Minimum Learning Programme

Atoms and Nuclei

Gist of unit:
1. Alpha particle scattering experiment:
a) Observations :–
i) Most of the fast moving alpha particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.
ii) A very small number of the alpha particles suffered large angle deflections.
iii) some of them were deflected by 1800.

b) Conclusions :–
i) Atom is hollow
ii) Entire positive charge and nearly whole mass of atom is concentrated in a small centre
called nucleus of atom.
iii) The negatively charged are outside the nucleus
c) Impact parameter – The perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector of alpha
particle from the nucleus , when the particle is far away from the nucleus is called the impact
parameter.
𝟏 𝒁𝒆𝟐 Ө
b = 𝟒𝝅ɛ cot 𝟐
𝟎 𝑲𝑬

d) Distance of closet approach – The smallest distance of approach near heavy

0
nucleus from where the alpha particles are scattered at 180 from the heavy nucleus.
𝟏 𝟐𝒁𝒆𝟐 1
r0 =𝟒𝝅ɛ , KE=2M V2
𝟎 𝑲.𝑬

2) Rutherford’s Model of Atom:

(i) Most part of the atoms is hollow.
(ii) Whole of the positive charge of atom is concentrated in a small central core
called the nucleus.
(iii) The negative charges do not influence the scattering process. This implies that
nearly whole mass of atom is concentrated in nucleus.
(iv) By this experiment the Coulomb’s square law is verified.
(v) The amount of positive charge in nuclei of different metals is different.
 3) Bohr’s model of Atom: Bohr modified rutherford’s atom model to explain the line
spectrum of hydrogen.
Bohr’s Postulates :
(i) Stationary Circular Orbits: An atom consists of a central positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged eiectrons revolved around the nucleus in certain orbits called stationary
orbits
(ii) Quantum Conditions:the stationary orbits are those in which angular momentum of
electron is an integral multiple of h/2π..where n is called principal quantum number.
(iii) Transitions: The electron does not radiate energy when in a stationary orbit . The energy is emitted
or absorbed when an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to the other .the energy is given by
E= | Ei- Ef |
4) Radius of orbit and energy of electron in orbit of anatom :
ɛ 𝒉 𝟐 𝒏𝟐
𝟎
a) Radius ,rn= 𝝅𝒎𝒁𝒆 𝟐

For hydrogen atom , Z=1

ɛ𝟎 𝒉𝟐 𝒏𝟐
rn= = 0.529Å
𝝅𝒎𝒆𝟐

b)Energy :

𝟏𝟑.𝟔
En= - 𝒏𝟐 eV
5) Energy Level diagram :

6)Hydrogen spectrum : Hydrogen emission spectrum consist of five series

 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Relation of wavelength, λ =R[𝒏𝒇𝟐 -𝒏𝒊𝟐 ] m-1

i)Lyman series – This lies in UV region

ii)Balmar series – This lies in visible region

iii)Paschen series – This lies in Infrared region

iv)Brackett series – This lies in Mid Infrared region

v) Pfund series – this lies in Infrared region

7) Composition and size of nucleus :

1
Radius of nucleus R = R0𝐴3 , where R0=1.2 x10-15m.=1.2fm ,A = Mass number
8) Radioactivity :The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation from a radioactive
element is called radioactivity.
9) Radioactive Decay Law :
The number of nuclei disintegrating per second of a radioactive sample at any instant is
directly proportional to the number ofundecayed nuclei present in the sample at that instant.
i,e,
𝑑𝑁
∝ N
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑁
⇨ 𝑑𝑡 = − λ N
Where λ is constant of proportionality & is called decay constant.

S.I. unit of decay constant is sec-1.

 10)Half Life Time Period : : Half-life of a radioactive element is defined as the time in
which the number of a radioactive nuclei becomes half of its intial value.

0.9632
Expression for half-life :- T= λ

11 )Mass Defect (△M) : The difference between the sum of the masses of the neutrons
constituting a nucleus and the rest mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect.
△M = Mass of nucleons –Mass of nucleus
△M ={ZMp +(A-Z)Mn}–M0

Mass defect is measured in amu

1amu=931 Mev
12) PACKING FRACTION
The packing fraction of a nucleus is defined as the mass defect per nucleon of the nucleus.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡
Packing fraction = 𝐴
13) Binding energy (B.E) :The binding energy of a nucleus is equal to the amount of work
done to separate the nucleons an infinite distance apart from each other, so that they no
longer interact with each other.
14)Binding energy per nucleon (B.E/A)
The binding energy per nucleon is the average energy required to extract one nucleon from
the nucleus.
𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
Binding energy per nucleon = 𝐴
Greater is the binding energy per nucleon greater is the stability of nucleus.

14) Graph showing the variation of potential energy with separation

15) Nuclear Fission :The splitting of heavy nucleus into two or more fragments
ofcomparable masses ,with an enormous release of energy is called Nuclear Fission
1 235 141
0n +92U →56Ba +36Kr92+ 30n1 +Q

16)Nuclear Fusion : It is the process in which two lighter nuclei combine to form a heavier
nucleus with liberation of large amount of energy
1 1 2 +
1H +1H →1H +e v +Q

VSA (One mark Questions)

Q1.What will be the ratio of radii of two nuclei of mass numbers A1 and A2?

Ans:- Radius of nucleus R = R0A113

1/ 3
R1  A1 
 
R2  A2 
Q.2 .What will be the ratio of densities of two nuclei of mass numbers A1=100u and
A2=200u

Ans. d1:d2=1:1

Q3.The binding energy per nucleon of the two nuclei A and B are
4 Mev and 8 Mev. Which of the two nuclei is more stable.?
Ans:- The nucleus (β) having larger binding energy is more stable.
Q4.Give the mass number and atomic number of elements on the right hand side of the decay
process.
220
86 Ru  Po  He

Ans: The complete equation representing mass number and atomic number is given
below:-
220
86 Ru  216
84 Po  2 He
4

For polonium Z = 84, A = 216

For Helium Z = 2, A = 4
Q5.Write the nuclear decay process for β – decay of 32
12 P?

Ans: 32
15 P16
32
S  10 e  
antineutrino

Q6.What percentage of a given mass of a radioactive substance will be left undecayed after
four half periods?
Ans: Percentage of mass of radioactive substance undecayed after n=4 half-lives
4
1 100
    100%   6.25%
 2 16
 Q7.Define mass defect?
Ans: The difference between the sum of the masses of the neutrons constituting a nucleus
and the rest mass of the nucleus is known as mass defect.
Q8.Define binding energy of a nucleus.
Ans: The binding energy of a nucleus is equal to the amount of work done to separate the
nucleons an infinite distance apart from each other, so that they no longer interact with
each other.
.Q9.Write two properties of nuclear forces.
Ans:- i) charge independent
ii) spin dependent.
Q10 The half-life of substances is 8 years. What is its decay constant?
0.693
Ans: Half Life   0.087 y 1
T1/2  8 years

Q.11. Which has greater ionizing power: alpha or beta particle?

Ans.:- Alpha particle.
Q12.What are nuclear reaction? State the laws obeyed by these reaction.
Ans: The reaction taking place inside the nucleus is called a nuclear reaction.
In nuclear reaction following laws are obeyed
(vi) Mass number is conserved
(vii) Charge no is conserved.
(viii) Spin quantum no. is conserved.
Q13.Write two properties of nuclear forces.

Ans:- i) charge independent(ii) spin dependent

Q.14Which nuclei have highest B.E/nucleon?

Ans:- Fe.

Q15 What is S I unit of radioactivity ?

Ans:Becquerel (Bq) or 1disintegration/second
 SA (Two Marks Questions)
Q.1 State the postulates of Bohr’s atomic theory.
Ans : (i) Stationary Circular Orbits: An atom consists of a central positively charged nucleus
and negatively charged eiectrons revolved around the nucleus in certain orbits called
stationary orbits
(ii) Quantum Conditions:the stationary orbits are those in which angular momentum of
electron is an integral multiple of h/2π..where n is called principal quantum number.
(iii) Transitions: The electron does not radiate energy when in a stationary orbit . The energy is
emitted or absorbed when an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to the other . the
energy is given by
E= | Ei-Ef|
Q2. Sketch the energy level diagram for hydrogen atom. Mark the transition
corresponding to Lyman and Balmer series.
Q3. Define half-life period of radioactive substance. Wr[te its relationship with decay
constant.?
Ans:The half life time period of a radioactive substance is defined as the time in which
one –half of the radioactive substance is disintegrated
0.6931
T

1
Q4.A radioactive sample decays to of its initial activity in 25 days. Calculate the half
32
life of the substance? (2 marks)
n n
N 1 1 1
Ans:     
N0  2  32  2 
Or, n=5
In 25 days, 5 half-life = 25/5 = 5 days.
Q.5. (i) Define ‘activity’ of a radioactive material and write its S.I. units.
(ii) Plot a graph showing variation of activity of a given radioactive sample with time.

Ans : (i) (i) The activity of a radioactive material is defined as the decay rate of a sample
containing one or more radio nuclei .The SI unit of radioactivity is Becquerel (Bq).
(ii)
Q.6. The sequence of stepwise decay of a radioactive nucleus is

If the atomic number and mass number of D2 are 71 and 176 respectively, what are their
corresponding values of D?
Ans :

So, the corresponding values of atomic number

Q7. When electron in hydrogen atom jumps from energy state ni = 4 tonf = 3 ,2,1, identify the
spectral series to which the emission lines belong. ?

Three Marks Questions

Q1.Define half-life of a radioactive substance. Establish its relation with the decay constant.
OR
Define half-life of a radioactive sample. Using exponential decay law obtain the formula for
the half-life of a radioactive nuclide in terms of its disintegration constant?
Ans: Half-life of a radioactive element is defined as the time in which the number of a
radioactive nuclei becomes half of its intial value.

Expression for half-life :-

N  N 0 e  t

N0
When, t  T , N 
2
N0
 N 0 e  t
2
1
or, e  t 
2
Taking log of both sides
 T Log e e  Log e 1  Log e 2 or, T  Log e 2

Log e 2 2.3026 Log10 2

 T 
 
2.3026  0.3010 0.6931
 T 
 
 Q2.Draw the the graph showing the variation of binding energy per nucleon with the
mass number. What are the main inferences from the graph?
Ans :

1. The nucleus having mass number below 20 and above 180 have relatively
small binding energies and hence they are unstable.
2. The nuclei having mass number 56 and about 56 have maximum binding
energies 5.8 Mev and so they are most stable.
3. The nuclei have peaks - 24 He ,126 C ,168 O - are relatively more stable than their
neighbors.
Q.3. Define decay constant (λ) & half-life period ( th) and hence derive the relationship
between decay constant and half-life period. ?

Ans.
According to radioactive decay law
N = N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
If t = 1/λ
1
1 𝑁
N = N0𝑒 −𝜆 𝜆 =𝑒 N0=2.718
0
=0.368N0
Hence radioactive decay constant of a substance may also be defined as the reciprocal of time
during which no. of radioactive atoms remains 36.8% ( or 1/e times) of its initial value.

HALF LIFE TIME

Time during which radioactive atoms remains half of its initial value called half life time
𝑁
i.e. N= 20 at th

𝑁0
= N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑕
2
1
𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑕 = 2 or 𝑒 𝜆𝑡 𝑕 = 2
𝜆𝑡𝑕 = loge 2 = 2.303 log10 2 = 2.303 x 0.3010 = 0.693
0.693
𝑡𝑕 = 𝜆

Q.4. Define average or mean life of the radioactive element and derive its relationship with
decay constant and half life time.
Ans. Average or mean life of the radioactive element is the ratio of the total life time of all
the atoms of the element to the total number of atoms initially present in the sample.
Let at t= 0, no. of atoms are = No
At time t no. of atoms = N
Let dN atoms disintegrate in small time dt so life of dN atoms lies between (t+dt)
As dt is very small then age of each dN atom can be taken as t
Therefore total age of dN atoms = t.dN
𝑁0
Total life time of all elements = 0
𝑡. 𝑑𝑁

𝑁0
0 𝑡.𝑑𝑁
Average life time = 𝜏 = 𝑁0
As dN = -λNdt = - λN0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 dt when N=N0 , t=0 and when N=0 , t=∞and the limits
0 −𝜆𝑡 dt
∞ −λN 0 𝑒
𝜏= 𝑁0

0 ∞
𝜏= ∞0
−𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡𝑑𝑡 𝜏= 0
𝜆𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 𝑡 ∞ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜏 = 𝜆 −𝜆 - 0 −𝜆 𝑑𝑡 0∞
∞ 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
𝜏 = 𝜆 [0 + 0 𝜆 dt]
∞ −𝜆𝑡 1
𝜏= 0
𝑒 dt = 𝜆
1
𝜏=𝜆
Thus average life time is reciprocal of decay constant
or, 𝜏= th/ 0.693 = 1.44 th

Q5. Using Bohr’s postulates derive the expression for the total energy of electron in
stationary orbits of hydrogen atom. ?

Ans.From the first postulate of Bohr's atom model,

(Ze.e/4πε0)/r2 = mv2/r
(1/2)mv2 = (Ze.e/4πε0)/2r
i.e. K.E of electron = (1/2)mv2 = (Ze2/44πε0)/ 2 r.......(i)
Potential due to the nucleus, in the orbit in which electron is revolving

V = (Z e/4πε0)/r
Potential energy of electron = Potential x charge
= (Ze/4πε0)/r x (-e) = -(Ze2/4πε0)/ r ......(ii)
Total energy of electron in the orbit,
E = K.E. + P.E.
E = (Ze2/4πε0)/2r + (-Ze2/4πε0)/r = -Ze2/4πε0)/2 r
Using, r = ε0h2n2/ π mZe2 in above equation, we get
En = -me4.Z2/8 ε02h2n2
Substituting all the standard values and converting in eV, we get
En = -13.6Z2/n2 (in eV)
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
En= -[13.6/n2]eV
Q.6. What is radioactivity? State the law of radioactive decay. Show that the radioactive
decay is exponential in nature.
Ans:The phenomenon of spontaneous emission of radiation from a radioactive element is
called radioactivity..
Radioactive decay
The spontaneous emission of radiation from a radioactive element is called radioactive
decay.
Decay Law
The number of nuclei disintegrating per second of a radioactive sample at any instant is
directly proportional to the number of
undecayed nuclei present in the sample at that instant.
i,e,
𝑑𝑁
∝ N
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
⇨ 𝑑𝑡 = − λ N ------- (1)
Where λ is constant of proportionality & is called decay constant.
From equation (1) we have
𝑑𝑁
=−λN
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑁
⇨ 𝑁 = − λ dt
Integrating on both sides we get,
𝑑𝑁
= − λ 𝑑𝑡
𝑁

⇨log 𝑒 𝑁 = − λ t + C -------------------------(2)
But, when t= 0, N= N0, therefore from equation (2) we get
log 𝑒 𝑁0 = − λ X 0 + C N0
⇨log 𝑒 𝑁0 = C
On putting this value of C in equation (2) we get
log 𝑒 𝑁 = −λ t +log 𝑒 𝑁0
⇨log 𝑒 𝑁 − log 𝑒 𝑁0 = − λ t
𝑁
⇨log 𝑒 𝑁 = − λ t t
0
𝑁
⇨𝑁 = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
0

⇨
N = N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡 -----------------------(3)

This equation is known as decay equation.

From eqn (3) we have N = N0𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
1
Substituting t= in the above equation we get
𝜆
N = N0𝑒 −1
1
⇨ N = N0 (𝑒 )
Thus decay constant of a radioactive element may be defined as the reciprocal of the time in
1
which number of UN decayed nuclei of that radioactive element falls to 𝑒 times of its initial
value.
S.I. unit of decay constant is sec-1.

Q.7. Define Nuclear forces and gives their important characteristics/properties.

Ans.The nucleus of an atom has a number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) which are held
together by the forces known as Nuclear forces in the tiny nucleus, inspite of strong force of
repulsion between protons.
Characteristics/Properties of nuclear forces:
1. Nuclear forces are strongest forces in nature.
2. Nuclear forces are short range forces.
3. Nuclear forces are basically strong attractive forces but contain a small component of
repulsive forces.
4. Nuclear forces are saturated forces.
5. Nuclear forces are charge independent
6. Nuclear forces are spin- dependent
7. Nuclear forces are exchange forces

Value Based Questions

Q.1.Shyam saw his younger brother wondering with a question which deals with emission
of light from a vapour lamp. He was anxious to know how different colors were
being emitted by different light. He also saw mercury and sodium vapour lamps in the
physics lab and was curious to know what

is inside the lamps. On seeing his anxiety to know more about it Shyam explained
about absorption of energy and reemission of photons in the visible region. He also
advised him not to touch or break any items in the
lab for the thirst of knowledge.
a)What is the moral you derive from Shyam?
Ans: Concern for his brother/ care about the school property.
b)Which series in the hydrogen spectrum is in the visible region?
Ans. Balmer.
Q.2.Mr. Raju a daily wages worker got affected by cancer. On knowing about it all his
coworkers started avoiding him, fearing that it was contagious. Mr. Raju felt very
depressed. Mr. Rahul a close friend immediately took Mr. Raju to a radiologist who
examined him and said it was the begining stage of cancer and it can be easily cured and
he also certified that it is not a communicable disease.

Q- (i) What moral values did Mr. Rahul exhibit ?

Ans. Positive attitude, encouraging nature, timely help, creating awareness.
Q-(ii) A radioactive substance ‘X’ has a half-life of 140 days. Initially it is 8g. Calculate
the time for this substance ‘X’ whenit reduces to 1 g.
Ans. N / No= (1/2)n
= (1/8)= (1/2)n
Therefore n= 3
T = 3 x 140
= 420 days.

LA(FIVE MARKS QUESTIONS)

Q1.Draw a labeled diagram for alpha-particle scattering experiment. Give Rutherford’s

observations and discuss the significance of this experiment. Obtain the expression which
helps us to get an idea of the size of the nucleus, using these observations.
Q.2.State Bohr’s postulates. Using these postulates derive an expression for the total energy
of an electron in the nth orbit of an atom. What does negative value of this energy signify?
What is Bohr’s radius?
Q3.What is radioactivity? State the laws of radioactive decay. Show that radioactive decay is
exponential in nature.
Q4. Differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion .Which one of these processes
produces energy (i) in nuclear reactor and (ii) in the sun?
Q5.Draw the plot of binding energy per nucleon (BE/A) AS A function of mass number A .
(a)Write two important conclusions that can be drawn regarding the nature of nuclear force.

(b) Use this graph to explain the release of energy in both the processes of nuclear fusion and
fission.

(c) Write the basic nuclear process of neutron undergoing beta decay. Why is the detection of
neutrinos found very difficult?

Q6. What do you understand by radioactivity and half-life? Plot an accurate graph to show
how the number of radioactive atoms of a give element varies with time. Use the time scale
extending over five half – lives