment 1 and the tendency of some
anions to inhibit tastes associated with chloride salts,
Experiment 2 was conducted to examine anion effects.
Tordoff (1996) had noted lower bitterness of calcium
lactate solutions compared with equivalent levels of
calcium chloride. Concentrations were raised to exam-
ine a wider range of calcium tastes. Magnesium salts
were not included in this study due to an overall focus
of the experimental program on the properties of calcium.
3.1. Methods
Two groups were tested. In Group 1, 25 healthy adult
subjects (eight male) with no self-reported problems in
taste or smell from the Cornell University community in
Ithaca, NY volunteered to participate. In Group 2, 17
healthy adult subjects (eight female) were tested.
Informed consent was given. Subjects were paid a token
incentive at the conclusion of the study.
Panelists were given solutions of reference samples to
taste as described in Experiment 1. A sanitized copper
penny was used as a metallic reference. Panelists were
instructed that irritation meant sensations similar to hot
322 H.T. Lawless et al. / Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325
Fig. 2. Taste intensity of calcium and magnesium chloride and magnesium sulfate across concentrations for sour, metallic, sweet and umami qualities.
salsa, hot peppers or Tabasco. Group 1 panelists tasted
calcium chloride and calcium lactate solutions at 0.01,
0.03, 0.1 and 0.3 M. Group 2 panelists tasted 0.03 and
0.06 M solutions of calcium gluconate, calcium glycer-
ophosphate, and calcium chloride. Concentrations were
chosen to produce a perceivable taste of intermediate
intensity and be within solubility limitations. Solutions
were prepared using deionized water as the diluent.
Attributes were determined by benchtop screening
and in reference to previous work (Rapacki, 2001).
Group 1 used the attribute ‘astringency’ to refer to oral
tactile sensations. After further data were gathered in
other mixture studies (Rapacki, 2001), panelist con-
sensus indicated that the tactile sensation from CaCl2
was better described as slightly irritative rather than
astringent (drying) and so irritation replaced the astrin-
gent scale for Group 2. Oral sensations of saltiness, bit-
terness, metallic taste, sourness, and irritation were
described to panelists using examples as follows: lemons
for sourness, table salt for saltiness, black coffee for
bitterness, placing a penny in your mouth for metallic,
and hot salsa as an example of irritation. Panelists were
then given reference samples, 15 ml at 22  C, in random
order. Panelists were asked to rinse with all 15 ml of the
reference solution for 5 s, expectorate, and verbally
describe the oral sensation. Panelists placed a sanitized
copper penny in the mouth to familiarize themselves
with metallic taste. Panelists were allowed to rinse with
Chemung Spring water between all training samples.
Finally, panelists were asked to verbally describe ‘irri-
tation’ in the mouth to insure that they understood the
concept.
In the first experimental session, panelists were pre-
sented with eight samples (15 ml, 22  C) labelled with
three digit blinding codes. Presentation order was ran-
domized. Panelists were instructed to swish each of the
samples in the mouth for 15 s, expectorate, and then
rate each sample using a horizontal labeled magnitude
scale (Green et al., 1993). Between each sample panelists
were required to rinse with deionized water for 30 s, and
eat a cracker if desired. The second experimental session
replicated the first on a separate day.
Data were collected using Compusense 5 (Guelph,
Ontario, Canada). Descriptive statistics were collected
and repeated measures ANOVAs were performed with
replicates, type of anion, and concentration as within
subject factors (Statistica v.5.1, Statsoft, Inc. Tulsa,
OK). All statistics reported below were significant at
P < 0.05 unless stated otherwise.
3.2. Results and discussion
Calcium lactate solutions were less intense than cal-
cium chloride across all attributes but sweetness. Fig. 3
shows the mean intensity ratings for calcium chloride
and lactate across concentrations. Calcium chloride
samples were judged more metallic, sour and astringent
than calcium lactate across concentrations
[F(1,24)=4.64, 4.72 and 3.56 (P < 0.07)]. Decrements for
the more salient characteristics of bitterness and salti-
ness were even more pronounced and the size of the
difference increased with concentration as shown by a
concentration by anion interaction, F(3,72)=5.84 for
bitter and 17.29 for salty. Calcium lactate was judged
 H.T. Lawless et al. / Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325
slightly sweeter than calcium chloride across concentra-
tions [F(1,24=6.32)], but intensities were very low, less
than five (data not shown).
Calcium glycerophosphate and gluconate were less
intense than calcium chloride across all attributes but
metallic. Fig. 4 shows the mean intensity ratings for
calcium chloride, glycerophosphate and gluconate at
0.03 and 0.06 M. Calcium chloride was judged more
bitter, salty, sour and irritative than the other two cal-
cium salts [F(2,32)=20.71, 55.84, 7.57 and 19.95,
respectively]. For saltiness and irritation, the differences
among salts were greater at the 0.06 M concentration
than the 0.03M concentration [interaction
F(2,32)=26.07 and 8.47, respectively].
In comparison to the first experiment, these higher
concentrations of calcium chloride appeared to have a
tactile component, labeled as astringent by Group 1 but
reclassified as a kind of irritation by Group 2. In general
the sensations from these salts are complex and some-
what difficult to characterize. Further work needs to
address the qualitative aspects divalent salts and whe-
ther they possess unique sensation qualities that were
not well-captured by the vocabulary imposed here.
Fig. 3. Bitter and sour taste intensity ratings of calcium chloride and
calcium lactate (upper panel). Metallic astringent and salty ratings
(lower panel). Filled symbols: chlorides. Open symbols: lactates.
323
4. General discussion
Calcium is a physiologically critical nutrient for
humans. Calcium is consumed through food, beverages,
or supplements, and is lost in urine, sweat, feces and
milk. Approximately 99% of calcium is stored in the
skeleton, but it is also important in nerve and muscle
contraction, blood clotting and membrane permeability.
Calcium is absorbed in the bones until approximately
the mid-30s and the highest levels of calcium absorption
occur during adolescence and pregnancy (Whitney &
Rolfes, 1999). Levels of calcium in the blood are tightly
regulated in humans. When blood calcium levels fall,
calcium is taken from bone and reabsorbed into the
bloodstream. Calcium balance can be affected by a
variety of factors including growth, pregnancy, age,
lactation, menopause, vitamin D status, dietary protein,
dietary sodium, exercise and smoking (Insel, Turner, &
Ross, 2001). Understanding the taste properties of cal-
cium salts may aid in the development of fortified foods
with greater consumer acceptance. That idea prompted
our study insofar as the literature on taste properties of
calcium and other divalent salts was sparse, with the
exceptions of MgSO4 (used as a bitter tastant) and the
psychophysical characterization of calcium salts by
Tordoff (1996). Our findings are largely consistent with
those of Tordoff regarding the taste qualities of calcium
salts and the observation of anionic inhibition.
Although calcium salts may have unpleasant taste
properties in solution, it is difficult to predict their
Fig. 4. Tastes of calcium chloride, calcium glycerophosphate and
calcium gluconate.
324 H.T. Lawless et al. / Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325
contribution to the overall flavor of foods. Mixture
suppression (Bartoshuk, 1975; Lawless, 1986) from the
other tastes present in a food is likely to decrease or
partially mask the tastes contributed by calcium salts
added to a food. Previous studies on bitterness masking
by sodium chloride and sodium gluconate show little
masking of MgSO4 bitterness by sodium salts, in con-
trast to other bitter tastants which are effectively sup-
pressed by sodium ions (Breslin & Beauchamp, 1995;
Keast & Breslin, 2002). Whether these patterns of sup-
pression are also true of calcium chloride are unknown.
Studies of mixture effects in simple systems with mono-
gustatory tastants such as sucrose, NaCl and citric acid
added to calcium chloride would be informative (Law-
less, Rapacki, Horne, Hayes, & Wang, submitted for
publication).
Evidence in the present study for suppression of tastes
by the anion is consistent with the previous observations
of Tordoff (1996). The suppression of bitterness has
potential functional value since bitterness is usually
(although not universally) objectionable in foods. The
mechanisms for the anion effects are not clear at this
time. Relevant observations include the effect of large
organic anions preventing calcium from acting on
receptor sites (Nakamura & Kurihara, 1991). The
inability of larger anions to diffuse across paracellular
junctions and into basolateral areas of taste receptor cell
causes decrements in salt response (Delwiche et al.,
1999; Ye et al., 1991, 1993). Whether a similar mechan-
ism could affect bitter taste is unclear. A mechanism for
bitterness suppression was noted by Ming, Ninomiya,
and Margolskee (1999) who found AMP and some clo-
sely related analogues to block the taste receptor acti-
vation of gustducin. Given the rather narrow range of
AMP analogues that showed such activity, the exten-
sion of this finding to the range chemically diverse
organic anions used in the present study would make
that an unlikely mechanism.
The influence of genetic mechanisms on bitter taste is
well known. The dimorphism associated with phe-
nylthiocarbamide (PTC) and propylthiouracil (PROP, a
thyroid medication) predicts to a greater or lesser degree
responses to many other bitter substances. That is, per-
sons sensitive to the bitterness of PROP, and especially
those with very high sensitivity—the so-called ‘super-
tasters’—are more likely to be responsive to the bitter-
ness of other chemically unrelated substances such as
caffeine and saccharin (Bartoshuk, 2000). They also
may be more responsive to some sweeteners (Gent &
Bartoshuk, 1983). However, Delwiche et al. (2000) have
argued that this is a general sensitivity difference, per-
haps due to the larger number of taste buds present in
PROP supertasters (Bartoshuk, Duffy, & Miller, 1994).
At this time it is unclear as to whether the PROP taster
effect also predicts the bitterness of divalent cation salts.
Delwiche et al. (2000) reported only a weak positive
correlation between PROP ratings and MgSO4.
McBurney et al. (1972) found cross adaptation of urea
and MgSO4, consistent with ratings differences for urea-
sensitive (vs. quinine sensitive) individuals for MgSO4
(Yokomukai et al. 1993). However, Keast and Breslin
(2002) concluded that MgSO4 was an outlier in their
study that included urea, i.e. that urea and MgSO4 had
unrelated patterns of sensitivity across persons. The
nature and relationships among bitter mechanisms and
overlapping patterns of responsiveness and sensitivity to
divalent cation salts are worthy of further study.
One quality reported for these salts is metallic taste.
Metallic taste is generally associated with stimulation by
ferrous sulfate (FeSO4). Hettinger et al. (1990) showed
that qualitative reports of metallic taste decreased when
the sample was tasted with the nose occluded, indicating
that the metallic taste was primarily a retronasal smell.
Recent work in our laboratory confirms this observa-
tion for ferrous sulfate (Lawless, Schlake, & Smythe,
2002), but not for copper sulfate in which a residual
metallic taste was reported even with nasal occlusion.
The potential effects of retronasal smell sensations and
their confusion with true taste sensations indicates that
future evaluations should be conducted with the nose
closed to eliminate or minimize such influences. It is
unclear whether metallic tastes associated with all mul-
tivalent salts are olfactory sensations. Metals such as
iron and copper are strong catalysts for oxidation a give
rise to a number of organic products with olfactory
potency, a well-known quality problem in food proces-
sing (Bodyfelt, Tobias, & Trout, 1988). Whether cal-
cium or magnesium is acting in a similar way is not
clear. Another question concerning metallic taste is
whether this is an appropriate and accurate word to
describe these sensations. Schlake (2001) found that
only 7 of 25 subjects used the word ‘metallic’ to describe
the taste of ferrous sulfate when given an open ended
question. However, about 70% of subjects rated FeSO4
as metallic when provided a rating scale with that label.
Further work is needed concerning the semantic aspects
of these complex tastes. Potential methods include qua-
litative group interviews (Lawless & Corrigan, 1994)
and multivariate statistical approaches such as multi-
dimensional scaling (Schiffman, 1974; Schiffman &
Erickson, 1971).
5. Conclusions
The salts of divalent cations such as calcium and
magnesium are characterized primarily by bitter and
salty tastes, and to a lesser extent by other basic tastes
and metallic, astringent and irritative sensations. The
tastes associated with calcium chloride are largely sup-
pressed when calcium is combined with larger organic
ions such as lactate, gluconate or glycerophosphate.
 H.T. Lawless et al. / Food Quality and Preference 14 (2003) 319–325
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