Old Irish Online

Old Irish Online
Table of Contents
Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel and Jonathan Slocum
Lessons
0. Introduction to Old Irish
1. Compert Con Culainn 'The Conception of Cu Chulainn', part of the Ulster Cycle
2. Táin Bó Regamna 'The Cattle Raid of the Important Calf', also part of the Ulster Cycle
3. Táin Bó Regamna (continued)
4. Táin Bó Regamna (conclusion)
5. Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir 'The Encounter of Liadain and Cuirithir'
6. Audacht Morainn 'The Testament of Morann'
7. Immram Brain 'Bran's Voyage'
8. Fingal Rónain 'The Kin-slaying of Ronan'
9. Lebor Gabála Érenn 'The Book of the Taking of Ireland'
10. Aislinge Meic Con Glinne 'The Vision of Mac Con Glinne'
Grammar Points
1. Spelling and Pronunciation 12. The Two Paradigms of the Verb 'to be'
1.1. The Phonological System and its 12.1. The Copula
Orthographical Representations 12.2. The Substantive Verb
1.2. Accentuation 13. The Noun: o- and yo-Stems
2. Word Order 14. The Syntax of the Adjective
2.1. The Basic Word Order of Old Irish 15. Personal and Possessive Pronouns I
2.2. Word Order in Nominal Syntagms and 15.1. Independent Personal Pronouns
Compounds 15.2. Emphasizing Personal Pronouns
2.3. Residues of the Older SOV Structure 15.3. Possessive Pronouns
3. The Verb 16. Relative Clauses
3.1. Sentences without Verb 16.1. Types of Relative Clauses
3.2. Nominal Forms of the Verb 17. The Verb: Voice and Stem-Classes
3.3. Inflected Verbal Forms 17.1. Active vs. Impersonal/Passive
3.4. Impersonal Constructions 17.2. The Stem-Classes and their
4. The Noun Characteristics
5. Prepositions 18. The Noun: ā HYPERLINK "iriol-4-
6. Initial Mutations X.html"- and y HYPERLINK "iriol-4-
6.1. Lenition X.html"ā HYPERLINK "iriol-4-X.html"-
6.2. Nasalization Stems
6.3. Spirant Mutation 19. Numerals
7. Tmesis 19.1. Cardinals
8. Verbal Nouns and Their Use 19.2. Ordinals
8.1. Morphology of the Verbal Noun 20. Suffixed Pronouns
8.2. Constructions Involving Verbal Nouns 21. Relative Clauses: Special Verb Forms
9. General Synopsis of the Case Endings 22. The Verb: Absolute and Conjunct
in Relation to the Noun-Stem Classes 22.1. Absolute vs. Simple Conjunct
10. The Pronoun 22.2. Conjunct Deuterotonic vs. Conjunct
11. Syntax: Coordination Prototonic
11.1. The Conjunction ocus 23. The Noun: u-, i-, and ī HYPERLINK
11.2. Alternatives to ocus "iriol-5-X.html"-Stems
11.3. Disjunctive Conjunctions 23.1. u-Stems
11.4. Adversative Conjunctions 23.2. i-Stems
23.3. ī HYPERLINK "iriol-5-X.html"- 34.3. Syntax
Stems 35. Pronouns Suffixed to Prepositions
24. The Adjective: Declensions of the 36. Subordination
Adjective 36.1. Temporal Clauses
24.1. o- and ā HYPERLINK "iriol-5- 36.2. Causal Clauses
X.html"-stems 36.3. Concessive Clauses
24.2. yo- and y HYPERLINK "iriol-5- 37. The Verb: The Subjunctive
X.html"ā HYPERLINK "iriol-5-X.html"- 38. Irregular Nouns
stems 39. Comparison of the Adjective: the
24.3. i-stems Superlative Grade
24.4. u-stems 39.1. The Regular Formation
25. Infixed Pronouns 39.2. Irregular Formations
25.1. 'Class A' Infixed Pronouns 39.3. Syntax
25.2. 'Class B' Infixed Pronouns 40. Interrogative Pronouns and Sentences
26. Relative Clauses: Special Pronominal 41. Subordination
Forms 41.1. Final Clauses
27. The Verb: Past Tenses of the Indicative 41.2. Consecutive Clauses
27.1. Different Forms for Different 41.3. Related Speech
Functions 42. The Verb: Future Tense
27.2. Morphology of the Imperfect 43. Nominal Composition
27.3. Morphology of the Preterites 44. Indefinite Pronouns
28. The Noun: s-Stems 44.1. 'each, every'
29. Comparison of the Adjective: the 44.2. 'any'
Comparative Grade 44.3. 'other'
29.1. The Regular Formation 45. The Expression of Reflexivity and
29.2. Irregular Formations Middle Voice
29.3. Syntax 45.1. féin
30. Demonstrative Pronouns and 45.2. imm
Pronominals; the Article 45.3. Deponent Inflection
30.1. Demonstrative Pronouns 46. Conditional Clauses
30.2. Other Demonstrative Elements 47. The Verb: Imperative
30.3. The Article 48. Some Productive Noun-Suffixes
31. Negative Sentences 49. Word Formation of the Adjectives
32. The Verb: Present Indicative 50. The Necessity of Reading: Some
33. The Noun: Consonantal Stems References
34. Comparison of the Adjective: the 50.1. Handbooks
Equative Grade 50.2. Dictionaries
34.1. The Regular Formation 50.3. Further Readings for Beginners
34.2. Other Formations 50.4. Further Bibliography
Old Irish Online
Lesson 1
Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, Caren Esser, and Jonathan Slocum
This selection is taken from a text called Compert Con Culainn, The Conception of Cú
Chulainn, which is one of the preludes (remscéla, or pre-stories) to the tales forming the so-
called Ulster Cycle, a collection of lore centered around the heroes of the ancient Irish
province of Ulster. Compert Con Culainn narrates the miraculous circumstances of the
threefold birth of Cú Chulainn, the main hero of the Ulster saga. According to Irish tradition,
the events described took place around the time of the birth of Christ, yet the central topic of
the Ulster epic is far older and can be seen as a window on pre-Iron Age Ireland, possibly
reflecting the fights of the Indo-European Celtic settlers against the older non-Celtic
inhabitants of northwest Ireland.
While the stories contain various mythological elements, the geographical setting is
historical: Emain Macha, the seat of the king of Ulster, Conchobar mac Nessa, has been
identified with the archaeological site of Navan Fort, to the west of the city of Armagh, and
Bruig na Boinne is the Old Irish name of the region surrounding the pre-Celtic hill grave of
Newgrange, County Meath.
The text contains remarkable archaisms. Like most of the earlier Irish tales, it cannot be
attributed to any specific author, but was passed on as oral lore until being written down by
medieval scribes.
Reading and Textual Analysis
The selection is the first part of the account of the conception of Cú Chulainn. It narrates the
events that precede the threefold birth of the hero. The first of these takes place in the house
where Conchobar and his men seek shelter from the snow, and coincides with the birth of two
foals just outside the house. The child is then raised by Conchobar's daughter, Deichtire, but
dies in its infancy. Thereafter, Deichtire conceives a child from the elf Lug mac Ethnenn,
"Lug son of the Bird," by drinking from a copper cup, and has a vision of Lug telling her that
she will be having a son by the name of Setanta. The miraculous conception together with the
lack of a father causes a scandal with the Ulidians, so that Conchobar finally marries his
daughter off to Sualtaim mac Roich, "Sualtaim son of the Mighty Horse." Ashamed of
marrying a man when already bearing another man's child, Deichtire aborts Lug's baby and
subsequently becomes pregnant by her husband, eventually giving birth to a boy named
Setanta, who later acquires the name Cú Chulainn, "hound of the smith."
Boí Conchuḃur ocus maithi UlaḋN iN nEṁuin.
• boí -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb <attá> is --
was
• Conchuḃur -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conchubur,
Conchobar> Conchobar -- Conchobar
• ocus -- conjunction; <ocus> and -- and
• maithi -- noun; nominative plural masculine, i-stem, of adjective <maith> good -- the
nobles
• UlaḋN -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen --
of the Ulstermen
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• nEṁuin -- toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Emain, Emuin>
Emain Macha -- Emain Macha
No tathigtis énḟlaith maġ arL Eṁuin.
• no -- verbal particle; introduces imperfect; <no>... -- ...
• tathigtis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <taithigid>
frequents, practices -- used to frequent
• énḟlaith -- noun; compound of <én> bird + lenited nominative singular feminine, i-
stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- a flock of birds
• maġ -- noun; accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- the plain
• arL -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- east of
• Eṁuin -- toponym; dative singular feminine, i-stem of <Emain, Emuin> Emain
Macha -- Emain Macha
NaL ġelltis conná fácbatis ciḋ mecnu na fér ná lossa iN dalaṁ.
• naL -- verbal particle; compound form of verbal particle <no> (introduces imperfect)
+ infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <aL> it -- it
• ġelltis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <gelid>
grazes, devours -- they used to devour
• conná -- conjunction; compound form of conjunct particle <con, coN> until; so that;
and + dependent negative particle <ná, na> not, nor -- until... not
• fácbatis -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect indicative active, prototonic, of
<fo°ácaib> leaves -- they left
• ciḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if + suffixed
enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- even
• mecnu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <mecon, mecan> root -- roots
• na -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor
• fér -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fér> grass -- grass
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor
• lossa -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <luss, lus> herb, plant,
vegetable -- herbs
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- on
• dalaṁ -- noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <talam> earth, ground
-- the ground
BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu aN naicsiu oc colluḋ aN nírenn.
• baH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- was
• tochoṁracht -- verbal noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tochomracht>
distress, weariness, vexation -- distress(ing)
• laH -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- for
• hUltu -- proper name; aspirated accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid>
Ulidians, Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen
• aN -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- ...
• naicsiu -- verbal noun; nasalized nominative singular feminine, n-stem, of <aicsiu>
seeing -- to see
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- ...
• colluḋ -- verbal noun; dative singular neuter, u-stem/s-stem, of <collud> damaging,
destroying -- the destruction
• aN -- possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- their
• nírenn -- noun; nasalized genitive singular feminine, n-stem, of <íriu> land, earth, soil
-- of... land
Inlaat noí cairptiu diaN dofunn láaN nand.
• inlaat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°lá>
undertakes, arranges, adjusts -- they yoke
• noí -- indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine -- nine
• cairptiu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon
-- chariots
• diaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- to... them
• dofunn -- verbal noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <tafann> hunting,
pursuing, expelling -- chase... away
• láaN -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight -- one
day
• nand -- pronominalized preposition; nasalized 3rd person singular neuter dative of
<in, iN> in, into -- then
Ar baH bés leusoṁ foriṁ én.
• ar -- conjunction; <air, ar> for -- for
• bés -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bés> custom, habit -- a
custom
• leusoṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among,
by, with + emphasizing particle 3rd person plural <seom, som> he, it -- with them
• foriṁ -- verbal noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <forim> chase -- the
chase
• én -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- of birds
Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL charput ocus aL inġen Deichtire os síL ṁacḋacht.
• dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- then
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- ...
• suḋiu -- verbal noun; dative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting --
sitting
• innaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- in his
• charput -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- chariot
• aL -- possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- his
• inġen -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- daughter
• Deichtire -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Deichtire, Deichtine>
Deichtire -- Deichtire
• os -- verb; participle present of copula <is> is -- being
• síL -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
she
• ṁacḋacht -- indeclinable; <macdacht> adult -- an adult
Is síL ḃaH harae diaH hathair.
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it is
• síL -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
she
• ḃaH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of
copula <is> is -- who was
• harae -- noun; aspirated nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae,
ara> charioteer -- charioteer
• diaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- to her
• hathair -- noun; aspirated dative singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father --
father
Erriḋ UlaḋN olchenae innaN garptiḃ .i. Conall ocus Lóeġuire ocus cách olchenae.
• erriḋ -- noun; nominative plural masculine, dental stem, of <eirr, err> chariot-fighter,
champion, warrior -- the champions
of the Ulstermen
• olchenae -- adverb; <olchenae> besides -- also
• innaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- in their
• garptiḃ -- noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- chariots
• .i. -- abbreviation of <ed-ón> that is -- that is
• Conall -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Conall> Conall -- Conall
• Lóeġuire -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóegaire, Lóeguire>
Loegaire -- Loegaire
• cách -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone --
everybody
• olchenae -- adverb; <olchenae> besides -- else
Bricriu dano leu.
• Bricriu -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Bricriu> Bricriu -- Bricriu
• dano -- enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- too
• leu -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- with them
Fosruṁat indL éuin reṁiḃ diaN ndaiṁ tar Slíaḃ Fúait, tar Edṁuinn, tar Breġa.
• fosruṁat -- verb; variant of 3rd person plural present indicative, deuterotonic, of
<for°ruimi> sets, places; goes -- go
• indL -- article; nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• éuin -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• reṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <reN> before --
before them
• diaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- to their
• ndaiṁ -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, u-stem, of <dom, dam> house,
home -- abode
• tar -- preposition; <tar> across, over -- over
• Slíaḃ Fúait -- toponym; accusative singular of <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill -- Sliab
Fuait
• Edṁuinn -- toponym; accusative singular of <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand --
Edmand
• Breġa -- toponym; accusative singular of <Brega> Brega -- Brega
Ní bíḋ claḋ ná airḃe ná caisel imL thír iN nÉre ind amsir sin acht maiġe réiḋi.
• ní -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- not
• bíḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular consuetudinal present, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- there would... be
• claḋ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <clad> ditch, dyke -- a dyke
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- nor
• airḃe -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <airbe> hedge, fence -- a fence
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- or
• caisel -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <caisel> stone wall, rampart
-- a stone wall
• imL -- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- around
• thír -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land --
the land
• nÉre -- toponym; nasalized dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland --
Ireland
• ind -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- at
• amsir -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <aimser, amsir> time, period,
season -- time
• sin -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; <sin> this, that, those, the aforementioned --
that
• acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- but
• maiġe -- noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- fields
• réiḋi -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <réid> smooth, even, level -- even
BaH hálaind ocus baH caín in ténlorg ocus in ténaṁar boíL leu.
• baH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it
was
• hálaind -- adjective; aspirated nominative singular masculine of <álaind> beautiful,
lovely -- delightful
• baH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it
was
• caín -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful --
beautiful
• in -- article; nominative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ténlorg -- noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
<lorg> trail, path, course -- bird-flight
• ténaṁar -- noun; compound of <én> bird + nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
<amar> singing, song -- bird-song
• boíL -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- that was
• leu -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- with them
Noí fichit én dóiḃ, rond argit eter cach dáL én.
• fichit -- numeral; nominative plural masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty -- units of
twenty
• én -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- to
them
• rond -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rond, ronn> chain, bond -- a
chain
• argit -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- of silver
• eter -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between
• cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -
- every
• dáL -- numeral; accusative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• én -- noun; accusative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
Cach fiche innaL lurg foL leith, noí luirg dóiḃ.
• cach -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -
- each
• fiche -- numeral; nominative singular masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty -- unit of
twenty
• innaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- in its
• lurg -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course -- flight
• foL -- preposition; <foL> under -- on
• leith -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction -- a side
• luirg -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course --
trails
• dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- to
them
Saṁlaiḋ dáL én bátar reṁiḃ, cuing argit etarru.
• saṁlaiḋ -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- thus
• dáL -- numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• én -- noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• bátar -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative relative of substantive verb <attá>
is -- that were
before them
• cuing -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cuing> yoke, chain -- a yoke
• argit -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- of silver
• etarru -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural accusative of <eter> between,
among -- between them
Toscartha tríH héuin díḃ coH haidchi.
• toscartha -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<do°scara> overthrows, ruins -- were separated
• tríH -- numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- three
• héuin -- noun; aspirated nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- birds
• díḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <diL, deL> from, of --
from them
• coH -- preposition; <coH> to, until -- by
• haidchi -- noun; aspirated accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night --
night
Lotir reṁiḃ iN gend inL Ḃroġo.
• lotir -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative of <luith, luid> moves; flies -- they
flew
before them
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- to
• gend -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end
-- the end
• inL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• Ḃroġo -- toponym; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <brug, bruig> region,
district -- Brug na Boinne
Is and baH haḋaiġ for feraiḃ UlaḋN.
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- is
• and -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <in, iN> in,
into -- there
• baH -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of
copula <is> is -- that... was
• haḋaiġ -- noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night --
night
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- on
• feraiḃ -- noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- the warriors
of the Ulstermen
Feraiḋ snechtae mór foraiḃ dano.
• feraiḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <feraid>
grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- it pours
• snechtae -- noun; nominative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <snechtae, snechta>
snow -- snow
• mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- big
• foraiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <for> on, over -- on
them
Asbert Conchuḃur friaL ṁuintir ara scortis aN gairptiu ocus ara cortis cor doL chuindchiḋ tiġe
dóiḃ.
• asbert -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<as°beir> says, speaks -- said
• friaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- to his
• ṁuintir -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party,
followers; retinue, company -- party
• ara -- conjunction; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- that
• scortis -- verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <scuirid>
unyokes -- they should unyoke
• gairptiu -- noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- chariots
• ara -- conjunction; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- that
• cortis -- verb; 3rd person plural past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <fo°cuirethar>
puts, throws -- they should put
• cor -- verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting; throwing;
letting go -- a delegation
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- to
• chuindchiḋ -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cuingid,
cuindchid> seeking, requesting -- the seeking
• tiġe -- noun; genitive singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling -- of
shelter
• dóiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- for
them
Lesson Text
Boí Conchuḃur ocus maithi UlaḋN iN nEṁuin. No tathigtis énḟlaith maġ arL Eṁuin.
NaL ġelltis conná fácbatis ciḋ mecnu na fér ná lossa iN dalaṁ. BaH tochoṁracht laH
hUltu aN naicsiu oc colluḋ aN nírenn. Inlaat noí cairptiu diaN dofunn láaN nand. Ar baH
bés leusoṁ foriṁ én. Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL charput ocus aL inġen Deichtire
os síL ṁacḋacht. Is síL ḃaH harae diaH hathair. Erriḋ UlaḋN olchenae innaN garptiḃ .i.
Conall ocus Lóeġuire ocus cách olchenae. Bricriu dano leu.
Fosruṁat indL éuin reṁiḃ diaN ndaiṁ tar Slíaḃ Fúait, tar Edṁuinn, tar Breġa. Ní bíḋ
claḋ ná airḃe ná caisel imL thír iN nÉre ind amsir sin acht maiġe réiḋi. BaH hálaind
ocus baH caín in ténlorg ocus in ténaṁar boíL leu. Noí fichit én dóiḃ, rond argit eter
cach dáL én. Cach fiche innaL lurg foL leith, noí luirg dóiḃ. Saṁlaiḋ dáL én bátar
reṁiḃ, cuing argit etarru. Toscartha tríH héuin díḃ coH haidchi. Lotir reṁiḃ iN gend inL
Ḃroġo. Is and baH haḋaiġ for feraiḃ UlaḋN. Feraiḋ snechtae mór foraiḃ dano.
Asbert Conchuḃur friaL ṁuintir ara scortis aN gairptiu ocus ara cortis cor doL
chuindchiḋ tiġe dóiḃ.
Translation
Conchobar and the nobles of the Ulstermen were in Emain Macha. A flock of birds
used to frequent the plain east of Emain Macha. They used to devour it until they left
nothing on the ground, not even roots or grass or herbs. To see the destruction of their
land was distress(ing) for the Ulstermen. One day they yoke nine chariots to chase
them away. For the chase of birds was a custom with them. Conchobar then, sitting in
his chariot, and his daughter Deichtire, she being an adult. It is she who was
charioteer to her father. Also the champions of the Ulstermen in their chariots, that is
Conall and Loegaire and everybody else. Bricriu, too, (was) with them.
The birds go before them to their abode, over Sliab Fuait, over Edmand, over Brega.
There would not be a dyke, nor a fence or a stone wall around the land in Ireland at
that time, but (just) even fields. It was delightful and it was beautiful the flight and the
singing of those birds. Nine units of twenty birds to them, a chain of silver between
every two birds. Each unit of twenty separated in its flight, nine trails (there were) to
them. Thus (it was) two birds that were before them, a yoke of silver between them.
Three birds were separated from them by the night. They flew before them to the end
of Bruig na Boinne. It is there that night was on the warriors of the Ulstermen. Then it
pours big snow on them.
Conchobar said to his party that they should unyoke their chariots and that they
should put a delegation to the seeking of shelter for them.
Grammar
1. Spelling and Pronunciation
1.1. The Phonological System and its Orthographical Representations
The phonetic values of the constituents of the Old Irish phonological system can be inferred
from their pronunciation in the modern language as well as from textual variants and from
secondary sources, such as e.g. Old Norse manuscripts.
The Old Irish phonological system is made up of the following phonemes:
Vowels and Diphthongs
Short vowels a e i o u
Long vowels á é í ó ú
Diphthongs áu, ái (áe) éu (éo) íu, ía oí (óe) úa, uí
Consonants
Labial Dental Palato-velar
Stops Voiceless p t k
Voiced b d g
Fricatives Voiceless f θ x, h
Voiced v, ṽ/β~ ð ɣ
Nasals m n ŋ
Liquids r, l
Sibilants s
Depending on their vocalic environment, consonants can have either palatal or non-palatal,
that is velar or neutral quality. Palatal quality occurs after the vowels /e/ and /i/, whether
short, long, or the second element of a diphthong (though <e> can also indicate a preceding
palatal and a following nonpalatal consonant); velar quality occurs after the vowels /o/ and
/u/, long and short or as second element of a diphthong; long and short /a/ or diphthongs
containing it as the second element cause neutral quality of a following consonant.
The oldest extant written material of Old Irish consists of sepulchral stone inscriptions,
carved into rectangular stone pillars according to a peculiar dots and line-system called
ogam-alphabet. The distinction between vowels (represented by one to five notches on the
central line, which is the edge of the stone pillar) and consonants (represented by one to five
strokes cut across the central line), and the classification of the sounds into four sets, roughly
according to their type of articulation, point to the fact that the writers were familiar with the
Classical grammatical tradition and probably adapted an earlier numeral system to the Latin
alphabet.
The Latin alphabet, which was used for all other purposes, had the major disadvantage of
possessing a poor inventory of symbols representing fricatives, so that not every Irish sound
could be orthographically represented by a specific letter. Therefore, in the manuscripts
certain Latin letters denote various Irish phonemes, such as the letters <p t c>, which
represent both voiced and voiceless stops [b d g p t k] (in the latter 3 instances they are
sometimes written double), because the letters <b d g> are used to indicate voiced fricatives.
Voiceless fricatives are indicated by <ph th ch>. The letter <m> stands not only for [m], but
also for the voiced nasalized fricatives [β~] and [ṽ].
The following table shows the Old Irish consonant system as expressed by the Latin letters,
and the phonetic values these represent in Old Irish:
• p represents [p] and [b]
• t represents [t] and [d]
• c represents [k] and [g]
• b represents [v] and [b]
• d represents [ð] and [d]
• g represents [ɣ] and [g]
• ph represents [f]
• th represents [θ]
• ch represents [x]
• m represents [m], [ṽ] and [β~]
• n represents [n] and [ŋ]
• r represents [r]
• l represents [l]
• s represents [s]
• ṡ represents [h], as a morphophonemic variant of /s/
• f represents [f]
• ḟ represents lenited f, which is silent
• h represents [h], as prefixed to vowels (as by the initial mutation called gemination,
cf. lesson 2, section 6.3)
The phonetic value of those letters which represent several phonemes is determined by its
context. That is to say, whether e.g. /b d g m/ are pronounced as stops or as fricatives depends
on their position in the word and in the sentence. Word-internally in intervocalic position or
between vowel and sonorant, as well as word-finally in postvocalic position and after
vowel+liquid, they undergo so-called lenition, which means they have laxer articulation. The
phenomenon also affects /n r l/ in intervocalic and post-vocalic word final position; yet while
lenited /b d g m/ in later manuscripts came to be written bh, dh, gh and mh respectively, there
is no orthographic indication of this phenomenon with respect to /n r l/ (but they are
sometimes written double when they are not lenited).
The same mutation also occurs between syntactically related words, where it has to a great
extent developed into a grammatical phenomenon, i.e. beyond the phonetic one it originally
was. Initial lenition will be discussed in lesson 2, section 6, together with the two other types
of initial mutation, i.e. nasalization and gemination, which cause prefixing of an n- and h-,
respectively, to a following vowel (where nasalization takes place, there is also voicing of
voiceless stops, yet this is not orthographically indicated in the manuscripts or in the present
text). There are many examples for the various mutations in the present text. In the first
sentence alone, we find instances of lenited c, b, m and d in Conchuḃur, nEṁuin, and UlaḋN.
The dative of the toponym Eṁuin is furthermore nasalized by the preceding nasalizing
preposition iN, thus nEṁuin. Sentence four contains an example of gemination, where the
preposition laH causes aspiration of the vocalic initial of the following noun Ultu, thus hUltu.
That a word in certain syntactical contexts causes mutation of the initial of the following
word is indicated in the present work by L, N or H respectively after the word in question. To
facilitate correct pronunciation of the Old Irish texts, lenited consonants are orthographically
indicated in the first two lessons, even if these clues are not present in the actual manuscripts.
1.2. Accentuation
As can be inferred from the reduction of unstressed syllables (viz. word-internal syncope and
word-final apocope), as well as from the pronunciation in most modern dialects, Old Irish had
a strong stress accent, which falls on the first syllable in uncompounded words susceptible of
full stress as well as in nominal compounds. Only in verbal compounds does the first preverb
not form a close compound with the second element, so that the stress is usually on the
second syllable of the compound; this can be either the verbal stem itself or another preverb.
Compound verbs following this stress pattern are called deuterotonic. An example from the
text is found in sentence three, where naL (i.e. the verbal particle no + pronoun aL) precedes
the 3 plural imperfect indicative ġelltis, which bears the accent on the first syllable, thus
naLġelltis. If the first position, however, is occupied by certain conjunctions and particles, the
stress falls on the first syllable, i.e. on the first preverb of a compound verb. The compound is
then said to have prototonic form. In the text, this is illustrated by the verbal form fácbatis in
the third sentence, which is preceded by the conjunction conná, consisting of the conjunct
particle conN + suffixed negative particle ná. The verbal compound fo°ácaib accordingly has
prototonic form, thus fácbatis. Prototonic verbal forms are also required in a few other
constructions (cf. lesson 5, section 22.2). Unstressed words, such as the article, prepositions,
and many pronouns are attached either to the following or the preceding word as proclitics or
enclitics.
2. Word Order
2.1. The Basic Word Order of Old Irish
In Old Irish, nominal as well as verbal predicates stand at the head of the sentence, preceding
subjects and objects. Only certain elements like pretonic prepositions, conjunctions,
interrogatives, negative particles and infixed personal pronouns can precede the verb; all
other elements, when focussed and hence placed left of the verb, require a relative marker.
According to typological classification, Old Irish is therefore a language of the VSO type,
because its basic word order is Verb-Subject-Object. Sentences like the first two illustrate the
VSO word order with initial position of the verb, which in the first sentence is the copula boí,
followed by the subject Conchuḃur, and in the second the compound verb form no tathigtis,
followed by the subject énḟlaith and the direct object maġ arL Eṁuin. Sentence twelve
constitutes an example of the finite verb -- in this instance the copula bíḋ -- being preceded
by the negative particle ní.
The VSO order also implies further syntactical as well as certain morphological
characteristics and even phonological features. As to syntax, the determinans follows the
determinatum, that is to say, nominal modifiers such as genitives, descriptive adjectives and
relative constructions follow the noun they modify, complements follow finite verbs etc. The
aforementioned constructions can be seen in the text: in the first sentence, the genitive UlaḋN
follows the noun it modifies, maithi 'the nobles of the Ulstermen'; the same is true in
sentences 4 and 12, where we find colluḋ aN n-írenn 'the destruction of their land', and in
imaḋ na treḃ 'the rivalry of the tribes'. In sentence 11, the noun maiġe is followed by its
modifier, the adjective réiḋi, thus 'even fields'. A determinatum-determinans relation in form
of a relative construction following the noun it modifies can be found in sentence 13, where
boí leu 'that was with them' follows the nouns in t-énlorg ocus in t-énaṁar 'the flight of the
birds and the singing of the birds'.
2.2. Word Order in Nominal Syntagms and Compounds
In nominal syntagms, the verbal or predicate element is placed at the head of the sentence.
In nominal compounds, such as the determinative compounds énlorg 'flight of the birds' and
énaṁar 'singing of the birds', the VSO-specific syntactical order of modifier and modified
element appears reversed. Here, we find determinans-determinatum instead of determinatum-
determinans, with the logical genitive én 'birds' preceding lorg 'flight' and aṁar 'singing'
respectively, which it modifies. The explanation for this lies in the fact that compounds
generally tend to preserve archaic patterns and Irish, like all other ancient Indo-European
languages, originally belonged to the SOV type but later underwent a typological change.
2.3. Residues of the Older SOV Structure

Apart from the word order in nominal compounds, which were formed according to the older
syntactic structure still preserved in the older Goidelic layers, remnants of the original SOV
structure can also be found in some of the earliest texts, where verbs may be placed at the end
of their clause. In this situation, simple verbs take conjunct forms (see below, section 3.3),
while compound verbs take prototonic forms (see above, section 1.2). The phenomenon was
identified by Osborn Bergin ("On the Syntax of the Verb in Old Irish," Ériu 12, 1938, 197-
214) and is therefore referred to as Bergin's Law. Another type of residual OV construction is
to be seen in sentence 3, where the non-compound verb ġelltis is preceded by the object
pronoun aL, which is infixed between the verb itself and the imperfect-marker no. Remnants
of SVO are also attested, as probably the deuterotonic inlaat (with implicit subject) followed
by the direct object noí cairptiu in sentence 5.
3. The Verb
3.1. Sentences without Verb

In Old Irish, the verb is frequently omitted in any type of clause, especially where it would
have been a form of the 3rd person indicative, but also in descriptions, peremptory
commands, and even replies to questions. Omission of the verb 'to be' is especially common,
as in the present text sentences such as 7, 9 and 10 show, which begin with the subject of the
clause: Conchuḃur, Erriḋ UlaḋN, and Bricriu, respectively.
3.2. Nominal Forms of the Verb

In Old Irish, verbal action is frequently expressed by nouns, the so-called verbal nouns,
whose subject or object is usually in the genitive. In the last sentence of the present text, the
verbal noun of con°dieig, cuindchiḋ, which is itself in the dative and is governed by the
preposition doL, has the genitive tiġe as its object. Literally translated, the phrase thus means
'for the seeking of shelter', though in English it corresponds to an infinitive construction 'to
seek shelter'. Verbal nouns may also occur without an object; in still other constructions the
subject or object of the action may be placed before the nominative or accusative of the
verbal noun, as the following phrase from Fingail Rónain illustrates: Is mór bríg do mac
aithig guin maic ríg, 'It is a much too serious matter for the son of a villain to kill the son of a
king' (lit. 'for the son of a villain the killing of the son of a king'), where the logical subject
mac aithig 'son of a villain' precedes the verbal noun guin 'killing', and the object maic ríg
'son of a king' follows in the genitive.
Other nominal forms of the verb are the past participle passive, which is inflected like an
adjective, and the verbal of necessity, which is not inflected and, used only in predicative
constructions, has the same meaning as Latin gerundives such as agenda 'things to be done'.
3.3. Inflected Verbal Forms

In Old Irish, verbs are inflected for voice, mood, tense, number and person.
There are two voices, active and passive. In the active, two inflections are distinguished,
active and deponent, the latter of which is in its form similar to the passive but actually based
on the Indo-European middle voice, which denotes that an action is carried out with reference
or benefit to the subject. In the present selection, only active and passive finite verbal forms
occur. There are numerous examples of active forms, e.g. boí 'it was', inlaat 'they prepare',
fosruṁat 'they go', lotir 'they flew', etc. A passive form is found e.g. in sentence eighteen, in
the 3 plural preterite passive toscartha 'they were separated'.
The passive has a special form for the 3rd person plural only, whereas the form of the 3rd
person singular is used for all other persons; in these contexts an infixed pronoun (1st/2nd
person singular/plural) must then be added to indicate the subject.
Three moods are distinguished. The indicative is used in declarative statements, the
subjunctive indicates uncertainty, in subordinate clauses also volition or expectation, and the
imperative serves for commands.
In the indicative, five tenses are distinguished: present, imperfect, preterite, future and
secondary future. The present is used for present and universal or indefinite time, and is also
very often employed as historical present to make a narration more vivid. This is observed
e.g. in sentences five, eleven and twenty-one of the present text. The imperfect denotes
repeated or customary action in the past, as illustrated by the verbs in sentences two and
three, which describe the habitual behaviour of the birds. The preterite indicates past action or
state. As is to be expected in narration, most of the verbal forms of the text are in the
preterite. The future indicates future action, also action completed at a point of time in the
future. The secondary future indicates an action which, when viewed from a definite point of
past time, lay in the future, and also serves as potentialis and irrealis.
The subjunctive mood only differentiates between present and past, whereby the present
subjunctive corresponds to the present and future indicative, and the past subjunctive
corresponds to the imperfect and preterite indicative, and in some subordinate clauses can
also serve as subjunctive of the secondary future.
In order to indicate that an act or state is perfect, completed, the verbal particle ro, which in
origin is a preposition, can be combined with nearly all simple and most compound verbs. It
gives perfective force to the preterite indicative and the past subjunctive, which otherwise
have the meaning of a simple past, and with the imperfect denotes that an action is repeatedly
completed in the past. It also has modal function, expressing possibility or ability (e.g. as°ro-
ba(i)r 'he can say', from as°beir 'says').
The tenses and moods of the verbs are formed from five different stems:
• present stem for present and imperfect indicative as well as the imperative
(active/deponent and passive forms);
• subjunctive stem for present and past subjunctive (active/deponent and passive forms);
• future stem for primary and secondary future indicative (active/deponent and passive
forms);
• active preterite stem for the preterite indicative, active and deponent;
• passive preterite stem for the passive preterite indicative.
Two main classes of verbs, strong and weak, can be distinguished according to the way in
which they form these stems. Strong verbs are without exception primary, never derived,
while weak verbs are mainly denominative. The difference between the two classes is most
obvious in the 3 singular present indicative active, where a weak verb in the so-called
conjunct inflection has the ending -a or -i, while a strong verb has no visible ending.
There are two numbers, singular and plural. Dual subjects take a plural verb. Both numbers
distinguish three persons.
Inflection may be either absolute or conjunct. Absolute inflection is employed for simple
verbs in absolute sentence-initial position. Conjunct inflection is used after all kinds of
preceding elements, such as prepositions, the verbal particles ro and no, the conjunctions and
particles usually termed conjunct particles, and in the archaic construction where the verb
stands at the end of its clause. An example of conjunct inflection is found in the second and
third sentence, where the verbs, viz. notathigtis, naLġelltis, and connáfácbatis, are in the
imperfect and therefore necessarily conjunct, since the imperfect has no absolute forms; its
forms must therefore be preceded by the semantically void particle no whenever there is no
preverb or conjunct particle to introduce them.
Special relative forms of the verb incorporating the pronominal element exist in the absolute
inflection for the third person singular and plural, active and passive, and generally also for
the first person plural active in the present and future indicative as well as in the present
subjunctive (cf. lesson 5, section 21).
Not all paradigms given in the following lessons are complete. This does not necessarily
mean that the forms did not exist, but rather that no textual evidence has been found for them
yet; forms which are preceded by an asterisk are reconstructions.
3.4. Impersonal Constructions

Impersonal constructions are very common in Old Irish. They are generally used where the
emphasis is on the semantic content of the verb, rather than on the logical subject of the
action. Many of these constructions involve prepositions, as for example in sentence four,
which reads BaH tochoṁracht laH hUltu and would be literally translated as 'it was weariness
with the Ulstermen', i.e. 'the Ulstermen were weary', or in sentence six, where we find the
construction ḃaH bés leusoṁ, 'it was a custom with them', i.e. 'they had the custom'. Another
type of impersonal construction is found in the Irish passive constructions, where the
emphasis on the verbal action is even stronger, while the persons involved are of no
importance; there are also actual impersonal forms within the Old Irish passive paradigms.
4. The Noun
Old Irish distinguishes three grammatical genders, masculine, feminine, and neuter. In
nominal inflection, the three Indo-European numbers, singular, plural and dual -- the latter
denoting units of two -- are preserved. Four cases are still differentiated: nominative,
accusative, genitive, and dative. They have the following primary functions:
• The nominative is the case of the grammatical subject.
• The accusative is the case of the direct object. It is also used with verbs of coming and
going to indicate direction, and to indicate time, usually duration, as well as after
certain prepositions.
• The dative is the case of the indirect object. It is also used after certain prepositions.
• The genitive is the case of the subject of possession. It is used to specify or even to
describe another noun (as in e.g. senóir clérigh léith, lit. 'an old man of a grey cleric',
i.e. 'an old, grey-haired cleric'). It also indicates the subject or object of a verbal noun.
Old Irish also possesses a vocative, which is strictly speaking not a case but a special
grammatical form of address for nouns, which are then preceded by the leniting particle aL,
áL.
It must be noted that not all cases are formally differentiated by all three genders or in all
three numbers, and distinction is furthermore dependent on the stem-class to which a noun
belongs. Old Irish distinguishes twelve different stem-classes, six vocalic and six
consonantal, according to the sound in which the stem originally ended. These will be
discussed in detail in the subsequent lessons.
5. Prepositions
Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases, comparable to those in English, and are very
common in VSO languages. They require the accusative (e.g. friL 'against', laH 'with') or the
dative (e.g. doL, duL 'to'; diL, deL 'of, from') of the following noun or pronoun, or either the
accusative or dative depending on whether they denote direction or location (e.g. iN, in 'in;
into'; foL 'under'). They are frequently followed by enclitic personal or possessive pronouns,
as in diaN 'to their', from prep. doL 'to' + suffixed possessive pronoun 3 plural aN 'their' in
sentence five, innaN 'in their', from prep. inN + suffixed possessive pronoun 3 plural aN 'their'
in sentence nine, dóiḃ 'to them', from prep. doL + enclitic personal pronoun -iḃ 'them' in
sentences fifteen and sixteen, etc. Due to the frequent occurrence of these combinations of
prepositions plus personal pronouns, they are not transparent anymore and therefore treated
as inflectional paradigms in the grammars, where they are usually referred to as conjugated
prepositions (cf. lesson 7, section 35); here, for the sake of clarity, they are referred to as
pronominalized prepositions.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 2
The text passages of this and the following two lessons are taken from the story entitled Táin
Bó Regamna "The Cattle Raid of the Important Calf," which, like the text in Lesson 1, forms
part of the Ulster Cycle. The story belongs to the Irish literary genre of Tána Bó, meaning
"cattle raids," and is a prelude to its most prominent representative, the Táin Bó Cuailnge
(TBC) "The Cattle Raid of Cooley," which can be dated to the 8th-11th century AD and
relates how the Ulster hero Cú Chulainn wins back the Brown Bull after it had been stolen by
Medb, queen of the neighbouring province of Connacht. The practice of raiding cattle was
common among Indo-European tribes and represents an archaic feature which must be
considered historical, as similar events are also known from ancient Greece. A successful
cattle raid was an assertion of the integrity of the tribal community and consequently was of
major social importance, though it ceased to be practised in the wake of Christianity with
Irish Catholic church law prohibiting such raids.
Táin Bó Regamna is one of the various and sometimes later composed remscéla leading up to
the TBC: while being a small Táin Bó of its own right, it also serves as a pretext to anticipate
certain events within TBC. It tells of the encounter between the Ulster hero Cú Chulainn and
the war-godess Morrígan "Great Queen". The theme of confrontation between a hero and a
supernatural being is actually a literary genre in itself, and is characterized by several typical
features that are also found in our text: the name of the supernatural being is not explicitly
mentioned until the end of the story, but is encoded in a riddle for his/her real name; the
description of the supernatural being contains unambiguous hints as to his/her identity; the
hero is defeated in one way or the other by the supernatural being; the hero is being foretold
disaster.
Táin Bó Regamna has come down to us in two manuscripts, one from the fourteenth century
AD, contained in the Yellow Book of Lecan (Y), and the other from the sixteenth century AD
(Egerton 1782 (E)), which, albeit younger, contains fewer modernisations and additions. The
language of the archetype seems to go back to the ninth century, thus belonging to the Early
Middle Irish period and therefore somewhat younger than Compert Con Chulainn, the text of
Lesson 1, yet the version used in the present lesson is that prepared and adapted to the Old
Irish standard language in J. Corthals' edition of the text.
The following selection relates the events leading up to the encounter between Cú Chulainn
and the Morrígan. The hero is woken up by the roaring of cattle. Outside his house he is met
by his charioteer Lóeg, and the two follow the sound till they meet up with a highly unusual
entourage, consisting of a red-haired woman clad in red, whose chariot is drawn by only one
red horse in contrast to the customary two horses -- which moreover has only one leg --
accompanied by a big man who is driving a cow. The symbology points to the identity of the
woman as the war-goddess Morrígan, yet her name is not mentioned. Cú Chulainn enters into
a dispute with her over the cow.
AN mboí Cú Chulainn iN nDún Iṁriḋ coNgúalae ní, aN ngéim.
• aN -- conjunction; <aN> as, when -- when
• mboí -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb
<attá> is -- was
• Cú Chulainn -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cú Chulainn> Hound
of Culann -- Cu Chulainn
• nDún Iṁriḋ -- toponym; nasalized dative singular of <Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid -- Dun
Imrid
• coNgúalae -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<ro°cluinethar> hears -- he heard
• ní -- indefinite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ní> something, anything --
something
• aN -- article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ngéim -- verbal noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring
(of cattle) -- a roaring of... cattle
CoN ndíuchrastar trianaL chotluḋ coniḋ corastar assaL imḋai coN riacht inN nariḋin inaL ṡuiḋiu
for lár.
• coN -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- and
• ndíuchrastar -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative, prototonic, of
<do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up -- he woke up
• trianaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <triL, treL> through + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- from his
• chotluḋ -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cotlud> sleeping, sleep
-- sleep
• coniḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and +
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <idL> he -- and... himself
• corastar -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws -- he threw
• assaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <essH, asH, aH> out of, from +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- out of his
• imḋai -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae> bed, couch -- bed
• coN -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- so that
• riacht -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, prototonic, of <ro°saig>
reaches -- he reached
• inN -- article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• nariḋin -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, n-stem, of <aride, airide>
bench -- bench
• inaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- that was
• ṡuiḋiu -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting --
sitting
• lár -- noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle -- the floor
Íar sin immach doL ṡuiḋiu arL les.
N
• íarN -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- after
that
• immach -- adverb; <immach> out of, out -- outside
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- with
• ṡuiḋiu -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited dative singular masculine of
<sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- him
• arL -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- into
• les -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <les> yard -- the yard
CoN mbu íL, aL ḃen, berthae aL étach ocus aL armm inaL ḋiaiḋ.
• mbu -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative, conjunct, of copula
<is> is -- it was
• íL -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
she
• ḃen -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife --
wife
• berthae -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, absolute, relative of
<berid> carries, brings -- who brought
• étach -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <étach> clothing, garment --
clothing
• armm -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <arm, armm> armour, weapon --
armour
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- on his
• ḋiaiḋ -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- trail
CoN naccae ní, Lóeg araL chinn inaL charput inneltiu oc Fertai Loíg antúaiḋ.
• naccae -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- he saw
something
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
• araL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in front of,
east of + suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its --
in... of him
• chinn -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end --
front
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- in his
wagon -- war-chariot
• inneltiu -- adjective; dative singular masculine of preterite indicative passive
participle <inneltae> yoked, harnessed -- harnessed
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- at
• Fertai Loíg -- toponym; dative singular feminine of <Fertae Loíg> Laeg's tumulus --
Ferta Laeg
• antúaiḋ -- adverb; <antúaid> from the north -- from the north
"Ciḋ dotLucai?" ol Cú Chulainn friH Lóeg.
L
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- what
• dotLucai -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<do°beir> brings + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- brings
you
• ol -- indeclinable; <ol> says, said -- said
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- to
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
"Géiṁ roLchúala issinL ṁaiġ," ol Lóeg.
• géiṁ -- verbal noun; accusative singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring (of cattle) -
- the roaring of cattle
• roLchúala -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <ro°cluinethar> hears -- that I heard
• issinL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative singular
neuter of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• ṁaiġ -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plain
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
"CiḋL leth?" ol Cú Chulainn.
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- which
• leth -- noun; nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <leth> side, direction -- direction
"Aníarthúaiḋ amne," ol Lóeg.
• aníarthúaiḋ -- adverb; <aníarthúaid> from the north-west, in the north-west -- from
the north-west
• amne -- emphatic particle; <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that way, so, then -- in fact
• Lóeg -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Lóeg> Laeg -- Laeg
"InaN ndiaiḋ," ol Cú Chulainn.
• inaN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> their -- on their
• ndiaiḋ -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end --
trail
Tíaġait ass íaruṁ coH hÁth da Ḟerta.
• tíaġait -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes -- they set
• ass -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <essH, asH, aH>
out of, from -- out
• íaruṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <íarN,
íarmL-> after -- after this
• coH -- preposition; <coH> to, until -- to
• hÁth da Ḟerta -- toponym; aspirated accusative singular of <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford of the
Two Mounds -- Ath da Ferta
InN dan mbátar ann, íaruṁ coNgúalatar culgaire inL charpait iN doíḃ Grellchae Culgairi.
• inN -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- at the
• dan -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time --
time
• mbátar -- verb; nasalized 3rd person plural preterite indicative, syntactically relative,
of substantive verb <attá> is -- they were
• ann -- adverb; <ann> there -- there
íarmL-> after -- afterwards
• coNgúalatar -- verb; 3rd person plural preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<ro°cluinethar> hears -- they heard
• culgaire -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <culgaire> noise, rumble of a
chariot -- the rumble
• charpait -- noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot,
wagon -- chariot
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- on
• doíḃ -- noun; nasalized dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <tóeb> side -- the side
• Grellchae Culgairi -- toponym; genitive singular of <Grellach Culgairi> Bog of the
Chariot-rumble -- of Grellach Culgairi
Tíaġait fóe coN naccatar ní, inN garpat reiṁiḃ.
• tíaġait -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes -- they go
• fóe -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <foL>
under -- down to it
• naccatar -- verb; nasalized 3rd person plural preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- they see
something
• inN -- article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• garpat -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- chariot
• reiṁiḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <reN> before --
before them
Óenech derg foa ocus óenchoss foL ṡuiḋiu ocus síthḃe inL charpait sethnu indL eich coN
ndechuiḋ geinn trít friH fosaḋ aL étain anair.
• óenech -- noun; compound of <óen-> one, single + nominative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <ech> horse -- a single... horse
• derg -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <derg> red -- red
• foa -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of <foL>
under -- under it
• óenchoss -- noun; compound of <óen-> one, single + nominative singular feminine, ā-
stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- a single leg
• foL -- preposition; <foL> under -- under
• ṡuiḋiu -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited dative singular masculine of
<sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned -- the just-mentioned
• síthḃe -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <síthbe> pole, shaft -- the
shaft
wagon -- chariot
• sethnu -- preposition; <sethnu, sethno> through, across -- through
• indL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• eich -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -- horse
• ndechuiḋ -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular perfect indicative, prototonic, of
<téit> goes -- went
• geinn -- noun; nominative singular feminine, dental stem, of <genn, geinn> wedge,
block -- a wedge
• trít -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <triL,
treL> through -- through it
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- till
• fosaḋ -- noun; accusative singular masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <fossad, fosad> plain
surface -- the surface
• aL -- possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- of its
• étain -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <étan, édan> front, brow,
forehead -- forehead
• anair -- adverb; <anair> from the front, before -- from the front
Ben derg issinL charput ocus bratt derg impe ocus diL ḃraí ḋerġa lé ocus aH bratt eter diL ḟeirt
inL charpait síar coN sliġeḋ lár inaH diaiḋ ocus fer mór iN goṁair inL charpait.
• ben -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- a...
woman
• issinL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative singular
masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
wagon -- chariot
• bratt -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bratt> cloak, mantle -- a...
cloak
• impe -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of
<imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- around her
• diL -- numeral; nominative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• ḃraí -- noun; lenited nominative dual feminine, u-stem, of <brú, brá> eyebrow, brow -
- eyebrows
• ḋerġa -- adjective; lenited nominative dual feminine of <derg> red -- red
• lé -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- on her
• aH -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- her
• bratt -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bratt> cloak, mantle --
cloak
• eter -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between
• diL -- numeral; accusative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- the two
• ḟeirt -- noun; lenited accusative dual feminine, ā-stem, of <fert> shaft, pole -- hind-
poles
wagon -- of the chariot
• síar -- adverb; <síar> backwards, back -- to the back
• sliġeḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active, conjunct, of <sligid>
strikes, slays; clears -- it dragged
• lár -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle -- on
the ground
• inaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- on her
• diaiḋ -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- trail
• fer -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- a.. man
• mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- big
• goṁair -- adverb; nasalized; <comair> in front of -- front of
• inL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
wagon -- chariot
Fúan forbbtha immi ocus gaḃallorg finnchuill friaL aiss oc immáin naH bó.
• fúan -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fúan> tunic -- a tunic
• forbbtha -- noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <forbbaid> covering; shroud --
as a covering
• immi -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- on him
• gaḃallorg -- noun; compound of <gabul, gabal> fork + nominative singular feminine,
ā-stem, of <lorg> stick, shaft -- forked pole
• finnchuill -- noun; compound of <find, finn> white, bright + lenited genitive singular
masculine, o-stem, of <coll> hazel-tree -- of white hazel
• friaL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards +
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- on his
• aiss -- noun; accusative singular feminine of <aiss, ais> back, hinder part -- back
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- ...
• immáin -- verbal noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin> driving;
roaming, wandering about -- he was driving
• naH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• bó -- noun; genitive singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- cow
"Ní fóeliḋ inL ḃó liḃ ocaH himmáin," ol Cú Chulainn.
• fóeliḋ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <fóelid> happy -- happy
• inL -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ḃó -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine irregular of <bó> cow, ox -- cow
• liḃ -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person plural accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- with ye
• ocaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <oc> at, with, by + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- at her
• himmáin -- verbal noun; aspirated dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin>
driving; roaming, wandering about -- driving
"Ní dír duit éim aH hetercert naH bó so," ol inL ḃen.
• dír -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <dír> proper, fit, necessary -- fitting
• duit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- for
you
• éim -- emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- indeed
• aH -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- ...
• hetercert -- noun; aspirated nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <etercert>
interpretation, discussion, judgement, decision -- the judging
• naH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of
• so -- demonstrative pronoun; <so> this, these -- this
woman
"Ní bó charat na choicéli duit."
• ní -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- it is not
• bó -- noun; nominative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- the cow
• charat -- noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, nt-stem, of <carae> friend -- of a
friend
• choicéli -- noun; lenited genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <coicéle, coicéile>
companion, friend; friendship -- of a companion
• duit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- to
you
"Is dír daṁsa éim baí UlaḋN nuile," ol Cú Chulainn.
• dír -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <dír> proper, fit, necessary -- fitting
• daṁsa -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular dative of
<duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- for me
• éim -- emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- indeed
• baí -- noun; nominative plural feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- the cows
of the Ulstermen
• nuile -- adjective; nasalized genitive plural masculine of <uile> all, whole -- of all
"Etercertaisu anba, aL Chú," ol inL ḃen.
• etercertaisu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular present indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <eter°certa> interprets; decides, determines + emphasizing particle
2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- you judge
• anba -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <anba> vast quantity -- a vast
quantity
• aL -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- o
• Chú -- proper name masculine; lenited vocative singular of <Cú> Hound -- Cu
woman
"CiḋL arndiḋ íL, inL ḃen, atomLġláḋathar?" ol Cú Chulainn.
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why is it
• arndiḋ -- preposition; compound form of preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in front
of, east of + relative particle <-aN, -saN> that which, what + 3rd person singular
present indicative, conjunct, of copula, <-did> is -- that it is
• íL -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
her
woman
• atomLġláḋathar -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular present indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°gládathar> addresses, speaks to + infixed
pronoun 1st person singular <domL, dumL> I -- who speaks to me
"CiḋL nach é in fer atomLġláḋathar?"
• ciḋL -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why
• nach -- negative particle; compound form of negative <nad> not + 3rd person singular
present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- is it not
• é -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
him
• fer -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- man
• atomLġláḋathar -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular present indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°gládathar> addresses, speaks to + infixed
pronoun 1st person singular <domL, dumL> I -- who speaks to me
Lesson Text
AN mboí Cú Chulainn iN nDún Iṁriḋ coNgúalae ní, aN ngéim. CoN ndíuchrastar trianaL
chotluḋ coniḋ corastar assaL imḋai coN riacht inN nariḋin inaL ṡuiḋiu for lár. ÍarN sin
immach doL ṡuiḋiu arL les. CoN mbu íL, aL ḃen, berthae aL étach ocus aL armm inaL
ḋiaiḋ. CoN naccae ní, Lóeg araL chinn inaL charput inneltiu oc Fertai Loíg antúaiḋ.
"CiḋL dotLucai?" ol Cú Chulainn friH Lóeg.
"Géiṁ roLchúala issinL ṁaiġ," ol Lóeg.
"CiḋL leth?" ol Cú Chulainn.
"Aníarthúaiḋ amne," ol Lóeg.
"InaN ndiaiḋ," ol Cú Chulainn.
Tíaġait ass íaruṁ coH hÁth da Ḟerta. InN dan mbátar ann, íaruṁ coNgúalatar culgaire
inL charpait iN doíḃ Grellchae Culgairi. Tíaġait fóe coN naccatar ní, inN garpat reiṁiḃ.
Óenech derg foa ocus óenchoss foL ṡuiḋiu ocus síthḃe inL charpait sethnu indL eich
coN ndechuiḋ geinn trít friH fosaḋ aL étain anair. Ben derg issinL charput ocus bratt
derg impe ocus diL ḃraí ḋerġa lé ocus aH bratt eter diL ḟeirt inL charpait síar coN sliġeḋ
lár inaH diaiḋ ocus fer mór iN goṁair inL charpait. Fúan forbbtha immi ocus gaḃallorg
finnchuill friaL aiss oc immáin naH bó.
"Ní fóeliḋ inL ḃó liḃ ocaH himmáin," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Ní dír duit éim aH hetercert naH bó so," ol inL ḃen. "Ní bó charat na choicéli duit."
"Is dír daṁsa éim baí UlaḋN nuile," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Etercertaisu anba, aL Chú," ol inL ḃen.
"CiḋL arndiḋ íL, inL ḃen, atomLġláḋathar?" ol Cú Chulainn. "CiḋL nach é in fer
atomLġláḋathar?"
Translation
When Cu Chulainn was in Dun Imrid, he heard something, a roaring of the cattle. And
he woke up from his sleep and he threw himself out of his bed so that he reached the
bench that was sitting on the floor. After that, outside with him, into the yard. And it
was she, his wife, who brought his clothing and his armour on his trail. And he saw
something, Laeg, in front of him, in his harnessed war-chariot, at Ferta Laeg, from the
north.
"What brings you (here)?" said Cu Chulainn to Laeg.
"A roaring of cattle that I heard in the plain," said Laeg.
"Which direction?" said Cu Chulainn.
"From the north-west, in fact," said Laeg.
"(Let's go) on their trail!" said Cu Chulainn.
After this, they set out to Ath da Ferta. Afterwards, at the time they were there, they
heard the rumble of the chariot on the side of Grellach Culgairi. They go down to it
and see something, the chariot before them. A single red horse under it, and a single
leg under the just-mentioned, and the shaft of the chariot through the horse, so that a
wedge went through it till the surface of its forehead from the front. A red woman
(was) in the chariot, and a red cloak around her, and two red eyebrows on her, and her
cloak to the back between the two hind-poles of the chariot so that it dragged on the
ground on her trail, and a big man (was) in front of the chariot. (There was) a tunic as
a covering on him, and a forked pole of white hazel on his back; he was driving the
cow.
"The cow (is) not happy with ye at her driving," said Cu Chulainn.
"The judging of this cow is indeed not fitting for you," said the woman. "(It is) not the
cow of a friend nor of a companion to you."
"It is fitting for me indeed (to judge) the cows of all of the Ulstermen," said Cu
Chulainn.
"You judge a great quantity, o Cu," said the woman.
"Why is it that it is her, the woman, who speaks to me?" said Cu Chulainn. "Why is it
not him, the man, who speaks to me?"
Grammar
6. Initial Mutations
In Old Irish, a morphophonological phenomenon exists which causes phonological alterations
to the initial sounds of words in certain syntactical constructions. Originally of purely
phonological character, these changes were caused by the old endings of the preceding
forms/words; even though the original endings had already been lost by the Old Irish period,
their effects remained, causing the initial sound of a following word or words to be lenited,
nasalized or aspirated. However, for a word to suffer initial mutation, the word causing this
does not necessarily have to immediately precede it, or can even be completely absent, as is
the case with the leniting and nasalizing relative clauses (cf. lesson 4, section 16).
6.1. Lenition
Historically speaking, initial lenition was caused by the final vowel of a syntactically closely
connected preceding word. In such a context, the following forms and words cause lenition of
a following initial consonant:
A. Declensional forms:
• dative singular of all genders and stems;
• nominative and vocative singular of all feminines;
• genitive, vocative singular and nominative plural of masculine o- and yo- stems;
• genitive singular of neuter o- and yo- stems;
• nominative, vocative and accusative plural of all neuters (inconsistently after those
ending in -a);
• nominative, accusative and genitive dual of masculines and feminines;
• nominative and vocative singular of cú 'hound';
• the neuters alaill and ced cid 'which?';
• the possessive pronouns mo m- 'my', do t- 'thy', a 'his, its';
• the infixed personal pronouns, 1st and 2nd person singular -m and -t, and 3rd person
singular neuter -a -(i)d.
B. Verbal forms:
Originally, initial lenition only occurred after the following forms of the copula:
• absolute relative forms in leniting relative clauses;
• all forms of the imperative;
• the 3rd person singular past subjunctive bad, bed;
• monosyllabic conjunct forms (except 3rd person singular -did -dib -dip and forms that
have become monosyllabic by shortening);
• the forms masu 'if it is', cesu 'though it is', and their plurals matu, cetu ceto.
In later sources the application of lenition spreads and any verb can lenite a following object,
subject or attributive, though this is not a general rule.
C. Uninflected words:
• the prepositions amal, ar, cen, di, do, fiad, fo, im, ó úa and tre tri lenite the initial
consonant of the word they govern;
• the verbal particle ro ru when unstressed after a conjunct particle;
• the conjunctions acus ocus 'and', no/nó nu/nú 'or', fa/fá ba/bá 'or', ma/má 'if', cía ce
'although', co 'so that', ó 'since', ama(i)l 'as', except in nasalizing relative clauses;
• the negatives nicon/nícon, na(d)con;
• the vocative particle a/á;
• the emphasizing particle su, so after personal pronouns;
• the numeral cóic 'five' in all cases except the genitive plural.
Also, the second element of a compound (cf. lesson 9, section 43) is lenited:
• when the first element is a noun, adjective (including uninflected adjectives prefixed
to a noun), or numeral;
• after the inseparable prefixes so- su- 'good', do- du- 'bad', mí- 'ill-, mis-, wrong' and
the negative neb- neph-;
• after the prepositions aith ath 're-, ex-', air er ir 'before, for', dí de 'of, from', do, du 'to',
fo 'under', imb im(m) 'about, mutually', ind 'in, into', ó 'from, by', rem 'before', ro,
ta(i)rm 'across, over', to 'to, towards', in nominal and in close verbal compounds.
Initial lenition affects consonants only, and has basically the same effect as word-internal
lenition (cf. lesson 1, section 1), causing spirantization of g, d, b, c, t, p and m to ġ, ḋ, ḃ, ch,
th, f and ṁ respectively, and causing more lax articulation of n r l, which, however, is not
indicated orthographically. It furthermore affects f, which becomes silent, while s turns into
either /h/ or f, depending on its origin (e.g. suidiu 'sitting', lenited ṡuidiu -- as in the second
sentence, inaL ṡuiḋiu; but siur 'sister', lenited fiur, from *sw- (cf. Goth. swistar)).
There are general exceptions to initial lenition: where the Old Irish final sound and the
following initial consonant are homorganic, initial lenition does not occur and the two sounds
form an unlenited geminate instead; initial t and d are never lenited after final n, l, s, th, d; the
initial consonants of adjectival cach cech 'every', of the emphasizing particles sa, se, su, som
etc. (cf. lesson 3, section 15.1), and of the demonstrative particles so, sin are never lenited
(though the demonstrative particles are lenited when used as substantives after prepositions
and in sunda 'here').
Just like lesson 1, the text of this lesson provides many examples of initial lenition, such as
trianaL chotluḋ 'from his sleep' or the abovementioned inaL ṡuiḋiu, lit. 'in his sitting', both
lenited by the possessive pronoun, 3rd person singular masculine aL. In the phrase inL
charpait the genitive singular of the article lenites the following genitive noun (carpait), while
Ní bó charat na choicéli represents an instance of a following genitive (carat, coicéli) being
lenited for syntactic reasons. In diL ḃraí 'two eyebrows' lenition is caused by the numeral
'two', and in aL Chú we find lenition of the personal name due to the preceding vocative
particle aL.
6.2. Nasalization
This phenomenon is generally caused by the following words and inflectional forms,
originally ending in -n (representing both old final -n and -m):
Declensional forms:
• the accusative singular and genitive plural of all genders;
• the nominative singular of all neuters;
• the nominative, vocative, accusative and genitive dual of all neuters;
• the dative, all genders, of the numeral "two";
• the infixed personal pronouns 3rd person singular masculine a, d; also, optionally, the
3rd person singular feminine and 3rd person plural s;
• the plural possessive pronouns ar 'our', far 'your', a 'their'.
Verbal forms:
• the absolute relative forms of the copula in nasalizing relative clauses
• (cf. lesson 4, section 16).
Uninflected words:
• the numerals secht, ocht, noí, deich;
• the uninflected numerals cóic and sé nasalize the initial sound of a following genitive
plural;
• the relative particle (s)a, and i 'in which';
• the conjunctions a 'while', ara, dia;
• the conjunct particle co (but without nasalization when it is spelled con);
• the interrogative particle in.
• The prepositions co 'with', i 'in', íar 'after' and re ri ría 'before' nasalize the initial
sound of a dependent case.
• The originally nominal prepositions dochum 'towards', in-degaid 'after' and tar-ési
'instead of' nasalize the initial sound of stressed syllables only.
In certain relative clauses the initial sound of the verb is nasalized (cf. lesson 4, section 16).
Nasalization affects both vowels and consonants. It causes prefixing of n to an initial vowel,
and of the homorganic nasal to the mediae g, d, b; the tenues c, t, p are turned into mediae,
and f into its voiced counterpart v. Initial r, l, m, n and s are geminated when preceded by a
proclitic vowel (see below). In writing, nasalization is clearly indicated only in the case of
vowels and mediae; orthographic instances of nasalized c, t, p, f are rare.
There are many instances of nasalization in the lesson text. The first sentence alone presents
us with four examples: AN mboí Cú Chulainn, where the conjunction aN nasalizes the initial
sound of the following copula; iN nDún Iṁriḋ, with nasalization of the toponym caused by the
preposition iN; coNgúalae, again with nasalization of the finite verb (°cúalae) caused by a
conjunction (coN) used as a verbal particle; and finally aN ngéim, where the nasalization of
the direct object is due to the preceding article (accusative singular neuter). In the phrase InaN
ndiaiḋ, for example, we find the nasalizing 3rd person plural of the possessive pronoun a,
causing mutation of the following adverb.
6.3. Spirant Mutation

This phenomenon is generally caused by the original final -s of a syntactically related
preceding word, which may belong to any of the following categories:
Declensional forms:
• the genitive singular of all feminines;
• the accusative plural of all genders;
• the nominative plural feminine and neuter of the article (also the same case-forms of
some other words);
• the nominative accusative singular neuter of na 'any';
• the feminine possessive pronoun a 'her';
• the infixed personal pronouns 3rd person singular feminine and 3rd person plural da,
ta, a.
• The nominative singular ua 'grandson' (a later medieval form of áue) causes
prefixation of h- to an initial vowel in the later language.
Verbal forms:
• the preterital and modal 3rd person singular of the copula ba (except in relative
clauses);
• the negative of the copula ni ní 'is not'.
Uninflected words:
• the prepositions a 'out of', co, cu 'to', fri 'against' and la 'with, among', before a
dependent case;
• the particle assa between comparatives;
• the negative na 'nor';
• the numeral sé 'six', except in the genitive plural;
• the particle a before abstract numerals.
• In pretonic position, all prepositions ending in a vowel, as well as the particles ro, no,
the interrogatives cía ce and co, and the negatives ni ní, na, when no infixed pronoun
is attached to them, geminate the initial consonant of a following verb or verbal
compound (except in relative clauses).
Spirant mutation, also known as gemination, causes the doubling of an initial consonant as a
consequence of the progressive assimilation of the old final sound of the preceding word. It
also affects initial stressed vowels, causing prefixation of h-. Already in decline in the Old
Irish period, gemination is only indicated in writing where the two words are written together,
as scribes never double the initial consonant of a separate word. Unlike the other two types of
mutation, which have become morphophonological phenomena, gemination has never
developed beyond a phonetic phenomenon.
Instances of gemination are found in the present lesson, for example in coH hÁth da Ḟerta
where the preposition coH causes mutation of the following toponym, or in ocaH himmáin
where the aspiration of the verbal noun immáin is due to the possessive pronoun 3rd person
singular feminine a, which is here attached to the preposition oc.
7. Tmesis
As mentioned in lesson 1, section 2, whereas Proto-Celtic was an SOV language, the basic
word order of Old Irish is verb-initial, so that the finite verb generally stands at the head of its
clause. In Old Irish poetry and certain types of prose, however, a more archaic syntax has
been preserved, in which the first preposition of a compound verb or the negative particle
may stand alone at the head of the clause, separated by other words from the remainder of the
verb, which follows later. This feature is known as tmesis. The following example from
Audacht Morainn illustrates this: Is tre ḟir flathemoin fo-síd sámi sube soad sádili-sláini "It is
through the justice of the ruler that he secures peace, tranquility, joy, ease [and] comfort,"
where the preposition fo- of the compound verb fo°sláini is separated from the rest of the
verb by its objects (síd ... sádili).
8. Verbal Nouns and Their Use

The basics of the verbal noun have already been introduced in lesson 1, section 3.2. This
chapter will take a closer look at the more advanced details of verbal nouns and the
constructions they are used in.
8.1. Morphology of the Verbal Noun

No uniform rules exist for the formation of verbal nouns. Though with many exceptions, they
are formed from the same root as the verb to which they belong. The verbal nouns derived
from strong verbs show a great diversity of formations; cf:
• combag, combach from con°boing 'breaks';
• tofun(n) from do°seinn 'pursues', in lesson 1;
• su(i)de from saidid 'sits', in this lesson;
• brith breth, genitive brithe, from berid 'bears';
• mrath from marn(a)id, °mairn 'betrays';
• aicsiu from ad°cí 'sees', in lesson 1;
• ac(c)aldam from ad°gládathar 'addresses';
• géim, in the present lesson, from géisid 'shouts, roars';
• án, áin from agid 'drives';
• clúas from ro°clu(i)nethar 'hears';
• gabál from ga(i)bid 'takes'; etc.
The verbal nouns derived from weak verbs (cf. lesson 4, section 17.2) are usually formed
from the verbal stem by adding -ad, -ath or -iud, -iuth, -ud, -uth, while weak denominative
verbs usually employ the very abstract noun from which they were derived.
8.2. Constructions Involving Verbal Nouns

As noted in lesson 1, section 3.2, verbal noun constructions often correspond to the infinitives
of other languages. They may also be used like English infinitives connected by 'for ... to', as
in Niba fír ... Cet do rainn na mucce, 'It is not just ... for Cet to divide the pig'; the object is in
the genitive, as in most cases, and the verbal noun is related to other nouns by means of do;
but other prepositions (cf. lesson 1, section 5) are found, too. Subjects also can be connected
to the verbal noun by a preposition, e.g. iN in the sentence Conchuḃur dano iN suḋiu innaL
charput 'Conchubur then was sitting in his chariot' (cf. lesson 1, 1st selection), literally
'Conchubur then was in the (act of) sitting in his chariot'.
9. General Synopsis of the Case Endings in Relation to the Noun-Stem Classes

In lesson 1, section 4, the different vocalic and consonantal stem-classes of Old Irish were
mentioned. Due to their variety, it is not always clear from the ending of a declensional form
which case-form of which stem-class the ending represents. The following table offers a
general synopsis of the different possibilities. An [a], [i] or [u] after the C of the consonantal
endings refers to its a-, i-, or u-quality (i.e. velar, palatal or neutral -- cf. lesson 1, section 4).
Ending Singular Plural
Case Stem Case Stem
Ca# Nom. O Gen. O
Nom. Ā Gen. Ā
Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. S Gen. Cons.
Gen. Cons.
Acc. O Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. O
Voc. Ntr. O Nom/Acc. Ntr. Cons.
Voc. Ā
Ci# Nom. Ī Nom. O
Nom. I Nom. Cons.
Gen. O
Dat. Ā, I, Cons.
Acc. Ā, I, Cons.
Voc. O, I
Cu# Nom. U
Dat. O, U
Acc. U
Voc. U
a# Gen. I Nom/Acc/Voc.2 Ntr. O
Gen.2 U Nom/Acc/Voc. Ā
Nom. U
Acc. Cons.
Nom/Acc.2 Ntr. Cons.
e# Nom. YO Gen. YO
Nom. YĀ Gen. YĀ/Ī
Gen. Ā Gen. I
Gen. YĀ/Ī Gen. (Cae) U
Gen. S Gen. S
Acc. YO Nom/Acc. Ntr. YO
Voc. YĀ Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. I
Nom/Acc. Ntr. S
Nom. (Cae) U
i# Gen. YO Nom. YO
Dat. YĀ/Ī Nom. YĀ/Ī
Acc. YĀ/Ī Nom. I
Voc. YO Acc. YĀ/Ī
Acc. I
Nom. (Cai) U
o# Gen. I, U
u# Acc. O, U
Voc. O
(i)u# Dat. YO Acc. YO
Voc. YO
(a)ib# Dat. O, Ā,
U,
Cons.
ib# Dat. YO,

YĀ/Ī,
I, S
10. The Pronoun

Old Irish distinguishes four major groups of pronouns, which are: personal, possessive,
interrogative, and demonstrative pronouns. These are divided into several subclasses.
Personal pronouns exist for all three persons, singular and plural, with a distinction of the
three grammatical genders in the 3rd person singular. Proclitic and enclitic forms are far more
numerous than the stressed ones. The proclitic forms became attached to a pretonic preverb
and are therefore considered to be 'infixed' in the verbal form. Three different sets of infixed
personal pronouns exist, whose usage depends on phonological and syntactical constraints.
The enclitic forms are suffixed either to certain verbal forms or to prepositions, with which
they combine to give the so-called 'conjugated prepositions' (cf. lesson 1, section 5). A special
type of personal pronoun are the emphasizing particles, or notae augentes, which exist in
various forms for each person, with a distinction between masculine/neuter versus feminine
in the 3rd person singular. A detailed description of the personal pronoun will follow in lesson
3, section 15.
The possessive pronouns are formally the old genitive forms of the personal pronoun, and are
therefore not inflected. Again, stressed and unstressed forms exist, with the stressed ones
being used very rarely. The unstressed forms are different for the first and second persons,
while the form for the third persons is a in the singular and plural, and the number/gender can
only be inferred from the following initial mutation: lenition for the 3rd person singular
masculine/neuter, aspiration for the 3rd person singular feminine, and nasalization for the 3rd
person plural. Details on the possessive pronoun will be given in lesson 3, section 15.
The interrogative pronoun distinguishes two forms: An unstressed or weakly stressed form
ce, ci, cía, invariable in gender and number, as well as a more fully stressed form cía 'who?',
neuter cid, ced 'what?', plural citné. For details on the interrogative pronoun see lesson 8,
section 40.1.
The adjectival demonstratives known from other IE languages are expressed in Old Irish by a
combination of the definite article with adverbs of place, like so, se, sin, etc.; see in this
lesson the phrase ÍarN sin immach doL ṡuiḋiu ... 'After that outside with him ...', or in lesson 1
the phrase ind amsir sin 'at that time'. The demonstrative is often emphasized by stressed í
(hí), placed before the demonstrative particle, e.g. in fer (h)í-siu 'this man'. Details on the
article and on the demonstratives will be given in lesson 6, section 30.
Old Irish Online

Lesson 3
After relating the beginning of the encounter between Cú Chulainn and the still-unnamed
Morrígan (see Lesson 2), the text goes on to describe how the hero gets angry with the war-
goddess and her companion because whenever he addresses the man the woman answers, and
vice versa. Upset by their mockery, Cú Chulainn jumps onto the chariot and threatens the
woman with his sword. She tells him that she is a lampooner and got the cow as a reward for
a poem. Upon the hero's demand to hear the poem, she chants of how he will be slain during
the Táin.
This selection continues the conversation, during which Cú Chulainn realizes the true identity
of the woman. The passage includes a dindshenchas, that is, the story of how a place got its
name. We hear how the bog formerly known as Grellach Culgairi 'Bog of the Chariot-
Rumble' -- the name it still bears in the text of the previous lesson -- comes to be named
Grellach Dolluid 'Bog of the Pernicious One'. Though Grellach Dolluid is often identified
with Girley, a village south of Kells, it is most likely located in the north of County Louth;
this identification is supported by the fact that Cú Chulainn, departing from Dún Imrid in
Mag Muirthemne, which is the original name of the plain south of Dundalk in Louth, heads
off in north-western direction, towards Áth da Ḟerta -- not towards the south-west where
Kells would be. Other identifiable place names in this passage are that of Cúailnge 'Cooley', a
mountainous landscape in the north of County Louth and home of the Brown Bull who
fathered the calf, which was to be the cause of the cattle-raid of Cúailnge, as well as Crúachu,
later Crúachain -- Rathcroghan -- in County Roscommon, seat of the kings of Connacht.
Foceird Cú Chulainn beḋg inaL charpat feissin íaruṁ.
• foceird -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws -- ...
• beḋg -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bedg> start, leap -- leaps
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- onto his
• charpat -- noun; lenited accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- chariot
• feissin -- pronominal; 3rd person singular masculine of <féin, feissin> -self, own --
own
Naicc ní iN nneoch íaruṁ inN mnaí nach inN garpat nach inN nech nach inN fer nach inN
mboin, ocus coNnaccaesiuṁ íaruṁ: baH hénsi duḃ forsinL chroíḃ inaL ḟarraḋ.
• naicc -- negative particle; <naicc> no, not -- ...
nothing
• nneoch -- indefinite pronoun; nasalized dative singular neuter of <ní> something,
anything -- anywhere
• inN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- with regard to
• mnaí -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -
- the woman
present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- nor
• garpat -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon -- the chariot
• nech -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse -- the
horse
• fer -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- the man
• mboin -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox --
the cow
• coNnaccaesiuṁ -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular preterite indicative
active, deuterotonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> sees + emphasizing particle 3rd person
singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- he saw it
íarmL-> after -- then
• hénsi -- noun; compound form of aspirated nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
<én> bird + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she... a... bird
• duḃ -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <dub> black -- black
• forsinL -- preposition; preposition <for> on, over + dative singular feminine of article
<in, aN, indL> the -- on the
• chroíḃ -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cróeb, cráeb> branch;
tree, bush -- branch
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- him
• ḟarraḋ -- adverb; lenited; <farrad> beside, along with -- near
"DoltachL ḃen atatLchoṁnaic," ol Cú Chulainn.
• doltachL -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <doltach> pernicious, hurtful --
pernicious
a... woman
• atatLchoṁnaic -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular preterite indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative of <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts; happens, chances +
infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- that it what you happen
to be
"Is Dolluḋ dono bias forsinL ġrellaiġ se coH bráth," ol inL ḃen.
• Dolluḋ -- toponym; nominative singular, o-stem, of <Dollud> distress, damage, havoc
-- Dollud
• dono -- emphatic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- then
• bias -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, relative, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- that... will be
• forsinL -- preposition; preposition <for> on, over + dative singular feminine of article
<in, aN, indL> the -- ...
• ġrellaiġ -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <grellach> bog, mire --
bog
• se -- demonstrative pronoun; <se> this, these -- this
• coH -- preposition; <coH> to, until -- until
• bráth -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <bráth> Doomsday --
Doomsday
woman
Grellach Dolluiḋ íaruṁ aH hainm óL ṡin ille.
• Grellach Dolluiḋ -- toponym; nominative singular of <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of
Distress -- Grellach Dolluid
• aH -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- its
• hainm -- noun; aspirated nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <ainm> name -- name
• óL -- preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by -- from... on
• ṡin -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; lenited; <sin> this, that, those, the
aforementioned -- that
• ille -- adverb; <illei, ille> hither; since; moreover -- time
"Acht rofeisind beḋ tú ní saṁlaiḋ noscarfamais," ol Cú Chulainn.
• acht -- conjunction; <acht> if only, provided that -- if only
• rofeisind -- verb; variant of 1st person singular preterite subjunctive active,
deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows -- I had known
• beḋ -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive, absolute, relative, of copula
<is> is -- that it were
• tú -- personal pronoun; 2nd person singular <tú> you -- you
• saṁlaiḋ -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- like this
• noscarfamais -- verb; 1st person plural secondary future indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <scaraid> separates, parts -- we would... have parted
"Ciḋ dorrignis," olsí, "bieith olc de."
• ciḋ -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if + suffixed
enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- whatever
• dorrignis -- verb; 2nd person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- you would have done
• olsí -- indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- said she
• bieith -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- will result
• olc -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune --
misfortune
• de -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <diL, deL>
from, of -- from it
"Ni cuṁgai olc daṁ," ol Cú Chulainn.
• ni -- independent negative particle; <ní, ni> not -- not
• cuṁgai -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc> can,
is able -- you can
• olc -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune --
misfortune
• daṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- to
me
"Cuṁgaiṁ écin," ol inL ḃen.
• cuṁgaiṁ -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc> can,
is able -- I can
• écin -- adverb; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of noun <écen> necessity,
compulsion -- indeed
woman
"Is oc dídin doL ḃáissiu atáusa ocus bia," olsí.
• dídin -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <díden> end -- the final touch(es)
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- to
• ḃáissiu -- noun; compound form of lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <bás>
death + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- your death
• atáusa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular present indicative, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st person
singular <se, sa> I -- what I am
• bia -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- what I will be
"Doucussa inN mboin se éim," olsí, "aH síḋ Crúachan conda rodart in Donn Cúailngi leṁ .i.
tarḃ Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai ocus is ed aret biasu iN mbethu coN raḃ dartaiḋ in lóeg fil inaH broinn
inaH bó so ocus is é consaíḋfea Táin Bó Cúailngi."
• doucussa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular perfect indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings -- I have brought
• inN -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- ...
• mboin -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox --
cow
• se -- demonstrative pronoun; <se> this, these -- this
• éim -- emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then -- ...
• aH -- preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from -- from
• síḋ -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <síd> fairy fort -- the fairy fort
• Crúachan -- toponym; genitive singular of <Crúachu, Crúachain> Cruachain -- of
Rathcroghan
• conda -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and +
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <daH> she -- and... her
• rodart -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <dairid>
bulls -- has mounted
• Donn -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <donn> brown -- Brown Bull
• Cúailngi -- toponym; genitive singular of <Cúailnge> Cuailnge -- of Cuailgne
• leṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- through my intervention
• tarḃ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <tarb> bull -- the bull
• Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Dáire mac
Fiachnai> Daire son of Fiachnae -- of Daire mac Fiachnai
• ed -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular neuter of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
such
• aret -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <aret, airet> length, interval, space
(of time) -- the space of time
• biasu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative, absolute,
syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- that you will be
• mbethu -- noun; dative singular masculine, dental stem, of <bethu> life, existence --
alive
• coN -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- until
• raḃ -- verb; 3rd person singular RO-present subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is> is --
will have become
• dartaiḋ -- noun; nominative singular masculine, i-stem, of <dartaid> heifer, bull calf --
a yearling
• lóeg -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lóeg> calf -- calf
• fil -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, relative, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- which is
• inaH -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- in
• broinn -- noun; dative singular feminine, n-stem, of <brú> belly, womb -- the womb
• inaH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of this
• so -- demonstrative pronoun; <so> this, these -- here
• é -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
this
• consaíḋfea -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <con°saídi> stirs up, excites -- which will cause
• Táin Bó Cúailngi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin Bó
Cúailnge> Cattle-Raid of Cuailnge -- the Tain Bo Cuailnge
"Biaṁ airḋirciusa de dinL Táin í sin," ol Cú Chulainn.
• biaṁ -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- I will be
• airḋirciusa -- adjective; compound form of comparative of <airdirc> obvious;
renowned + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- all the more
famous
from, of -- ...
• dinL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + dative
singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- through
• Táin -- noun; dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid -- cattle-
raid
• í -- demonstrative particle; <í> this, these, those -- this
very
"Géna aN nánradu. Brisfea aN mórchathu. Bia tiġḃae naH Táno."
• géna -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <gonaid> slays,
kills, wounds -- I will slay
• nánradu -- noun; nasalized accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <ánrad> hero,
warrior, champion -- warriors
• brisfea -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <brissid>
breaks, destroys; defeats -- I will win
• mórchathu -- noun; compound form of adjective <már, mór> big, great + lenited
accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight -- big battles
• bia -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- I will be
• tiġḃae -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <tigbae> surviving -- the
survivor
• naH -- article; genitive singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• Táno -- noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid -- Tain
Lesson Text
Foceird Cú Chulainn beḋg inaL charpat feissin íaruṁ. Naicc ní iN nneoch íaruṁ inN
mnaí nach inN garpat nach inN nech nach inN fer nach inN mboin, ocus coNnaccaesiuṁ
íaruṁ: baH hénsi duḃ forsinL chroíḃ inaL ḟarraḋ.
"DoltachL ḃen atatLchoṁnaic," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Is Dolluḋ dono bias forsinL ġrellaiġ se coH bráth," ol inL ḃen.
Grellach Dolluiḋ íaruṁ aH hainm óL ṡin ille.
"Acht rofeisind beḋ tú ní saṁlaiḋ noscarfamais," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Ciḋ dorrignis," olsí, "bieith olc de."
"Ni cuṁgai olc daṁ," ol Cú Chulainn.
"Cuṁgaiṁ écin," ol inL ḃen. "Is oc dídin doL ḃáissiu atáusa ocus bia," olsí. "Doucussa
inN mboin se éim," olsí, "aH síḋ Crúachan conda rodart in Donn Cúailngi leṁ .i. tarḃ
Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai ocus is ed aret biasu iN mbethu coN raḃ dartaiḋ in lóeg fil inaH
broinn inaH bó so ocus is é consaíḋfea Táin Bó Cúailngi."
"Biaṁ airḋirciusa de dinL Táin í sin," ol Cú Chulainn. "Géna aN nánradu. Brisfea aN

mórchathu. Bia tiġḃae naH Táno."
Translation
Cu Chulainn leaps onto his own chariot after this. Nothing anywhere after this with
regard to the woman, nor with regard to the chariot, nor with regard to the horse, nor
with regard to the man, nor with regard to the cow, and then he saw it: she was a black
bird on the branch near him.
"A pernicious woman, that is what you happen to be," said Cu Chulainn.
"It is Dollud, then, that this bog will be (called) until Doomsday," said the woman.
After this, Grellach Dolluid has been its name from that time on.
"If only I had known that it were you, we would not have parted like this," said Cu
Chulainn.
"Whatever you would have done," said she, "misfortune will result from it."
"You cannot cause misfortune to me," said Cu Chulainn.
"Indeed I can," said the woman. "(Putting) the final touch(es) to your death, that is
what I am at, and that is what I will be at," said she. "I have brought this cow," said
she, "from the fairy fort of Rathcroghan, and through my intervention the Brown Bull
of Cuailnge has mounted her, that is, the bull of Daire mac Fiachnai; and such is the
space of time that you will be alive, until the calf, which is in the womb of this cow
here, will have become a yearling, and it is this (bull calf) which will cause the Tain
Bo Cuailnge."
"I will be all the more famous through this very cattle raid," said Cu Chulainn. "I will
slay their warriors, I will win their big battles. I will be the survivor of the Tain."
Grammar
11. Syntax: Coordination

Sentences are coordinated by means of different conjunctions. Some of these are in origin
prepositions and have the same meaning in both functions, while others are cases of nouns or
pronouns and are followed by a dependent clause.
11.1. The Conjunction ocus

The most common copulative conjunction, linking sentences as well as words, is ocus 'and'.
In the manuscripts, it is often abbreviated by a symbol resembling a small digit 7.
Coordination, specifically the linking of sentences with ocus, has many applications and is
often used where in modern European languages other kinds of constructions, such as
subordination, are preferred. No conjunction is needed to link adjectives (an example will
come up in lesson 4 in the phrase ... fer coṁthrén coṁchrotha coṁchliss coṁḟobaiḋ
coṁéscaiḋ coṁchiníuil coṁghaisciḋ comméte friut ... 'A man of the same strength, of the
same shape, of the same skill, of the same swiftness, of the same eagerness, of the same
descent, of the same prowess, of the same height as you'), except where they are used
predicatively and the copula is repeated between them (as in the phrase BaH hálaind ocus baH
caín in t-énlorg ... 'It was delightful and it was beautiful the bird-flight' in lesson 1). In that
case they are linked by ocus. A number of co-ordinate words which are constituent elements
of a larger unit are linked by ocus and governed by the preposition eter iter etir, which
precedes the first of them.
11.2. Alternatives to ocus
A special short form os is used when prefixed to the stressed nominative forms of personal
pronouns (cf. lesson 1, section 15.1) in the sense of 'and I' (lit. 'I being') etc. (an example is
found in lesson 1 in the phrase ... ocus aL inġen Deichtire os síL ṁacḋacht 'And his daughter
Deichtire, she being an adult.'); before the pronoun of the 3rd person plural the form ot is
used. In early legal texts os sometimes also occurs in other positions, and very early texts still
preserve the old IE enclitic -ch 'and', which is usually either infixed after the proclitics ro, to,
or suffixed to the copula ba. Early poetry and rhetorical speech also employ the conjunction
scéo, scéu. The meaning 'as well ... as' is expressed by the repetition of the particle emid,
which by itself means 'nearly, as it were'. Coordination may also be expressed by cenmithá
'besides that', which is followed either by a principal clause or by a nasalizing relative clause
(cf. lesson 4, section 16).
11.3. Disjunctive Conjunctions

Separate co-ordinate clauses as well as members of the same clause are usually separated by
disjunctive nó no, nú nu, which in the manuscripts is commonly symbolized by a small
barred l. In combinations of disjunctive phrases leniting rodbo rodbu robo robu is used; it
either introduces the first phrase while the remaining phrases are introduced by nó no, or it
may introduce every phrase, or even, in more complex syntagms, it may stand only before the
later phrases. Between disjunctive clauses airc, airg(g) is occasionally found in the meaning
of 'or'. In disjunctive interrogative clauses of the type 'is it ... or ...?', 'whether ... or ...?'
leniting fa, ba is used, while parallel von-verbal words or phrases in negative clauses are
linked by geminating ná, na, before proclitics nach. Two parallel clauses may be disjuncted
by placing sech before the first clause (e.g. sech níthartsat-som nícomtachtmar-ni 'neither
have they given it nor have we sought (it)'); though at times the same construction can have
copulative force (as in sech bid día, bid duine 'he will be both God and man').
11.4. Adversative Conjunctions

Adversative force can for example be expressed by noch (optionally reinforced by immurgu
'however' or calléic 'yet, nevertheless'), which can also serve as an emphatic copulative
conjunction at the head of a principal clause, or by another conjunction sech, which is
different from the copulative/disjunctive sech mentioned before.
12. The Two Paradigms of the Verb 'to be'

Like Spanish and Basque (non-Indo-European), Old Irish distinguishes two forms of the verb
'to be': the copula and the substantive verb. The copula (is) denotes 'to be' when it is used for
linking the subject to its predicate and therefore is common in characterizations and
descriptions (cf. Span. ser). Syntactically, the copula can also be used to topicalise a
particular word, phrase, or even an entire subordinate clause. The substantive verb ((a)tá) has
a wider semantic connotation, always denoting existence, be it a presence, a transient state,
etc. (cf. Span. estar).
12.1. The Copula

The copula is proclitic and therefore never bears the stress. It immediately precedes the
predicate. The forms of the copula go back to two different roots, IE es- and another one with
initial bh- (OIr. b-).
Forms exist for the following tenses and moods: 1. Present indicative and subjunctive; 2. Past
subjunctive; 3. Preterite and imperfect indicative (formally identical); 4. Future indicative; 5.
Secondary Future indicative; 6. Imperative. Except for the imperative, all paradigms
distinguish between absolute and conjunct forms; absolute flexion in the past subjunctive is
exclusively found with the copula and does not exist for other verbs.
The forms of the copula are as follows:
Present Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. am °da
2 Sg. at °da
3 Sg. is °t, °did (°id)
Rel. as
1 Pl. ammi °dan (arch. °dem)
2 Pl. adib °dad
3 Pl. it °dat
Rel. ata
For the 1st person plural absolute no relative form is attested. When combined with negative
ni ní, the initial d- of the conjunct forms becomes t-, thus we have 1st and 2nd person singular
nita níta, 1st person plural nitan nítan, etc., while the 3rd person singular has no ending and
the form is simply ni ní.
Preterite and Imperfect Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. basa °bsa, °psa, °sa
2 Sg. basa *°bsa, °sa
3 Sg. ba (bá) °bo, °po, °bu, °pu
Rel. ba (bá)
1 Pl. --- °bommar, °bum(m)ar
2 Pl. --- ---
3 Pl. batir, batar °btar, °ptar (°tar, °dar)
Rel. batar
Future Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. be ---
2 Sg. be, ba °be, °pa
3 Sg. bid bith °be °pe, ba °pa
Rel. bes, bas
1 Pl. bemmi, bimmi, bami ---
2 Pl. --- °beth
3 Pl. bit °bat, °pat
Rel. beta
Present Subjunctive
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. ba °ba
2 Sg. ba (be) °ba
3 Sg. ba (bá) °b, °p, ---, °dib, °dip

(°bo, °po, °bu)
Rel. bes, bas
1 Pl. --- °ban
2 Pl. bede °bad (°baid)
3 Pl. --- °bat, °pat
Rel. bete, beta, bata
Past Subjunctive
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. --- °bin, °benn
2 Sg. --- °ptha
3 Sg. bid (bith) °bad, °pad, °bed
Rel. bed, bad

1 Pl. bemmis, bimmis °bemmis, °bimmis
2 Pl. --- ---
3 Pl. betis, bitis °bdis, °ptis (°dis,

°tis)
For the Secondary Future only forms of the 3rd persons are attested. These are always
conjunct, and where they are not preceded by any other conjunct particle, the perfective
particle ro- is prefixed to them. The attested forms are ro°bad, ro°pad for the singular and
ro°btis ro°ptis for the plural.
Imperative
Absolute
1 Sg. ---
2 Sg. ba
3 Sg. bad, bed
1 Pl. ban
2 Pl. bad, bed
3 Pl. bat
12.2. The Substantive Verb
Unlike the copula the substantive verb is stressed. It is the only verb which has a special set
of forms for the so-called consuetudinal present, which has the meaning 'is wont to be, is
continually', as opposed to the ordinary present denoting 'is (now)'.
The forms of the substantive verb are as follows:
Ordinary Present Indicative
Conjunct
1 Sg. °táu, °tó
2 Sg. °taí
3 Sg. °tá
1 Pl. °taam
2 Pl. °taid, °taaid, °taaith
3 Pl. °taat
For its relative forms, the suppletive fil(e) is used, which, being a form of an old verb for 'to
see', requires the accusative of the semantic subject.
Absolute flexion exists only in the 3rd persons, with attá, atá (i.e. *ad°tá) being the most
common form. When conjunct forms are used after a conjunct particle, the preposition ad° is
dropped.
A special impersonal form °táthar exists for the 3rd person singular.
Consuetudinal Present
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. bíuu °bíu
2 Sg. --- °bí
3 Sg. biid, biith, bíid °bí
Rel. bís
1 Pl. bímmi °biam
Rel. bímme
3 Pl. biit, bíit °biat, °bíat
Rel. bíte
Again, special impersonal forms exist for the 3rd person singular; these are bíthir, absolute
flexion, and °bíther, enclitic °rubthar, in the conjunct flexion. The relative form of bíthir is
bíther.
Preterite Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. bá °bá
2 Sg. --- °bá
3 Sg. boí baí °boí °baí
Rel. boíe
1 Pl. bámar °bámmar
2 Pl. --- °baid
3 Pl. bátar, bátir °bátar
Rel. bátar
The absolute forms are used far more rarely than the conjunct forms, and are found only in
somewhat later texts.
The impersonal forms are *both(a)e, botha in the absolute flexion, with the relative form
being identical (*both(a)e, botha), and °both in the conjunct flexion.
Future Indicative
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. bia ---
2 Sg. bie ---
3 Sg. bieid, bied °bia, °bía
Rel. bias
1 Pl. be(i)mmi °biam
2 Pl. bethe °bieid, °bied
3 Pl. bieit, biet, bíet °biat
Rel. be(i)te
Secondary Future
Conjunct
1 Sg. °beinn
3 Sg. °biad
1 Pl. °bemmis
3 Pl. °betis
Present Subjunctive
Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. beu, beo °béo
2 Sg. --- °bee
3 Sg. beith beid, beth bed °bé
Rel. bes(s)
1 Pl. be(i)mmi °bem
2 Pl. be(i)the °beith, °beid
3 Pl. beit °bet

Rel. bete
The impersonal forms for the 3rd person singular are bethir (absolute), its relative form being
bether, and bether (conjunct).
Past Subjunctive
Conjunct
1 Sg. °beinn
2 Sg. °betha
3 Sg. °beth, °bed
1 Pl. °bemmis
2 Pl. °bethe
3 Pl. °betis
Some of the abovementioned conjunct forms insert ro° between the conjunct particle and the
verbal stem; in that case the verb has a slightly different form, as the following table shows:
Consuetudinal Perfect RO-present Perfect

Present Indicative Subjunctive Subjunctive
3 Sg. °ru-b(a)i °rob(a)e °rab(a)e °roi-b °ro-bad
1 Pl. --- °robammar °ro-bam ---
2 Pl. --- °robaid °ro-bith ---
3 Pl. °ru-bat °robatar °rabatar °ro-bat °roibtis
The substantive verb has a verbal of necessity, bu(i)thi. The verbal noun is buith, buid,
genitive bu(i)the.
13. The Noun: o- and yo-Stems

These are masculine or neuter. As in all ancient Indo-European languages, the neuter only
differs from the masculine in the nominative and accusative, which originally shows two
distinct forms in the masculine paradigm while both cases are formally identical in the neuter.
The following table shows the inflections of the o-stem fer, masculine, 'man':
Singular Plural Dual
Nom. fer firL ferL
Voc. fir firu ferL
Acc. ferN firu ferL

Gen. firL ferN fer
Dat. fiurL feraib feraib
The following table shows the inflections of the o-stem dliged, neuter, 'law':
Nom. dligedN dligedL dligeda dligedN
Voc. dligedN dligedL dligeda dligedN
Acc. dligedN dligedL dligeda dligedN
Gen. dligidL dligedN dliged
Dat. dligudL dligedaib dligedaib
The inflection of yo-stems is represented by céile, masculine, 'fellow':
Nom. céile céili céile
Voc. céili céiliu céile
Acc. céileN céiliu céile
Gen. céiliL céileN céile
Dat. céiliuL céilib céilib
...and by cride, neuter, 'heart':
Nom. crideN cride crideN
Voc. crideN cride crideN
Acc. crideN cride crideN
Gen. cridiL crideN cride
Dat. cridiuL cridib cridib
14. The Syntax of the Adjective

An adjective which is used as predicative nominative is inflected and generally agrees with
its subject in gender and number (as in the abovementioned BaH hálaind ocus baH caín in t-
énlorg ... 'It was delightful and it was beautiful the bird-flight' in lesson 1), except where a
neuter adjective in the singular predicates a plural noun. In attributive use, the adjective
follows its noun, with which it agrees in gender, number, and case (e.g. ... baH hén-si duḃ ...
'She was a black bird', in this lesson). However, in prose certain adjectives generally precede
their noun; these are the cardinal numerals 2, 3 and 4 (also 5-10, but these remain
uninflected), the ordinal numerals, and cach cech 'each', nach 'any', and uile 'all, whole' (cf. Is
dír daṁ-sa éim baí UlaḋN n-uile 'It is fitting for me indeed (to judge) the cows of all of the
Ulstermen' in lesson 2).
15. Personal and Possessive Pronouns I

It has already been noted in lesson 2, section 10 that the independent forms of the personal
and possessive pronouns are more restricted in their use than their dependent counterparts
and are mainly employed to highlight the agent, especially where a differenciation between
two subjects is desired. All of the forms mentioned below are therefore emphatic, not just the
more complex ones termed 'emphatic', which are used to add extra reinforcement.
15.1. Independent Personal Pronouns

The independent personal pronouns are most commonly used predicatively and are just
nominatives after the copula and is most commonly used as predicative nominative after the
copula, which is then in the 3rd person, and the pronoun agrees with the subject in gender
(e.g. in this lesson ... is ed aret ..., lit. 'It is it, the space of time' > 'Such is the space of time', ...
is é consaíḋfea Táin Bó Cúailngi, lit. 'It is he who will cause the Tain Bo Cuailnge', or Acht
rofeisind beḋ tú ... 'If only I had known that it were you'). The 1st and 2nd person plural of
the independent personal pronoun always take a singular form of the copula, even where the
subject is plural (e.g. is snisni ata bobes 'It is we who are boues'); but not the 3rd person
plural, which always takes the plural form of the copula.
The stressed nominative forms are:
• 1st person singular: mé, emphatic messe, meisse, mese
• 2nd person singular: tú, emphatic tussuL, tusuL
• 3rd person singular: masculine (h)é, emphatic (h)é-som, feminine sí, neuter (h)ed
• 1st person plural: sní, emphatic snisni, sníni
• 2nd person plural: sí, sib, emphatic sissi, sisi
• 3rd person plural, all genders: (h)é, emphatic héssom
15.2. Emphasizing Personal Pronouns

Also termed notae augentes, the emphasizing personal pronouns are used to reinforce the
pronominal concept or the personal concept already expressed in the sentence. They are
always enclitic and can be suffixed to any pronoun or verb (except the copula, which is
proclitic and therefore cannot support other clitics). The forms of the emphasizing personal
pronouns are:
• 1st person singular: se after palatal consonants and -e, -i, otherwise sa
• 2nd person singular: siu after palatals, otherwise so
• 3rd person singular: masculine and neuter som, feminine si
• 1st person plural: ni
• 2nd person plural: si
• 3rd person plural, all genders: som.
The initial s is never lenited; but it is sometimes geminated after vowels.
15.3. Possessive Pronouns
The possessive pronoun is formally the old genitive of the personal pronoun and is therefore
uninflected. It usually stands in unstressed position before the noun it qualifies, so that the
commonest forms are the unstressed ones; they are as follows:
• 1st person singular: moL muL; but simple mLafter prepositions ending in a vowel, and
after the preposition for
• 2nd person singular: doL duL; but tL after prepositions ending in a vowel, and after the
preposition for
• 3rd person singular: masculine and neuter aL; feminine aH
• 1st person plural: arN
• 2nd person plural: farN, forN
• 3rd person plural: aN.
The stressed forms of the possessive pronoun occur very rarely, because they are only used
predicatively; yet in such constructions, where possessive pronouns are used predicatively in
other modern Indo-European languages, Old Irish nearly always employs the preposition la
or do plus suffixed (i.e. unstressed) personal pronoun instead (e.g. is limm sa 'He is mine').
The following stressed forms are found:
• 1st person singular: muí, emphatic muisse
• 2nd person singular: taí
• 3rd person singular: aí, áe, all genders
• 1st person plural: nathar (náthar)
• 2nd person plural: sethar-si
• 3rd person plural: aí, áe.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 4
The following section constitutes the final part of the Táin Bó Regamna, continuing Lessons
2 and 3. After having been foretold his death, Cú Chulainn enters into a battle of words with
the war-goddess, in which he threatens to defeat her in the imminent battle of the Táin Bó
Cuailgne, and that she will have to beg his forgiveness. But the war-goddess comes up with a
new plot every time, telling him how she will three times take on the shape of a different
animal in order to succeed with her plan.
An interesting element of this passage is the wording of Cú Chulainn's oath, which he utters
three times altogether, following each of the threats of the war-goddess. The verb employed is
tongaid 'swear' (in for-tongu and tongu-sa), and the name of the god is not said, which has its
equivalent in the magic formulas of the Gaulish inscription of Chamalières, where we find
the figura etymologica toncnaman toncsiiontio 'who will swear the oath', and is also known
from Middle Welsh tales such as Kulhwch ac Olwen in the formula tynghaf dynghet. The fact
that the decisive battle will take place at a ford is characteristic of Celtic battles and Celtic
lore history.
The text ends with the third oath, in which Cú Chulainn once again threatens to harm the war-
goddess, this time by a shot from his sling that will break her thigh, so that he will not be
killed that day. Finally, he returns home to Dún Imrid, while the red woman, for the first and
only time named as Morrígan, continues on with her cow to the fairy-fort of Crúachu.
"Cinnas conicfaesu anní sin", ol inL ḃen.
• cinnas -- adverb; <cinnas> how -- how
• conicfaesu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative,
deuterotonic, of <con°icc> can, is able + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
<siu, so, su> you -- will you be able
• anní -- demonstrative particle; neuter; <anní> this, that -- this
...
woman
"Ar inN dain nombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer coṁthrén coṁchrotha coṁchliss coṁḟobaiḋ
coṁéscaiḋ coṁchiníuil coṁghaisciḋ comméte friut bam escongsa ocus foLchichiur curu
immotL chossa issindL áth coN mba éccoṁlonn mór."
• inN -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- at the
• dain -- noun; nasalized accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time --
time
• nombiasu -- verb; 2nd person singular future indicative, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of substantive verb <attá> is + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu,
so, su> you -- when you will be
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- in
• coṁruc -- noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <comrac> encounter; combat;
collision; sexual relation -- combat
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- with
• fer -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- a man
• coṁthrén -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
adjective <trén> strong -- of the same strength
• coṁchrotha -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <cruth> form, appearance -- of the same
shape
• coṁchliss -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless> feat, skill -- of the same skill
• coṁḟobaiḋ -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
adjective <fobaid> quick, prompt, active -- of the same swiftness
• coṁéscaiḋ -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + adjective
<éscaid> alert, eager; swift -- of the same eagerness
• coṁchiníuil -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive
singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenél> race, tribe; descent -- of the same descent
• coṁghaisciḋ -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive
singular masculine, o-stem, of <gaisced> weapons, armour; prowess -- of the same
prowess
• comméte -- adjective; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive
singular feminine, yā-stem, of <méit> greatness, magnitude, size -- of the same
height
• friut -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards -- as you
• bam -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- I will
be
• escongsa -- noun; compound form of nominative singular feminine, of <escong> eel +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- an eel
• foLchichiur -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws -- I will throw
• curu -- verbal noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting; throwing;
letting go -- slings
• immotL -- preposition; compound form of preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about;
mutually + possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- around your
• chossa -- noun; lenited accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg --
feet
• issindL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• áth -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
• mba -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of copula <is>
is -- it will be
• éccoṁlonn -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <éccomlonn> unequal
combat, unfair odds -- a... unequal combat
• mór -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -- very
"Fortongu doL ḋía toingthe Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "fortatnesaḃsu friH glaisslecca indL átho
ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth manimL ḋergaissu."
• fortongu -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of <for°toing>
swears, attests -- I swear
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- by
• ḋía -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dé, día> god -- the god
• toingthe -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, relative of <tongaid>
swears, takes an oath -- by which... swear
• Ulaiḋ -- proper name; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians,
Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen
• fortatnesaḃsu -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <for°nesa> strikes, kicks, crushes + infixed pronoun 2nd person
singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
you -- I will crush you
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- against
• glaisslecca -- noun; compound form of adjective <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey +
accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <lecc> rock, stone -- the grey stones
• indL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• átho -- noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
• nicotL -- independent negative; compound form of negative particle <nícon, nicon>
not + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- no... for you
• ḃia -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- there will be
• ícc -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ícc> cure; solution -- cure
• úaimLse -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular dative
of <óL, úaL> from, by + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- on my
part
from, of -- from it
Doomsday
• manimL -- conjunction; compound form of negative conjunction <mani> if not +
infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- unless... my
• ḋergaissu -- verb; 2nd person singular RO-present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<do°guid> entreats, asks pardon + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so,
su> you -- you ask... pardon
"Bia soḋsa dono glass duitsiu", olsí, "ocus géḃa bréit dotL ḋóitind deiss conicci doL riġiḋ clí."
• bia -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- I will be
• soḋsa -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sod, sad> bitch, wolf-bitch +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- a... wolf-bitch
• glass -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey -
- grey
• duitsiu -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular dative
of <duL, doL> to + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you --
against you
• géḃa -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid> takes;
proceeds; recites -- I will take
• bréit -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bréit> strip; cloth; shred -- a
strip
• dotL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- off... your
• ḋóitind -- noun; lenited compound form of <dóe> arm + dative singular neuter, o-
stem, of <ind> end -- the end of... arm
• deiss -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <dess> right, south of -- right
• conicci -- preposition; <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till -- up to
• doL -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- your
• riġiḋ -- noun; accusative singular feminine, dental stem, of <rig> fore-arm -- fore-
arm
• clí -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <clé> left -- left
"Tongusa doL ḋía toingte Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "notLḃenaḃsu sechaṁ coṁL chleittíniu coN
mmeṁa doL ṡúil itL chinn ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth manimL ḋergaissu."
• tongusa -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative, absolute, of <tongaid> swears,
takes an oath + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I swear
• doL -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- by
• ḋía -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dé, día> god -- the god
• toingte -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, absolute, relative of <tongaid>
swears, takes an oath -- by which... swear
• Ulaiḋ -- proper name; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians,
Ulstermen -- the Ulstermen
• notLḃenaḃsu -- verb; compound form of verbal particle <no>... + infixed pronoun 2nd
person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + 1st person singular future indicative active,
conjunct, of <benaid> beats, strikes, slays, wounds + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- I... will strike you
• sechaṁ -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <sech> past,
beyond -- myself
• coṁL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with + suffixed
possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- with my
• chleittíniu -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cleittíne> javelin,
dart -- javelin
• mmeṁa -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of <maidid> breaks,
bursts -- shall burst
• ṡúil -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye -- eye
• itL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- inside your
• chinn -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end --
head
• nicotL -- independent negative; compound form of negative particle <nícon, nicon>
not + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you -- no... for you
• ḃia -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb <attá>
is -- there will be
• ícc -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ícc> cure; solution -- cure
• úaimLse -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 1st person singular dative
of <óL, úaL> from, by + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- on my
part
from, of -- from it
Doomsday
• manimL -- conjunction; compound form of negative conjunction <mani> if not +
infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- unless... my
• ḋergaissu -- verb; 2nd person singular RO-present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<do°guid> entreats, asks pardon + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so,
su> you -- you ask... pardon
"Biaṁ saṁaiscse finn áuderg dono", olsissi, "ocus doraġ issinN linn iN fail indL átho inN
nattan rombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer busL choiṁchliss duit ocus cétN mbó finnN náuderg imL
ḋiaiḋ ocus meṁais ind éit uile imL ḋiaiḋse issinN náth ocus conbiḃsustar fír ferN fortsu aN llá
sin ocus géttair doL chenn ditL issindL áth sin."
• biaṁ -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- I will be
• saṁaiscse -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <samaisc> heifer +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- a... heifer
• finn -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <find, finn> white, bright -- white
• áuderg -- adjective; compound of <áu> ear + nominative singular feminine of
adjective <derg> red -- red-eared
• olsissi -- indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + emphatic
personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- said she
• doraġ -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét, do°téit>
comes; goes -- I will come
• issinN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative
singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- into the
• linn -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <linn> pool, lake, sea -- water
• iN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- at
• fail -- noun; dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <fail> place, spot -- a spot
• indL -- article; genitive singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• átho -- noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
• inN -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- ...
• nattan -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <attan, attain> another
time -- once again
• rombiasu -- verb; compound form of nasalized 2nd person singular RO-future
indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of substantive verb <attá> is +
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- when... you will be
• oc -- preposition; <oc> at, with, by -- in
• coṁruc -- noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <comrac> encounter; combat;
collision; sexual relation -- combat
• friH -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- against
• fer -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- a man
• busL -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, relative, of copula <is> is
-- who will be
• choiṁchliss -- adjective; lenited compound form of preposition <comL, coN> with +
lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless> feat, skill -- as skilled
• duit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- as
you
• cétN -- numeral; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cétN> hundred -- a hundred
• mbó -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox -- cows
• finnN -- adjective; genitive plural feminine of <find, finn> white, bright -- white
• náuderg -- adjective; nasalized compound of <áu> ear + genitive plural feminine of
adjective <derg> red -- red-eared
• imL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + possessive
pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- me
• ḋiaiḋ -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end -- after
• meṁais -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative, absolute, of <maidid> breaks,
bursts -- will charge
• ind -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• éit -- noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <éit> cattle -- cattle
• uile -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <uile> all, whole -- all
• imL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + possessive
pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- on my
• ḋiaiḋse -- noun; lenited compound form of accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of
<dead, diad> end + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- trail
• issinN -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- into the
• náth -- noun; nasalized accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
• conbiḃsustar -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<con°boing> breaks; defeats; violates -- will be violated
• fír -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice -- the
right
• ferN -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- of men
• fortsu -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular dative of
preposition <for> on, over + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
you -- against you
• aN -- article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- on that
• llá -- noun; nasalized accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight
-- day
very
• géttair -- verb; 3rd person singular future indicative passive, absolute, of <gataid>
takes away, removes; steals -- will be chopped
• chenn -- noun; lenited nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end
-- head
• ditL -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <diL, deL> from, of -
- off you
• issindL -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> the -- in that
• áth -- noun; dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford -- ford
very
Lesson Text
"Cinnas conicfaesu anní sin", ol inL ḃen. "Ar inN dain nombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer
coṁthrén coṁchrotha coṁchliss coṁḟobaiḋ coṁéscaiḋ coṁchiníuil coṁghaisciḋ
comméte friut bam escongsa ocus foLchichiur curu immotL chossa issindL áth coN
mba éccoṁlonn mór."
"Fortongu doL ḋía toingthe Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "fortatnesaḃsu friH glaisslecca

indL átho ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth manimL ḋergaissu."
"Bia soḋsa dono glass duitsiu", olsí, "ocus géḃa bréit dotL ḋóitind deiss conicci doL
riġiḋ clí."
"Tongusa doL ḋía toingte Ulaiḋ", ol Cú Chulainn, "notLḃenaḃsu sechaṁ coṁL

chleittíniu coN mmeṁa doL ṡúil itL chinn ocus nicotL ḃia ícc úaimLse de coH bráth
manimL ḋergaissu."
"Biaṁ saṁaiscse finn áuderg dono", olsissi, "ocus doraġ issinN linn iN fail indL átho
inN nattan rombiasu oc coṁruc friH fer busL choiṁchliss duit ocus cétN mbó finnN
náuderg imL ḋiaiḋ ocus meṁais ind éit uile imL ḋiaiḋse issinN náth ocus conbiḃsustar
fír ferN fortsu aN llá sin ocus géttair doL chenn ditL issindL áth sin."
Translation
"How will you be able (to do) this?", said the woman. "For at the time when you will
be in combat against a man of the same strength, of the same shape, of the same skill,
of the same swiftness, of the same eagerness, of the same descent, of the same
prowess, of the same height as you, I will be an eel, and I will throw slings around
your feet in the ford, so that it will be a very unequal combat."
"I swear by the god by which the Ulstermen swear", said Cu Chulainn, "I will crush
you against the grey stones of the ford, and there will be no cure from it for you on
my part until Doomsday, unless you ask my pardon."
"I will be a grey wolf-bitch, then, against you", said she, "and I will take a strip off the
end of your right arm up to your left fore-arm."
"I swear by the god by which the Ulstermen swear", said Cu Chulainn, "I myself will
strike you with my javelin so that your eye shall burst inside your head, and there will
be no cure from it for you on my part until Doomsday, unless you ask my pardon."
"I will be a white, red-eared heifer then", said she, "and I will come into the water at a
spot of the ford when once again you will be in combat against a man who will be as
skilled as you, and a hundred white, red-eared cows after me, and all the cattle will
charge into the ford after me, and the right of men will be violated against you on that
very day, and your head will be chopped off you in that very ford."
Grammar
16. Relative Clauses
16.1. Types of Relative Clauses

There are basically three types of relative clauses in Old Irish, depending on the relation
between the relative clause and the antecedent:
Where the antecedent is the subject of the verb of the relative clause, the leniting relative
clause is used. Where the antecedent is the object of the verb of the relative clause, the
nasalising relative clause or optionally the leniting relative clause is used. The construction
with nasalising relative clause is also employed where the antecedent (a) is the verbal noun of
the verb of the relative clause, (b) is semantically the predicative nominative of the relative
clause, (c) designates the manner or degree of the contents of the relative clause, or (d)
designates the place or time at which the contents of the relative clause take place. Where the
relation between relative clause and antecedent is expressed by a preposition, the
prepositional relative clause is used.
In all types of relative clauses, the essential marker of relativity is just the lenition or
nasalisation showing in the initial consonant of their predicate. In addition, some further
relative morphemes may appear in the relative clause:
• The special relative form of simple verbs, absolute inflection, in the 3rd persons or in
the 1st person plural (such as the 3rd person plural toingthe in do día toingthe Ulaid
'by the god by which the Ulstermen swear' in the text of this lesson, or the 3rd person
singular bias in is Dollud dono bias forsin grellaig se 'it is Dollud then that this bog
will be' in the previous lesson).
• The semantically void verbal prefix no before all other persons of simple verbs.
• The special relative forms of the negative: nad/nád, na/ná, before infixed pronouns
nach-/nách-.
• The special relative forms imme/imma and ara of the prototonic prepositions imm and
ar (as in ara scortis a cairptiu 'that they should unyoke their chariots' in lesson 1).
In the construction with prepositional relative clause, the preposition stands at the beginning
of the relative clause, followed by the enclitic element -aN or -saN, which remains uninflected;
the variant used depends on the original final sound of the preposition: after original vowels,
the form with s- is used, so that the preposition ar becomes ar-aN, co becomes cosaN, etc.
Furthermore, the infixed personal pronouns have special relative forms, which cause lenition
or nasalisation depending on the person, yet their use is not obligatory (for these see lesson 6,
section 26).
17. The Verb: Voice and Stem-Classes
17.1. Active vs. Impersonal/Passive

As has been pointed out in lesson 1, section 3.3, Old Irish distinguishes two voices, active
and passive. Verbs with active meaning either have active personal forms, or personal forms
resembling those of the passive. These latter forms ends in -r (except in the 2nd person
plural) and have correspondences in Italic, Hittite and Tocharian; they constitute the so-called
deponent inflection and will be discussed in more detail in lesson 9, section 45.2.
All active verbs (including deponents) -- be they transitive or intransitive -- have two
additional, impersonal forms, one for the singular and one for the plural, both ending in -r.
They are used in impersonal constructions, e.g. of intransitive verbs: tíagar 'let
someone/people go' (from téit 'goes'), lit. 'let it be gone'. In lesson 3, section 12.2, examples
have been seen from the substantive verb.
Both singular and plural impersonal forms are used to form passive constructions of active
verbs. They do not require an added personal pronoun when used for the 3rd person singular
(e.g. carthair/°carthar 'he/she/it is loved', 3rd person singular absolute/conjunct, present
indicative) or plural (e.g. cartair/°cartar 'they are loved', 3rd person plural absolute/conjunct,
present indicative). The 3rd person singular of the impersonal is also used to express the
passive of a 1st or 2nd person singular or plural; in this type of construction, an infixed
personal pronoun is necessary to indicate the subject: e.g. no-m-charthar 'I am loved', no-t-
charthar 'you are loved' (the lenition of the initial c- of the verbal stem is caused by the
infixed pronouns), no-n-carthar 'we are loved', no-b-carthar 'ye are loved'. Thus, parallel to
the active, also the impersonal/passive distinguishes between absolute and conjunct inflection
(also with special relative forms in the absolute inflection).
17.2. The Stem-Classes and their Characteristics

According to the way in which active and deponent verbs form their present stem, eight
different stem-classes can be distinguished, three for the weak verbs and five for the strong
verbs (on this distinction, cf. lesson 1, section 3.3). The stem-class a verb belongs to can best
be seen in the conjunct form of the 3rd person singular present indicative active, where the
numbers in brackets refer to their classification according to R. Thurneysen's Grammar of
Old Irish (GOI):
A. Stem-classes of weak verbs:
1. 3rd person singular conjunct ending in -a (e.g. °móra, from móraid 'magnifies'),
corresponding to weak verbs whose verbal stem ended in -a. 2. 3rd person singular conjunct
ending in -i (e.g. °léici, from léicid 'leaves'), corresponding to weak verbs whose verbal stem
ended in -i. 3. So- called 'hiatus-verbs' (e.g. °gní, from gníid 'does', or °rá from ráid 'rows'),
corresponding to verbal stems from roots ending in a vowel.
B. Stem-classes of strong verbs:
1. 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °beir, from berid 'bears'),
corresponding mainly to verbs whose present stem originally consisted of the root +
thematic vowel; the reflex of the (lost) thematic vowel e/o, depending on the person
caused interchange between palatal and neutral quality of the final consonant of the
stem. This class also contains certain other types of present-stem formations. Most
strong verbs belong to this class, but no deponents.
2. 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °gaib, from ga(i)bid 'takes'),
corresponding to verbs whose present stem originally consisted of the root + *-ye-/-
yo-; the reflex of the old formative *-ye-/-yo- caused the final consonant of the root to
be palatalised in all persons.
3. 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °boing, from bongid 'breaks,
reaps'), corresponding to a small number of verbs who are characterised by an -n-infix
before the last consonant of the root, which is always d or g.
4. 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. °ben, from benaid 'hews, cuts'),
corresponding to verbs who are characterised by an -n-suffix after the root, so that the
present-stem ends in -n, which was originally always neutral in quality.
5. 3rd person singular conjunct showing no ending (e.g. ara°chrin 'knows', or do°lin
'flows'), corresponding to a small number of verbs with the same characteristics as B
IV, but where the neutral quality of the final -n of the present-stem was not original.
18. The Noun: ā- and yā-Stems

These are all feminine. The following table shows the inflection of the ā-stem túath 'tribe,
people':
Nom. túathL túatha túaithL
Voc. túath túatha túaithL
Acc. túaithL túatha túaithL
Gen. túa(i)the túathN túathL
Dat. túaithL túath(a)ib túath(a)ib
There are two types of yā-stems: the ordinary yā-stems and those with old nominative in -ī.
The latter only differ from the ordinary yā-stems in the nominative, vocative singular and in
the nominative, accusative dual, where they show palatal quality in the final consonant and
have no ending. The ordinary yā-stems are represented by soilse 'light' in the following table:
Nom. soilseL soilsi soilsi
Voc. soilseL *soilsi soilsi
Acc. soilsiN soilsi soilsi
Gen. soilse soilseN soilse
Dat. soilsiL soilsib soilsib
The stems with old nominative in -ī are represented by sétig 'female companion, wife':

Nom. sétigL séitchi sétigL
Voc. sétigL *séitchi sétigL
Acc. séitchiN séitchi sétigL
Gen. séitche séitcheN *séitcheL
Dat. séitchiL séitchib *séitchib
19. Numerals
19.1. Cardinals
The cardinal numerals are:
1 óen 6 séH 20 fiche 70 sechtmogo
2 da 7 sechtN 30 tricho 80 ochtmogo
3 tri 8 ochtN 40 cethorcho 90 nocha
4 ceth(a)ir 9 noiN 50 coíca 100 cét
5 cóicL 10 deichN 60 sesca 1000 míle
The cardinals cóic and sé nasalize a following genitive plural. Cardinals between 10 and 100
are formed by the digit plus the ten following in the genitive (all decads are masculine and
inflect as nt-stems; cf. lesson 7, section 33.4). The noun to which a numeral refers stands
immediately after the digit and agrees with it in number (e.g. noí cairptiu 'nine chariots' and
dáL én 'two birds' in lesson 1, or di litir fichet '22 letters'). Where the numeral is not defined, it
is preceded by the geminating particle aH* (e.g. a dáu 'two', a ocht deac '18'). The decads as
well as cét and míle are always substantives and are followed by the genitive of the
enumerated objects (e.g. in lesson 1 noí fichit én lit. 'nine twenties of birds').
The cardinal numerals are nominal, except for those from 1 to 10, which are adjectival and
are used predicatively (or as substantives when identical things are enumerated). Only 2, 3,
and 4 are inflected for case and, unlike in most other IE languages, also distinguish gender.
The cardinal two
2 Masc. Fem. Ntr.
Nom. daL, dáL diL, díL daN, dáN
Acc. daL, dáL diL, díL daN, dáN
Gen. daL, dáL daL, dáL daN, dáN
Dat. dibN, deibN dibN, deibN dibN, deibN
The cardinals three and four
3, 4 Masc/Ntr. Fem. Masc/Ntr. Fem.

Nom. tri teoir teuir, téora ceth(a)ir cethéoir, cethéora
Acc. tri téora cethri cethéora
Gen. tri téora cethéora
Dat. trib téoraib *cethrib cethéoraib
Particularly when enumerating different things, special numeral substantives are formed by
adding the suffix -de, inflecting as neuter yo-stems. When enumerating persons, special
numeral substantives are formed by compounding the cardinals with fer 'man', with the
exception of 'two persons', for which dias is used.
19.2. Ordinals
The forms of the ordinals are:
1st cétn(a)e 6th se(i)ssed 20th fichetmad
2nd tán(a)ise 7th sechtmad 30th trichatmad
3rd tris(s) 8th ochtmad 100th cétmad

4th cethramad 9th nómad
5th cóiced 10th dechmad
In combination with tens, cétn(a)e is replaced by oínmad, oénmad, and tán(a)ise is replaced
by indeclinable alaN, which in turn combines with the article to give indala for all genders
and cases.
All ordinals, whether inflected or not (cf. lesson 3, section 14; the forms in -ed -ad are o- and
ā-stems), stand before the noun they qualify (with the exception of tán(a)ise 'second', which
follows its noun). In combinations of digits with tens and hundreds, only the digit takes the
ordinal form, while the tens are expressed by the genitive of the cardinal (see above 19.1),
and the hundreds are attached by means of ar; the noun to which the numeral refers stands
immediately after the digit. Examples are in chóiced fichet 'the twenty-fifth', indala n-ainmm
deac 'the twelfth name', isin fichtetmad blíadain ar chét 'in the one hundred and twentieth
year'.
20. Suffixed Pronouns

Unstressed personal pronouns can be added to stressed verbs or prepositions. To verbs, the
pronouns can be infixed or suffixed, but to prepositions they can only be suffixed (the infixed
pronouns will be discussed in lesson 5, section 25; for details on the combinations of
preposition plus personal pronoun -- the pronominalized prepositions -- see lesson 7, section
35). In both cases they can serve as direct or indirect objects. Most commonly, a pronoun of
the third person is attached as direct object to the verbal ending of the 3rd singular absolute
form of an active verb in the indicative. The forms of the suffixed personal pronouns are:
Singular Form
1st -um
2nd -ut
3rd masc/ntr. -i (-it)
3rd fem. -us
Plural For
m
1st -unn
2nd -uib
3rd -us
The suffixed pronouns of all persons can be used in combination with the 3rd singular
absolute, present indicative, of the substantive verb (*táith) in a dative sense, to denote
possession; e.g. táthut (2nd singular) 'there exists for you', i.e. 'you have'.
Apart from the 3rd singular, the only verbal forms capable of taking a suffixed pronouns are
3rd plurals in -it, 1st plurals in -mi, and the 1st singular future indicative in -a. To these, only
the pronoun of the 3rd singular masculine or neuter can be attached, which then has the form
-it. The pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons are restricted to the poetic language in their use
as direct object, whereas infixed pronouns have to be used in prose.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 5
The story of Liadain agus Cuirithir is a tale consisting -- as usual -- of prose and poetry,
which on linguistic grounds can be dated to the ninth or early tenth century, even though it
has come down to us only in two late manuscripts. The theme of this romance is the love of a
poet and a poetess: after an initial engagement to marry Cuirithir, Liadain -- the Grey Lady --
takes the veil. It is not clear at what point of the transmission of the text this occurred; if
early, her act makes the plot a conflict between love and religion, though it might have been
different in the original version of the beginning of the story, where Liadain postpones the
marriage to Cuirithir because of her professional interests as a travelling poetess.
In the course of the story (i.e. after the first selection, sentences 1-9), the lovers seek the
spiritual direction of St. Cummine, who first imposes a light probation upon them but then,
challenged by Liadain, allows the couple more freedom. When Cuirithir breaks the vow of
chastity (as told in the second part of the selection, sentence 10), he is banished to another
monastery by Cummine and has to renounce love, as we see in the third part of the selection
(sentences 11-13). As Liadain professes her love for Cuirithir and still seeks him (as narrated
in the fourth and fifth part of the selection, sentences 14-22), Cuirithir crosses the sea while
Liadain returns to the scene of their penance and his prayers and shortly thereafter dies.
Cummine subsequently lays over her grave the stone where Liadain had mourned her love of
Cuirithir, and upon which she died.
(N.B. In order to give a better idea of the verse form, Ruth Lehmann's poetic rendering will
appear following our more literal translation of the selections for this lesson.)
Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir
• comrac -- noun; nominative singular masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <comrac>
encounter; combat; collision; sexual relation -- the encounter
• Liadaine -- proper name feminine; genitive singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- of
Liadain
• Cuirithir -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir> Cuirithir
-- Cuirithir
Líadain ben do Chorco Duibne .i. banéces.
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Líadain> Liadain --
Liadain
• ben -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- a
woman
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- of
• Chorco Duibne -- toponym; lenited dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <Corco
Duibne> Corkaguiney -- Corkaguiney
• banéces -- noun; compound of <ben> woman, wife + nominative singular masculine,
o-stem, of <éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet -- a poetess
Luid sí for cúairt hi crích Connacht.
• luid -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes -- went
• sí -- personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
she
• cúairt -- noun; dative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour, journey -- a
tour
• hi -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- into
• crích -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <crích> boundary, territory --
into the territory
• Connacht -- toponym; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <Connacht> inhabitant of
Connacht -- of the inhabitants of Connacht
Cuirithir mac Doborchon, éces side dno.
• Cuirithir mac Doborchon -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cuirithir
mac Doborchon> Cuirithir son of Doborchu -- Cuirithir son of Doborchu
• éces -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <éces, éices> scholar, sage,
poet -- a poet
• side -- anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <sude,
suide> this one, the aforementioned -- himself
• dno -- shortened from enclitic particle; <dano, dono> again, now, then -- as well
Do Chonnachtaib dó.
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- to
• Chonnachtaib -- proper name feminine; lenited dative plural of <Connacht>
inhabitant of Connacht -- the inhabitants of Connacht
• dó -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of <duL, doL>
to -- that he belonged
Dogníther ón cuirm dísi le Cuirithir.
• dogníther -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<do°gní> does; makes -- is made
• ón -- indeclinable; demonstrative pronoun neuter singular <ón> this, that -- this
• cuirm -- noun; nominative singular neuter, i-stem, of <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast,
entertainment -- an ale-feast
• dísi -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine dative of <duL, doL>
to + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
for her
• le -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- by
• Cuirithir -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
Cuirithir -- Cuirithir
"Cid ná dénaimni óentaid, a Líadain?" ol Cuirithir.
• cid -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why
• ná -- dependent negative particle; <ná, na> not, nor -- not
• dénaimni -- verb; 1st person plural present indicative active, prototonic, of <do°gní>
does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st person plural <ni> we -- do we... make
• óentaid -- noun; accusative singular masculine, dental stem, of <oentu> unity,
alliance, sexual union -- a union
• a -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- o
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; vocative singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- Liadain
• Cuirithir -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
"Ropud án ar mac ar ndís".
• ropud -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is> is --
would be
• án -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <án> splendid, brilliant; splendour -
- brilliant
• ar -- possessive pronoun; 1st person plural <arN> our -- our
• mac -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <macc, mac> son -- son
• ar -- conjunction; introduces relative; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- whom
• ndís -- verb; nasalized 2nd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches; gets; comes -- you would beget
"Ní dénaimni ón", ol sise, "ar ná loiti mo chúairt immum.
• dénaimni -- verb; 1st person plural imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does;
makes + emphasizing particle 1st person plural <ni> we -- let us... do
• ón -- indeclinable; demonstrative pronoun neuter singular <ón> this, that -- so
• sise -- emphatic personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she
• ar -- conjunction; introduces relative; <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that -- so that
• loiti -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of <lottid>
injures, spoils, destroys -- it does... spoil
• mo -- possessive pronoun; 1st person singular of <moL, mL> my -- my
• chúairt -- noun; lenited accusative singular masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour,
journey -- tour
• immum -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <imbL,
immL> around, about; mutually -- for me
Día tís ar mo chend dorísi dom thig, doregsae lat." ...
• día -- conjunction; <diaN> when; if -- if
• tís -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c), tig>
approaches; gets; comes -- you might come
• ar -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- for
• mo -- possessive pronoun; 1st person singular of <moL, mL> my -- ...
• chend -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end -
- me
• dorísi -- adverb; <dorísi, dorís> again, once more -- again
• dom -- preposition; compound form of preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- to my
• thig -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling --
house
• doregsae -- verb; 1st person singular future indicative active, deuterotonic, of <do°tét,
do°téit> comes; goes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I shall
come
• lat -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- with you
Foit in oidchi sin. ...
• foit -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid,
foaid> sleeps together -- they sleep together
• in -- article; accusative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- that
• oidchi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig> night -- night
very
Rucad som íarum do chill aili.
• rucad -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive, deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings --
was brought
• som -- emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- he
• íarum -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <íarN,
íarmL-> after -- then
• chill -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <cell> cloister, monastic
settlement -- monastery
• aili -- pronominal; dative singular feminine of <aile> other -- another
Is and asbert som:
into -- there
• asbert -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <as°beir> says, speaks -- that... said
• som -- emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- he
"Di chíanaib
ó roscarus fri Líadain,
sithithir cech lá fri mí,
sithithir mí fri blíadain." ...
• di -- preposition; <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• chíanaib -- noun; lenited dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <cían> long time; period --
late
• ó -- conjunction; <ó> since -- since
• roscarus -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <scaraid>
separates, parts -- I have parted
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- from
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; accusative singular of <Líadain> Liadain -- Liadain
• sithithir -- adjective; equative of <síth> long -- as long
• cech -- pronominal; nominative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
each
• lá -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight -- day
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- as
• mí -- noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <mí> month -- a month
• sithithir -- adjective; equative of <síth> long -- as long
• mí -- noun; nominative singular masculine, s-stem, of <mí> month -- a month
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- as
• blíadain -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- a year
Luid sium didu co mboí hi Cill Letrech i tír na nDésse inna ailithri.
• luid -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes -- went
• sium -- emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- he
• didu -- particle; <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then -- therefore
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- until
• mboí -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular preterite indicative of substantive verb
<attá> is -- he was
• hi -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• Cill Letrech -- toponym; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <Cell Letrech> Cloister
Letrech -- Cell Letrech
• i -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• tír -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -- the land
• na -- article; genitive plural of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• nDésse -- proper name; nasalized genitive plural masculine, i-stem, of <déis> vassal -
- Deisi
• inna -- preposition; compound form of preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- on his
• ailithri -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <ailithre> pilgrimage --
pilgrimage
Doluid sí for a íarairsom ocus dixit:
• doluid -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét,
do°téit> comes; goes -- went
she
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- his
• íarairsom -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <íarar, íarair> search +
emphasizing particle; 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it -- search
• dixit -- Latin; <dixit> said -- said
"Cen áinius
in chaingen dorigenus:
an rocharus rocráidius. ...
• cen -- preposition; <cenL> without -- without
• áinius -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <áinius> pleasure --
pleasure
• in -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• chaingen -- noun; lenited nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <caingen> deal,
bargain -- bargain
• dorigenus -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- which I have made
• an -- relative pronoun; <anL> what, that what -- that what
• rocharus -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <caraid> loves -- I have loved
• rocráidius -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <cráidid>
torments, vexes, afflicts -- I have vexed
Mé Líadain,
rocharussa Cuirithir:
is fírithir adfiadar.
• mé -- independent personal pronoun; 1st person singular <mé> I -- I
• Líadain -- proper name feminine; nominative singular of <Líadain> Liadain --
Liadain
• rocharussa -- verb; 1st person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <caraid> loves + emphasizing particle 1st person singular
<se, sa> I -- I who have loved
• fírithir -- adjective; equative of <fír> true -- true exactly as
• adfiadar -- verb; present indicative impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of <ad°fét>
tells, relates -- it is told
Gair bása
hi coimthecht mo Chuirithir:
frissom ba maith mo gnássa.
• gair -- adjective; accusative singular neuter, i-stem, of <gair> short; a short time -- a
short time
• bása -- verb; 1st person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I was
• hi -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• coimthecht -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <coimthecht> company -- the
company
• Chuirithir -- proper name masculine; lenited genitive singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
Cuirithir -- of... Cuirithir
• frissom -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular masculine
<seom, som> he, it -- with him
• ba -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- was
• maith -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <maith> good -- good
• gnássa -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gnás> intercourse +
emphasizing particle emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
intercourse
Céol caille
fomchanad la Cuirithir
la fogur fairce flainne.
• céol -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <céol> music -- the music
• caille -- noun; genitive singular feminine, ī-stem, of <caill> wood, forest -- of the
woods
• fomchanad -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fo°cain> accompanies with song, sings to, chants + infixed pronoun 1st person
singular <mL, mmL> I -- would sing to me
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- with
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- together with
• fogur -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fogur> sound -- the voice
• fairce -- noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fairrge> sea -- of the... sea
• flainne -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <flann> blood red -- purple
Doménainn
ní cráidfed frim Chuirithir
do dálaib cacha ndénainn.
• doménainn -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, deuterotonic, of
<do°moinethar> thinks -- I would have thought
• cráidfed -- verb; 3rd person singular conditional active, conjunct, of <cráidid>
torments, vexes, afflicts -- there would... result torment
• frim -- preposition; compound form of preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards +
suffixed possessive pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL> my -- to my
• Chuirithir -- proper name masculine; lenited accusative singular of <Curithir,
Cuirithir> Cuirithir -- Cuirithir
• do -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- from
• dálaib -- noun; dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <dál> meeting, encounter -- the
encounters
• cacha -- pronominal; dative plural feminine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- all
• ndénainn -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, prototonic, syntactically
relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- which I might have arranged
Ní chela!
ba hésom mo chrideṡerc,
cía nocharainn cách chenae.
• chela -- verb; lenited 1st person singular subjunctive active, conjunct, of <celid>
conceals, hides -- I may... conceal
• ba -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, relative, of copula <is> is
-- that it was
• hésom -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular masculine <seom, som> he, it --
him indeed
• chrideṡerc -- noun; lenited compound of <cride> heart + lenited nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <serc> love -- heart's love
• cía -- conjunction; <cía> although, even if -- even if
• nocharainn -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <caraid>
loves -- I might have loved
• cách -- pronominal; accusative singular masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone --
everybody else
• chenae -- pronominalized preposition; lenited 3rd person singular neuter accusative of
<cenL> without -- besides
Deilm ndegae
rotethainn mo chridesae,
rofess nícon bíad cenae."
• deilm -- noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <deilm> loud, rumbling noise --
the roaring
• ndegae -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, i-stem, of <daig> flame, fire; pang
-- of the blaze
• rotethainn -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <teinnid,
tennaid> cuts, cracks, breaks -- has shattered
• chridesae -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <cride> heart +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- heart
• rofess -- verb; perfect impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows -- it is
certain
• nícon -- independent negative particle; <nícon, nicon> not -- not
• bíad -- verb; 3rd person singular conditional, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- that it might... exist
• cenae -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<cenL> without -- without him
Lesson Text
Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir Líadain ben do Chorco Duibne .i. banéces. Luid sí for
cúairt hi crích Connacht. Cuirithir mac Doborchon, éces side dno. Do Chonnachtaib
dó. Dogníther ón cuirm dísi le Cuirithir. "Cid ná dénaimni óentaid, a Líadain?" ol
Cuirithir. "Ropud án ar mac ar ndís". "Ní dénaimni ón", ol sise, "ar ná loiti mo chúairt
immum. Día tís ar mo chend dorísi dom thig, doregsae lat." ...
Foit in oidchi sin. ...
Rucad som íarum do chill aili. Is and asbert som:
"Di chíanaib
ó roscarus fri Líadain,
sithithir cech lá fri mí,
sithithir mí fri blíadain." ...
Luid sium didu co mboí hi Cill Letrech i tír na nDésse inna ailithri. Doluid sí for a
íarairsom ocus dixit:
"Cen áinius
in chaingen dorigenus:
an rocharus rocráidius. ...
Mé Líadain,
rocharussa Cuirithir:
is fírithir adfiadar.
Gair bása
hi coimthecht mo Chuirithir:
frissom ba maith mo gnássa.
Céol caille
fomchanad la Cuirithir
la fogur fairce flainne.
Doménainn
ní cráidfed frim Chuirithir
do dálaib cacha ndénainn.
Ní chela!
ba hésom mo chrideṡerc,
cía nocharainn cách chenae.
Deilm ndegae
rotethainn mo chridesae,
rofess nícon bíad cenae."
Translation
Liadain, a woman of Corkaguiney, that is, a poetess; she went on a tour into the
territory of the inhabitants of Connacht. Cuirithir son of Doborchu, a poet himself as
well; (it was) to the inhabitants of Connacht that he belonged. This is made, an ale-
feast for her by Cuirithir. "Why do we not make a union, o Liadain?" said Cuirithir.
"Brilliant would be our son whom you would beget." "Let us not do so", said she, "so
that my tour is not spoiled for me. If you might come for me again, to my house, I
shall come with you." [...]
They sleep together that very night. [...]
He was brought then to another monastery. It is there that he said:
"Of late,
since I have parted from Liadain,
each day (is) as long as a month,
a month as long as a year." [...]
He went, therefore, until he was in Cell Letrech, in the land of the Deisi, on his
pilgrimage. She went on his search and said:
"Without pleasure
(is) the bargain which I have made:
what I have loved, I have vexed. [...]
"I (am) Liadain,
I who have loved Cuirithir:
it is true exactly as it is told.
A short time (only)
I was in the company of my Cuirithir:
my intercourse with him was good.
The music of the woods
would sing to me (when) with Cuirithir,
together with the voice of the purple sea.
I would have thought
that there would not result torment to my Cuirithir
from all the encounters which I might have arranged.
I may not conceal (it)!
It was him indeed (who was) my heart's love,
even if I might have loved everybody else besides.
The roaring of the blaze
has shattered my heart:
it is certain that it might not exist without him."
(N.B. Ruth Lehmann's rendering, which follows, is intended to convey the poetical
devices employed by the Irish author but not the literal content of the verses; also, our
selection includes verses not included by her selection and excludes, with [...], verses
included by her "Nachdichtung" because these are, in the primary lesson author's
opinion, later Christian additions to the original pagan text.)
No pleasure
in deed done to loving-one;
tormenting without measure.
What madness
not to give him happiness,
though fear of God feed sadness.
No ruin,
his affair desirable
through pain heaven pursuing.
Cause slender
through me troubled Cuirithir,
though I was gentle, tender.
I'm Liadan;
it is I loved Cuirithir;
truly, though said by heathen.
Brief hour
together with Cuirithir;
our closeness then a dower.
Woods singing
to me beside Cuirithir
with somber sea-sounds dinning.
I wonder
it would trouble Cuirithir,
any deal made asunder.
No hiding:
he was my heart's true lover,
though I loved all beside him.
Flames flowing
burst my heart, now desperate, dead without him - this knowing. No.
Grammar
21. Relative Clauses: Special Verb Forms

It has been mentioned in lesson 4, section 16.1, that simple verbs in absolute inflection have
special relative forms for the 3rd persons and generally also for the 1st person plural. The
endings of these relative forms were originally characterised by a final -e, which goes back to
a petrified form of the old relative pronoun *yo-. This -e has generally been preserved in the
following relative forms:
• in the 1st person plural active of all tenses, ending in -me (deponent -mer);
• in the 3rd person plural active of all tenses, ending in -te (deponent and
impersonal/passive -tar), as in the present indicative active toingthe, toingte in lesson
4;
• in the 3rd person singular present indicative active of the irregular verb téit 'goes'
(téte) and of the substantive verb attá 'is' (file);
• in the 3rd person singular indicative active of the t-preterite, ending in -t-e, as in
berthae in lesson 2;
• in the 3rd person singular indicative active of the suffixless preterite, ending in -e;
• in the 3rd person preterite impersonal/passive, ending in -th(a)e.
Otherwise, the relative form of 3rd person singular active ends in -s(s), i.e. in the present
indicative of all verbs other than téit and attá, in the ā-subjunctive, as well as in the f-future,
in the normal reduplicated future, and in the future formations of certain other verbs.
22. The Verb: Absolute and Conjunct

In most tenses and moods, all personal forms of finite verbs can have either absolute or
conjunct inflection, that is, they have two different sets of endings. Thus, a weak verb such as
'leaves' has the 3rd person singular present indicative active lécid in the absolute inflection vs.
léci in the conjunct inflection, with corresponding impersonal/passive forms léicthir and
léicther; for the strong verb 'bears, carries', the absolute and conjunct forms are berid and
be(i)r in the active vs. ber(a)ir and berar in the passive, and similarly the deponent verb
'places' has the absolute and conjunct forms su(i)digidir and suidigedar in the active vs.
suidigthir and suidigther in the impersonal/passive. Whether a personal form takes absolute
or conjunct inflection is determined by the form of the verb itself (simple or compound) and
by the element preceding it, as the following subparagraphs will show.
22.1. Absolute vs. Simple Conjunct

The absolute forms are used where the verb is neither compounded with any preposition or
verbal particle (ro, no), nor preceded by a so-called conjunct particle (see below). Instances
of personal verbal forms in absolute inflection from this lesson include the 3rd person
preterite indicative active luid, the 3rd person plural present indicative active foit, the 3rd
person present indicative active is, the 3rd person singular conditional active cráidfed, etc.
Conjunct forms, on the other hand, are used where the verb is either compounded with a
preposition or a verbal particle (ro, no), or is preceded by a conjunct particle. These particles
are called conjunct particles because they demand the conjunct form of a following verb
(simple or compound). The conjunct particles are:
1. the negative particles ní/ni, nícon/nicon, ná/na, nád, nacon and their compounds;
2. the interrogative particle in, and sometimes also the interrogative pronoun cía;
3. prepositions in combination with the relative particle (s)aN (cf. lesson 4, section 16.1);
4. the nasalising preposition iN, hiN in relative use ('in which');
5. the nasalising conjunctions araN 'in order that', diaN 'if, when', coN, conN 'so that'.
Three different types of conjunct forms can be distinguished: simple conjunct, conjunct
deuterotonic and conjunct prototonic. Their use depends on the element preceding them.
Simple conjunct forms occur with non-compounded verbs only. They are employed:
1. where a simple (i.e. non-compounded) verb follows a conjunct particle (instances
from this lesson include the 3rd person singular present indicative active loiti after ná,
the 1st person singular present subjunctive active chela after ní, and the 3rd person
singular conditional bíad after nícon); and
2. where a simple verb is preceded by the verbal particle ro or no (as e.g. in the 3rd
person singular past subjunctive ropud, the 3rd person singular perfect indicative
passive rucad, the 1st person singular perfect indicative active roscarus, and the 1st
person singular past subjunctive active nocharainn in this lesson).
22.2. Conjunct Deuterotonic vs. Conjunct Prototonic

Compound verbs (i.e. verbs compounded with a preposition) have either deuterotonic or
prototonic form (the difference in accentuation between deuterotonic and prototonic forms
has already been explained in lesson 1, section 1.2).
Deuterotonic means that the stress falls on the second element of the compound, so that verbs
compounded with one preposition bear the stress on the first syllable of the verbal root (e.g.
the 3rd person present indicative passive dogníther from do°gní, or the 3rd person preterite
indicative active asbert from as°beir in this lesson), while verbs compounded with two or
more prepositions bear the stress on the second preposition.
Prototonic means that the stress falls on the first element of the compound, which is
invariably the first preposition, thus implying important phonological changes in the verbal
compound. Prototonic form is required:
1. After the conjunct particles mentioned in 22.1 (cf. in this lesson the 1st person plural
present indicative active dénaim from do°gní, or the 2nd person singular present
subjunctive active tís from do°icc)
2. In the imperative (cf. the 1st person plural imperative active dénaim, from do°gní, in
this lesson)
3. Occasionally where the verb introduces a relative clause (cf. the nasalised 1st person
singular past subjunctive active relative ndénainn, from do°gní, in this lesson)
4. In the archaic construction where the verb stands at the end of its clause (on this
phenomenon cf. lesson 1, section 2.3).
23. The Noun: u-, i-, and ī-Stems

The inflection of u-stems corresponds to that of the i-stems: both are characterised by the
Irish ending -o -a in the genitive singular and dual; the nominative, vocative, accusative and
dative singular, and the nominative, accusative dual have no ending, from a descriptive point
of view, while the final consonant of these cases is neutral in the u-stems and palatal in the i-
stems; the dative plural and dual of both stems end in -ib, the genitive plural ends in -e. Both
stems differ in the plural, however, where the masculine u-stems end in -e, -a or -i and the
neuters either show u-quality in the final consonant or have the ending -a while the i-stems
show the ending -i in the nominative, vocative and accusative masculine and -e in the neuter.
23.1. u-Stems
These comprise masculines and neuters; they are represented, first, by the masculine mug
'serf':
Nom. mug mog(a)e, moga mug
mog(a)i
Voc. mug (*mugu) mug
Acc. mug mugu mug
Gen. mogo, -a mog(a)e mogo, -a
Dat. mug mog(a)ib mog(a)ib
...and u-Stems are represented, second, by the neuter dorus 'door':
Nom. dorus dorus, doirsea dorus
Voc. dorus doirsea dorus
Acc. dorus dorus, doirsea dorus
Gen. doirseo, -ea doirse *doirseo,-ea
Dat. dorus doirsib *doirsib
Instances of u-stems in this lesson include the accusative singular masculine áinius and the
compound genitive singular masculine coṁchrotha; in lesson 4, the dative singular masculine
áth; in lesson 3, the compound accusative plural masculine mórchathu; in lesson 1, a neuter
form in the dative singular collud.
23.2. i-Stems
All three genders are found, though neuters are rare. As masculines and feminines of this
declension are inflected alike, the following will suffice.
For example, the feminine súil 'eye':
Nom. súil sú(i)li súil
Voc. súil sú(i)li súil
Acc. súil sú(i)li súil
Gen. súlo, -a sú(i)le súlo, -a
Dat. súil sú(i)lib sú(i)lib
For example, the neuter muir 'sea':
Nom. muir mu(i)re muir
Voc. muir muir
Acc. muir mu(i)re muir
Gen. moro, -a mu(i)re moro, -a
Dat. muir mu(i)rib mu(i)rib
Instances are found in this lesson in the dative singular masculine cúairt, in the nominative
singular neuter cuirm, in the accusative singular neuter of the substantivized adjective gair,
and in the nasalised genitive singular feminine ndegae.
23.3. ī-Stems
These are feminine only. The inflection of ī-stems is basically like that of the yā-stems (cf.
lesson 4, section 18); it differs however both in the nominative and vocative singular and in
the nominative and accusative dual, where the ī-stems have no apparent ending and show
palatal quality in the final consonant. The inflection of ī-stems is exemplified by the noun
setig 'female companion, wife':
Nom. sétigL séitchi sétigL
Voc. sétigL *séitchi sétigL
Acc. séitchiN séitchi sétigL
Gen. séitche séitche *séitcheL

N
Dat. séitchiL séitchib *séitchib
The present lesson provides two examples: the accusative singular blíadain, and the genitive
singular caille.
24. The Adjective: Declensions of the Adjective

It has already been mentioned in lesson 3, section 14, that adjectives are inflected in certain
syntactic positions. Five different classes of adjectival declensions can be distinguished:
1. o- and ā-stems;
2. yo- and yā-stems;
3. i-stems;
4. u-stems;
5. consonantal stems.
The distribution of genders corresponds to that of the substantives, so that classes 3-5 contain
all three genders (in the u-stem adjectives, the feminine inflection survived, whereas original
Indo-European feminine u-stem nouns were incorporated into the ā-stems), while masculine
and neuter adjectives belonging to classes 1 or 2 inflect as o- or yo-stems and the
corresponding female forms inflect as ā- or yā-stems. Classes 1-3 contain numerous
adjectives, while those belonging to class 4 are less common, and of class 5 only few
remnants exist.
The declensions are the following:
24.1. o- and ā-stems

For example, bec(c) 'small':
Singular Masc. Fem. Ntr.
Nom. becc becc becc
Voc. bicc becc becc
Acc. becc bicc becc
Gen. bicc bicce bicc
Dat. biucc bicc biucc
Plural Masc. Fem/Ntr.
Nom. bicc becca
Voc. biccu becca
Acc. biccu, becca

becca
Gen. becc becc
Dat. becc(a)i becc(a)ib

b
Examples of adjectives following this declension are the masculine nominative singular án
and the feminine genitive singular flainn in this lesson, the compound comtrén, the masculine
nominative singular mór, the feminine nominatives singular of the colour adjectives glass,
finn and derg (in the compound áuderg) and the feminine dative singular deiss in lesson 4, the
feminine nominative singular doltach and the masculine nominative singular of the colour
adjective donn in lesson 3.
24.2. yo- and yā-stems

For example, u(i)le 'all, whole':
Singular Masc. Fem. Ntr.
Nom. u(i)le u(i)le u(i)le
Voc. u(i)li u(i)le u(i)le
Acc. u(i)le u(i)li u(i)le
Gen. u(i)li u(i)le u(i)li
Dat. u(i)liu u(i)li u(i)li

u
Plural Masc/Fem/Ntr.
Nom. u(i)li
Voc. u(i)li
Acc. u(i)li
Gen. u(i)le
Dat. u(i)lib
Examples of yo-/yā-stem adjectives are found in the feminine accusative singular clí and in
the feminine nominative singular uile in lesson 4, as well as in the masculine dative singular
inneltiu in lesson 2.
24.3. i-stems
For example, maith 'good':
Singular Masc/Ntr. Fem.
Nom. maith maith
Voc. maith maith
Acc. maith maith
Gen. maith ma(i)the
Dat. maith maith
Nom. ma(i)thi
Voc. ma(i)thi
Acc. ma(i)thi
Gen. ma(i)the, maith
Dat. ma(i)thib
Examples of adjectives following this declension are the neuter accusative singular gair and
the feminine nominative singular maith in this lesson, the compounds comfobaid and
coméscaid in lesson 4, as well as the neuter accusative plural réidi and the masculine
nominatives singular hálaind and caín in lesson 1.
24.4. u-stems
For example, dub 'black':
Singular Masc/Ntr. Fem.
Nom. dub dub
Acc. dub duib
Gen. duib dub(a)e
Dat. dub duib
Nom. dub(a)i
Acc. dub(a)i
Gen. dub
Dat. dub(a)ib
An example of an adjective following this declension is found in the masculine nominative

singular dub in lesson 3.
As adjectives following the consonantal declension are very rare, and since only single forms
exist, no paradigm is given here.
The declension according to which an adjective inflects depends on its stem formation. New
adjectives can be formed:
1. by composition of nouns or adjectives, without adding a suffix (as in lesson 3 in
adjectival compounds of the type comtrén 'of the same strength' (prefix 'same' +
adjective 'strong'), comchrotha 'of the same shape' (masculine genitive singular of
comchruth, preposition 'same' + noun 'shape'), etc., or in the feminine nominative
singular áuderg 'red-eared' (noun 'ear' + adjective 'red') in lesson 4);
2. by derivation from nouns or adjectives by means of the suffix -d(a)e, inflecting as yo-
and yā-stems;
3. by derivation from nouns or adjectives by means of the suffix -ach, inflecting as o-
and ā-stems (as in the feminine nominative singular doltach 'pernicious' from dolud
'distress, loss, damage' in lesson 3);
4. by derivation from transitive verbs by means of the suffix -the (-te -de -se), serving as
past participle passive (as in inneltiu in lesson 2, masculine dative singular of inneltae,
from the verb in°lá 'arranges, adjusts').
25. Infixed Pronouns

The difference between independent and dependent personal pronouns has already been
mentioned in lesson 2, section 10 (the independent forms having been discussed in detail in
lesson 3, section 15.1). The proclitic dependent forms of the personal pronoun are used with
verbs and, being attached to a pretonic preverb, are considered to be infixed in the verbal
form.
The exact position of the infixed pronoun depends on the pretonic element(s) preceding the
verb, which cause the infixed pronoun to be integrated into the verb in one of the following
manners:
1. Where the verb (compounded or not) is preceded by one or more conjunct particles
(cf. above, 22.1), the pronoun is generally attached to the last of these, and the stress
falls on the immediately following element (as in nicotL ḃia in lesson 4, where the
infixed pronoun tL of the 2nd person singular is attached to the negative particle
nicon, or in conda rodart in lesson 3, where the infixed pronoun daH of the 3rd person
singular feminine is attached to the conjunction con and precedes the verb dairid; the
same conjunction is found with attached infixed pronoun idL of the 3rd person
singular masculine in the form conidcorastar in lesson 2, where the verb is fo°ceird).
2. If the verb is not preceded by any conjunct particles but is compounded with a
preposition or a verbal particle, the pronoun is generally attached to the first of these
(as in fomchanad, where the infixed pronoun mL of the 1st person singular is attached
to the preverb fo of the compound verb fo°cain, in this lesson, or in fortatnesabsu,
where the infixed pronoun tatL of the 2nd person singular is attached to the preverb
for of for°nesa).
3. If the verb is neither preceded by a conjunct particle nor compounded, the
semantically void verbal particle no is prefixed to the verb, and the pronoun is
attached to this particle (as in notLbenabsu, in lesson 4, where the infixed pronoun tL
of the 2nd person singular is attached to the verbal particle no in order to serve as
infixed pronoun with the simple verb benaid).
Infixed personal pronouns may serve the following syntactic purposes:
1. They express the direct object when attached to active or deponent forms of transitive
verbs (e.g. dotLucai 'brings you' in lesson 3, where the infixed pronoun tL of the 2nd
person singular serves as direct object of the verb do°beir 'brings', or similarly in
condarodart in lesson 3, where the direct object of dairid is represented by the infixed
pronoun daH of the 3rd person singular feminine).
2. They express the indirect object when attached to forms of the verb 'to be' (e.g.
nicotLḃia in lesson 4, where the infixed pronoun tL of the 2nd person singular serves
as indirect object of the substantive verb attá).
3. The infixed pronouns of the 1st and 2nd persons indicate the subject when attached to
passive forms.
Formally, the infixed pronouns fall into three different classes, termed A, B and C in
traditional grammar. Since the use of class C infixed pronouns is determined by syntactical
rather than phonological aspects -- as in the case of classes A and B -- they will be discussed
separately, in lesson 6, section 26.
25.1. 'Class A' Infixed Pronouns

These are used after all particles and most prepositions which originally ended in a vowel, i.e.
ro, no, do, di, fo, ar, im(m) and the negative particle ní/ni (also after cetu, cita 'first'). Their
forms are:
1 Sg. mL, mmL
2 Sg. tL
3 Sg. masc. aN (-N)
fem. sN, s
ntr. aL (-L)
1 Pl. n, nn
2 Pl. b, f
3 Pl. sN, s
After the negative particle ní/ni, which itself causes spirant mutation (cf. lesson 2, section
6.3), the a of the 3rd person singular masculine and neuter is regularly ommited; the presence
and form of an infixed pronoun can therefore only be determined by the effect ní/ni has on a
following initial (spirant mutation meaning ní/ni without attached pronoun, lenition meaning
ní/ni + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular masculine, and nasalisation meaning ní/ni +
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter).
Instances of verbs with class A infixed pronouns include manimLdergaissu and notLbenabsu
in lesson 4.
25.2. 'Class B' Infixed Pronouns

These are characterised by an initial d- in all forms, which is never lenited (hence often
written t). They are used after prepositions originally ending in a consonant, i.e. for and etar,
also frith- and com- (which combine with the initial d- of the infixed pronoun to give frit- and
cot-), and ad-, aith-, ess-, in-/ind-, oss-, all of which combine with the initial d- to give at-
(occasionally written ad-, add-, atd-). Their forms are:
1 Sg. domL, dumL, tomL, tumL, dam(m)L, tam(m)L
2 Sg. totL, tatL, tL
3 Sg. masc. tN, taN
fem. daH, taH
ntr. tL
1 Pl. don, ton, tan(n)
2 Pl. dob, dub, tob (tof), tab
3 Pl. daH, taH
Instances of verbs with class B infixed pronouns include atomLgládathar, from ad°gládathar,
in lesson 2, as well as atatLchoṁnaic, from ad°cumaing, and condaHrodart, from dairid, in
lesson 3.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 6
The text selections of this lesson are taken from Audacht Morainn 'The Testament of Morann'
in the edition of Fergus Kelly. It belongs to the literary genre of Speculum principum or
'Mirror of Princes', texts which give advice to a king, though it is not certain if they ever
really formed part of the inauguration ceremonies of kings. Five compositions of this genre
are known from Old Irish, Audacht Morainn being the oldest. Though the first paragraph of
the text attributes the work to the wise judge Morann, who addressed it to his foster-son
Neire, it is probable that Morann and the other characters are merely mythical figures, the
author of the text being, as usual, unknown. On orthographical and syntactic grounds, a
compilation date of approximately 700 A.D. has been assumed, even if major parts of the text
will probably have existed before that, in oral or even written form.
The text has come down to us in three recensions represented by various manuscripts, the
most accurate and complete of them being Royal Irish Academy manuscript 23. N.10, which,
albeit transcribed in 1575, faithfully preserves the archaic spelling of the Early Old Irish
original with only few Middle Irish orthographical modernisations.
The most important archaic linguistic features of Audacht Morainn found in our selections
are the following:
• archaic forms and spellings, such as final historical -th instead of -d (cf. ardosécath in
sentence 3), the older spelling már 'great' (cf. Gaul. -maros, W. mawr) for later mór
(e.g. in sentence 7), the preverbs to- and di- for later do- (cf. to-léci 'yields' in
sentences 12 and 54), and the archaic infixed pronoun -de(n)- of the 3rd person
singular feminine (cf. inde cluinethar 'when he hears it' and inden aici 'when he sees
it');
• archaic syntax, such as the verb-final constructions tmesis (cf. ní ... imderga 'he may
not redden') and Bergins' Law (no example of this construction is contained in our
selection, but cf. § 12 mortlithi márlochet di doínib dingbatar, 'plagues [and] great
lightnings are kept from the people', with the verb being the prototonic form of di-
ingaib, or § 21 clanda caini cain-tussimter ... 'fair children are well begotten', the verb
being the prototonic form of to-fuissim), the absence of the definite article (cf. do
ḟlaith 'for the ruler' in sentence 7), and the general absence of the copulative
conjunction ocus 'and' (as in ... asa daingni deni dlúmaicdib 'by its firmness [and]
strength in shiny artefacts' in sentence 9);
• stylistic archaisms, such as parallelism (cf. the first two lines of our selection, where
the verbs con-oí and ocaib respectively appear in the imperative in the first part of the
syntagm and are repeated in the future form in the second part) and alliteration (cf. ...
co foill na forráin fonnath fodrethat in sentence 5);
• lexical archaisms (cf. the literary meaning 'runs under' of fo-reith in sentence 5, which
later exclusively means 'helps'); the text is also characterised by a very low count of
Latin loan-words and shows no influence of specifically Christian notions.
As usual, the author of the text is unknown. Though the first paragraph of the text attributes
the work to the wise judge Morann, who supposedly composed it on his death-bed and
addressed it to his foster-son Neire, it is probable that Morann and the other characters
mentioned are merely mythical figures, and the paragraph in question is a later addition to the
original text. Irrespective of authorship, Audacht Morainn provides us with valuable
information about the role of the king in pre-Christian Irish society, which seems to be valid
also for the early Christian period. Pre-Christian Irish society is generally regarded as rather
violent and warlike, yet the present text paints a different picture by adopting a generally
unmilitaristic attitude: the central idea is that the welfare of the king and his tribe depends on
the king's justice (fír flathemon), which protects them from misfortune and ensures
prosperity.
Various short passages have been selected (§ 6, 8, 22/2-5, 24, 29, 39-42, 54/a-b-c,e-f,k-m, 59,
61), which best give an impression of the whole. In the first selection the future king, who is
compared to the charioteer of an old wagon, is exhorted to be just and merciful by caring for
his people and avoiding violence; the second stresses the importance of the king's capacity in
judging the quality of metals, first of all iron (iarn), in the production of which the Celts
excelled -- so much so that their word for it was taken over by the Germanic languages, cf.
German Eisen and English iron -- whereas gold is named last and as a foreign (allmar)
product. The third selection gives an idea of Old Irish proverbs meant to exalt moral qualities,
such as generosity and truth, while the fourth distinguishes the good from the unsuccessful
leaders, who try to occupy foreign countries.
Comath fírinni, cotnofathar. [...]
• comath -- verb; 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <con°oí> keeps,
preserves -- let him preserve
• fírinni -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fírinne> truth -- justice
• cotnofathar -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular future indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <con°oí> keeps, preserves + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular
masculine <tN> he -- it will preserve him
Ocbath trócairi, cotnocéba. [...]
• ocbath -- verb; 3rd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <ocaib> raises,
exalts -- let him exalt
• trócairi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <trócaire> mercy -- mercy
• cotnocéba -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular future indicative active,
deuterotonic, of <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts + infixed pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine <tN> he -- it will truly exalt him
Aranécath arid sencharpait.
• aranécath -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular imperative active,
prototonic, of <*ar°éci> observes + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular masculine
<aN> he -- let him observe him
• arid -- noun; accusative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara> charioteer
-- the driver
• sencharpait -- noun; compound form of <sen> old + lenited genitive singular
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon -- of an old chariot
Ar nícon chotli are senḟonnith.
• nícon -- independent negative particle; <nícon, nicon> not -- not
• chotli -- verb; lenited 3rd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <con°tuili>
sleeps -- does... sleep
• are -- noun; nominative singular masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara> charioteer
-- the driver
• senḟonnith -- noun; compound form of <sen> old + lenited genitive singular neuter, o-
stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim -- of an old wheel-rim
Remi déci, íarmo déci, tair sceo desiul sceo túaithbiul.
• remi -- adverb; <remi> ahead -- ahead
• déci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of <de°éci,
do°écai> looks -- he looks
• íarmo -- adverb; <íarmo> behind -- behind
• déci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of <de°éci,
do°écai> looks -- he looks
• tair -- adverb; <tair> in front -- in front
• sceo -- conjunction; <sceo> and -- and
• desiul -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <desel, deisel> right-hand side --
to the right
• sceo -- conjunction; <sceo> and -- and
• túaithbiul -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <túaithbel> left-hand side --
to the left
Deéci, imdích, imdídnathar, arna bó
co foill na forráin fonnath fodrethat. [...]
• deéci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <de°éci,
do°écai> looks -- he looks out
• imdích -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<im(m)°dích> defends, protects -- he defends
• imdídnathar -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<im(m)°dídnathar> protects, releases, exempts -- he protects
• arna -- negative; compound form of <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that + dependent
negative particle <ná, na> not, nor -- so that... not
• bó -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, conjunct, of <bongid>
breaks -- he may... break
• co -- preposition; <comL, coN> with -- with
• foill -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <foll, faill> neglect -- neglect
• forráin -- noun; dative singular feminine ā-stem, of <forrán> violence -- violence
• fonnath -- noun; accusative plural neuter, o-stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim -- the wheel-
rims
• fodrethat -- verb; compound form of 3rd person plural present indicative,
deuterotonic, syntactically relative, of <fo°reith> runs under + infixed pronoun 3rd
person singular masculine <idN, dN, -N> he -- which run under him
Is tre ḟir flathemon rosaig cech dán mochtide mind suíthi. [...]
• tre -- preposition; <triL, treL> through -- through
• ḟir -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice --
the justice
• flathemon -- noun; nasalized genitive singular masculine, n-stem, of <flathem,
flaithem> ruler -- of the ruler
• rosaig -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, perfective, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <saigid> seeks, obtains -- that... attains
• cech -- pronominal; nominative singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -
- each
• dán -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dán> craftsman, man of art --
man of art
• mochtide -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <mochtide> great, mighty --
great
• mind -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <mind> crown, diadem, summit -
- the summit
• suíthi -- noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <suíthe> wisdom, knowledge
-- of knowledge
Apair fris, ní már nairlise nimderga, ar is dortuth cecha flatho folam la foscath ó ḟini do ḟlaith
fuiliche. [...]
• apair -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <as°beir> says,
speaks -- say
• fris -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine dative of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- to him
• már -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <már, mór> big, great -- a great
number
• nairlise -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, yā-stem, of <airlise> forecourt,
enclosure -- of fore-courts
• nimderga -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic,
nasalizing relative, of <im(m)°derga> reddens -- that he may... redden
• dortuth -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <dortuth, dórtad> pouring
out; destruction -- the... destruction
• cecha -- pronominal; genitive singular feminine of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- of
all
• flatho -- noun; genitive singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler --
rule
• folam -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <folam> empty, vain -- vain
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- and
• foscath -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <foscath, foscad> shade,
protection -- of the protection
• ó -- preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by -- from
• ḟini -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fine> kin -- the kin
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- for
• ḟlaith -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler
-- the ruler
• fuiliche -- noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fuiliche> bloodiness,
bloodshed -- bloodshed
Admestar iarn asa thoichib túath tacarthaib.
• admestar -- verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, deuterotonic, of
<ad°midethar> estimates, evaluates -- let him estimate
• iarn -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <iarn> iron -- iron
• asa -- preposition; compound form of <essH, asH, aH> out of, from + possessive
pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <aL> his, its -- by its
• thoichib -- noun; lenited dative plural neuter of <toich> natural, proper -- properties
• túath -- noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <tóth, túath> tribe, people -- of
tribes
• tacarthaib -- noun; dative plural neuter, yo-stem, of <tacre, tacrae> pleading,
declaration, dispute -- at disputes
Admestar hume asa daingni deni dlúmaicdib.
• hume -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <(h)ume, (h)umae> copper --
copper
• daingni -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <daingne> firmness -- firmness
• deni -- noun; dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <dene, deine> strength -- strength
• dlúmaicdib -- noun; compound of <dlúm> mass, density + dative plural feminine, yā-
stem, of <aicde> artefact, article -- in solid artefacts
Admestar arcat asa bethu bríg bánaicdib.
• arcat -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <arcat, argat> silver -- silver
• bethu -- noun; dative singular masculine, dental stem, of <bethu> life, existence --
durability
• bríg -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bríg> strength, value -- value
• bánaicdib -- noun; compound of <bán> white, shiny + dative plural feminine, yā-
stem, of <aicde> artefact, article -- in shiny artefacts
Admestar ór asa ḟorníamaib allmaraib adamraib. [...]
• ór -- noun; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <ór> gold -- gold
• ḟorníamaib -- noun; lenited dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <forníam> ornament,
decoration -- ornaments
• allmaraib -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <allmar> foreign -- foreign
• adamraib -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <adamrae> very wonderful -- very
wonderful
Toléci dorche do ṡorchi.
• toléci -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<do°léici> yields -- yields
• dorche -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <dorche, dorchae> darkness --
darkness
• ṡorchi -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <sorche, sorchae> light,
brightness -- light
Toléci brón do ḟáilti.
• brón -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <brón> sorrow -- sorrow
• ḟáilti -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fáilte> joy, happiness --
joy
Toléci borb do ecnu. [...]
• borb -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <borb> oaf -- an oaf
• ecnu -- adjective; dative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <ecne, ecnae> wise -- a sage
Toléci dóer do ṡóer.
• dóer -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <dóer> unfree person -- a
serf
• ṡóer -- noun; lenited dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <sóer> free man -- a
freeman
Toléci dochell do chlothaib. [...]
• dochell -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <dochell> niggardliness,
inhospitality -- niggardliness
• chlothaib -- noun; lenited dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <cloth> fame, reputation
-- generosity
Toléci anflaith do ḟírḟlaith.
• anflaith -- noun; compound of <an-> non- + lenited nominative singular feminine, i-
stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- anarchy
• ḟírḟlaith -- noun; compound of lenited <fír> truth; right; justice + lenited dative
singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- proper rule
Toléci debuith do chóri.
• debuith -- noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <debuith> conflict --
conflict
• chóri -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <córe, córae> peace --
peace
Toléci gó do ḟír. [...]
• gó -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
judgement -- falsehood
• ḟír -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice -- truth
Fírḟlaith cétamus,
luithir side fri cach fó,
fristibi fírinni inde cluinethar,
cotenocaib inden aici.
[...]
• fírḟlaith -- noun; compound of <fír> truth; right; justice + lenited dative singular
feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler -- the true ruler
• cétamus -- adverb; <cétamus> firstly -- in the first place
• luithir -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, absolute, of <luith, luid>
moves; flies -- he is moved
suide> this one, the aforementioned -- this one
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- toward
• cach -- pronominal; accusative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
every
• fó -- noun; accusative singular neuter of <fó> good -- good thing
• fristibi -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of <fris°tibi>
smiles on -- he smiles on
• fírinni -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fírinne> truth -- the truth
• inde -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic infixed
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <deH, den> she -- when... it
• cluinethar -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of
<ro°cluinethar> hears -- he hears
• cotenocaib -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts + archaic infixed pronoun 3rd person singular
feminine <deH, den> she -- he truly exalts it
• inden -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic infixed
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <deH, den> she -- when... it
• aici -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, prototonic, of <ad°cí,
at°chí> sees -- he sees
Flaith congbále co slógaib díanechtair;
insoet a ṡlóig side,
insnádat a aidilcni,
air ní soí soithcedach sechtair.
• flaith -- noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler --
the ruler
• congbále -- noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <congbál> occupation,
holding -- of occupation
• slógaib -- noun; dative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army --
hosts
• díanechtair -- adverb; <díanechtair> from outside -- from outside
• insoet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°soí>
turns, returns -- turn away
• ṡlóig -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army
-- hosts
suide> this one, the aforementioned -- own
• insnádat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<in°snádi> defers, puts off -- they put off
• aidilcni -- noun; accusative plural feminine, yā-stem, of <aidilcne> necessity, need --
needs
• air -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- for
• soí -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, conjunct, of <soith> turns --
does... turn
• soithcedach -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <soithcedach> prosperous,
fortunate -- a prosperous man
• sechtair -- adverb; <sechtair> outside -- outside
Lesson Text
Comath fírinni, cotnofathar. [...]
Ocbath trócairi, cotnocéba. [...]
Aranécath arid sencharpait.

Ar nícon chotli are senḟonnith.
Remi déci, íarmo déci, tair sceo desiul sceo túaithbiul.
Deéci, imdích, imdídnathar, arna bó
co foill na forráin fonnath fodrethat. [...]
Is tre ḟir flathemon rosaig cech dán mochtide mind suíthi. [...]
Apair fris, ní már nairlise nimderga, ar is dortuth cecha flatho folam la foscath ó ḟini
do ḟlaith fuiliche. [...]
Admestar iarn asa thoichib túath tacarthaib.

Admestar hume asa daingni deni dlúmaicdib.
Admestar arcat asa bethu bríg bánaicdib.
Admestar ór asa ḟorníamaib allmaraib adamraib. [...]
Toléci dorche do ṡorchi.

Toléci brón do ḟáilti.
Toléci borb do ecnu. [...]
Toléci dóer do ṡóer.
Toléci dochell do chlothaib. [...]
Toléci anflaith do ḟírḟlaith.
Toléci debuith do chóri.
Toléci gó do ḟír. [...]
Fírḟlaith cétamus,
luithir side fri cach fó,
fristibi fírinni inde cluinethar,
cotenocaib inden aici.
[...]
Flaith congbále co slógaib díanechtair;
insoet a ṡlóig side,
insnádat a aidilcni,
air ní soí soithcedach sechtair.
Translation
Let him preserve justice, it will preserve him. [...]
Let him exalt mercy, it will truly exalt him. [...]
Let him observe him, the driver of an old chariot.
For the driver of an old wheel-rim (= chariot) does not sleep:
He looks ahead, he looks behind, in front and to the right and to the left;
he looks out, he defends, he protects, so that he may not break
with neglect or violence the wheel-rims which run under him. [...]
It is through the justice of the ruler that each great man of art attains the summit of
knowledge. [...]
Say to him that he may not redden a great number of fore-courts, for bloodshed is the
vain destruction of all rule and of the protection from the kin for the ruler. [...]
Let him estimate iron by its properties at disputes of tribes.
Let him estimate copper by its firmness, [i.e.] strength in solid artefacts.
Let him estimate silver by its durability, [and] strength in shiny artefacts.
Let him estimate gold by its very wonderful foreign ornaments. [...]
Darkness yields to light,
Sorrow yields to joy.
An oaf yields to a sage, [...]
A serf yields to a freeman.
Niggardliness yields to generosity, [...].
Anarchy yields to proper rule,
Conflict yields to peace,
Falsehood yields to truth. [...]
The true ruler, in the first place,
He is moved, this one, toward every good thing:
He smiles on the truth when he hears it,
He truly exalts it when he sees it.
[...]
The ruler of occupation with hosts from outside:
His own hosts turn away,
They put off his needs,
For a prosperous man does not turn outside.
Grammar
26. Relative Clauses: Special Pronominal Forms

Infixed pronouns in relative clauses normally show the forms of the so-called 'class C'. These
are:
1 Sg. domL, dumL, dam(m)L
2 Sg. datL, ditL
3 Sg. masc. idN (didN), dN, -N, (seldom daN)
fem. daH
ntr. idL (didL), dL, -L
1 Pl. don, dun (din), dan(n)
2 Pl. dob, dub (dib), dab
3 Pl. daH
They are also used after the interrogative particle in and the conjunctions diaN 'if', araN 'in
order that', coN/con 'so that'.
The relative marker n is always inserted immediately before the originally lenited d- which is
then delenited.
Examples are in ben atomgladathar 'the woman who speaks to me' and in fer atomgladathar
'the man who speaks to me' in Lesson 2, dianom berthasa 'even if I myself were thrown' and
dianat chluine Mael Fothartaig 'if Mael Fothartaig should hear you' in Lesson 8, conda rodart
in Donn Cúailngi 'so that the Brown Bull of Cuailgne has mounted her' in Lesson 3.
27. The Verb: Past Tenses of the Indicative
27.1. Different Forms for Different Functions

The iterative preterite is expressed by the imperfect (hence normally denoting repeated or
customary actions, and at times used in descriptive passages or for simultaneous actions), as
opposed to past actions or states which are not characterized as repeated and hence expressed
by the simple preterite.
The above-mentioned uses of the imperfect can be appreciated in no tathigtis 'they used to
frequent', na gelltis 'they used to devour it', °fácbatis 'they used to leave' (all in Lesson 5), coN
sliged 'so that it dragged', and fo-m-chanad 'would sing to me' (in Lessons 2 and 5).
To underline the result of a past action or state, the verbal particle ro is inserted into the
simple preterite to form a new Celtic (i.e. post-Indo-European) perfect. Its semantic content is
thus opposed to that of the narrative preterite. Although its position seems to vary depending
on the structure of the specific sentence, ro is always placed immediately before the first
stressed syllable, be it the verbal root itself or a preverb, although in the older instances it
appears petrified before the verbal root.
Examples of preterites with inserted ro, i.e. of ro-perfects, are i.a. ro°cúala 'I have heard'
(Lesson 2), ro°carus 'I have loved', ro°cráidius 'I have vexed', ro°scarus 'I have parted',
do°ri°genus 'I have made' (all in Lesson 5), ro°gabais 'you have taken' (Lesson 8), ro°dart 'has
mounted' and ro°tethainn 'has shattered' (Lessons 3 and 5).
Note, however, that some verbs express their perfect by means of different preverbs (e.g.
tongid 'swears' with to and com as in du°cuitig 'has sworn' or, in Lesson 9, do°roich 'reaches'
with the preverb oss/uss in the perfect con-us°toracht 'until he had come to them' in Lesson
9); or by means of altogether different verbal roots (e.g. beirid 'carries' uses ro°uc(c)- and
do°beir 'brings' to°uc(c)-, cf. r°ucad 'he had been brought' and do°ucus 'I have brought' in
Lesson 5 and 3; téit 'goes' and do°tét 'comes' use di°cued and to°di°cued, cf. co n-dechuid 'so
that had gone' in Lesson 2; fo°ceird and °cuirethar 'puts, throws' use ro°lá- etc).
27.2. Morphology of the Imperfect

The imperfect indicative has no special inflection forms for deponent verbs nor for the so-
called absolute inflection: even if its very forms may appear in poetry without any
introducing preverb whatsoever, in prose at least the preverb no is preposed to the forms of
the imperfect.
móraid 'magnifies', suidigedar 'sets', berid 'bears':
Active AI A II BI
1 Sg. mór(a)in(n) suidigin(n) berin(n)
2 Sg. *mórtha suidigthea ---
3 Sg. mórad, -ath suidiged, -eth bered (berad)
1 Pl. mórm(a)is suidigmis beirmis
2 Pl. *mórth(a)e *suidigthe ---
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis beirtis (bertis)
Passive
General mórth(a)e suidigthe berthe

Form
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis beirtis (bertis)
27.3. Morphology of the Preterites
Apart from those preterites which are built from a completely different verbal root (such as
the suppletive preterites at°bath 'he died' to at°baill, luid 'he went' and do°luid 'she came' to
téit and do°tét in Lessons 9 and 5), there are preterites which go back to Indo-European aorist
formations and preterites which go back to IE perfect formations.
From a descriptive point of view, some preterites are formed by adding a new morpheme,
others by reduplicating the verbal root, and others again by lengthening the root vowel or
inserting a new one.
To the first group belong the so-called s- and t-preterites: both continue an IE sigmatic aorist
and their name depends on the shape assumed by the original sigmatic aorist in combination
with the various Celtic roots. Their formation is reserved to weak verbs (s-preterite) and to
strong verbs in l/-r and sometimes -m/-g (t-preterite), as in the following paradigms of the
verbs móraid 'magnifies', léicid 'leaves', suidigedar 'sets', beirid 'bears':
Active Conjunct AI A II (act. &dep.) BI
1 Sg. mórus léicius, suidigsiur biurt
2 Sg. mór(a)is lécis, suidigser birt
3 Sg. mór léic, suidigestar bert
1 Pl. mórsam léicsem, suidigsemmar bertam(m)ar
2 Pl. mórs(a)id léicsid, suidigsid ---
3 Pl. mórsat léicset, suidigsetar bertar, bertatar
As for the active absolute inflection, it seems to have mostly existed in the 3rd person (cf.
mór(a)is 'he magnified', eissistir 'he besought', birt 'he carried', berte 'who carried', cars(a)it
'they loved', cretsit 'they believed', tuilsitir 'they slept', geltatar 'they fed', berta(ta)r 'who
carried'), even if a few other persons are attested for the s-preterite of active verbs.
The other strong verbs are rather unpredictable with regard to their preterite formation: in
those verbs which neither adopt the t-preterite nor show root reduplication, the root vowel -i-
is mostly replaced by long -í-, whereas either long -í- or long -á- replace a root vowel -e-. An
example of the different types is given in the following (verbs ro°clu(i)nethar 'hears', con°rig
'binds', gu(i)did 'prays', midithir 'judges'), but for more details one will have to look up the
complete lists in the handbooks (cf. Lesson 10, point 50).
Active Conjunct AI A II BI
1 Sg. cúala, rerag gád mídar
2 Sg. cúala, rerag gád ---
3 Sg. cúal(a)e, rer(a)ig gáid míd(a)ir
1 Pl. cúalammar, rergammar gádammar ---
2 Pl. cúal(a)id, *rerg(a)id *gádid ---
3 Pl. cúalatar, rergatar gádatar mídatar
Also for the suffixless preterite, almost no specific absolute flexion is attested; only in the 1st
and 3rd there are some forms in -ir alternating with those in -ar (e.g. lotir 'they moved, they
flew' as in Lesson 1, which was emended by a later hand into the more usual lotar).
Noteworthy is the existence of a 3rd singular relative form in -e (gáde 'who prayed').
No distinctions are made in the passive, whose forms, albeit felt as verbs, go back to the
Indo-European verbal adjective in *-to-/tā (cf. also Lesson 1, point 3.4).
Passive Absolute
3 Sg. &Rel. mórth(a)e léicthe breth(a)e
3 Pl. mórth(a)i ? léicthi ? ---
Passive Conjunct
General Form °mórad, -ath °léced, -eth °breth
3 Pl. °mórtha °léicthea °bretha
28. The Noun: s-Stems

This class of inherited neuter nouns is preserved quite well in Old Irish, where it is also often
adopted by landscape terms. To it belong leth 'side, direction' (in Lessons 1 and 2), mag
'plain, field' (in Lessons 1, 2, 7, 9 and 10), síd 'fairy fort' (in Lesson 3), teg/tech 'house,
dwelling' (in Lessons 1, 5 and 10), tír 'earth, territory, land' (in Lessons 1, 5, 7).
For the inflection cf. glenn 'valley':
Nom/Acc. glenn glinne glenn
Voc. glenn
Gen. glinne glinne glinne
Dat. glinn glinnib glinnib
Note that the dative singular of mag is maig/muig whereas leth has genitive singular le(i)the
and dative singular leith; for teg/tech, forms with -ai- are attested together with those with
regular -i-: genitive singular taige, dative singular taig, nominative plural taige.
29. Comparison of the Adjective: the Comparative Grade
29.1. The Regular Formation

The normal comparative suffix is -(i)u with palatalization of all Old Irish palatalizable
environments, since it goes back to IE *yōs; cf. airdirciu 'more famous' from airdirc
'renowned' in Lesson 3, together with siniu from sen 'old', déniu from dían 'swift', and ardu
from ard 'high'.
29.2. Irregular Formations

Some adjectives have a comparative in -a (i.a. letha from lethan 'broad', sía from sír 'long',
tressa from trén 'strong'); others use altogether different roots and formations, such as ferr
'better' (in Lesson 8) as opposed to maith 'good' or messa 'worse' as opposed to olc 'bad'.
29.3. Syntax
Both regular and irregular forms show no traces of inflection. They are used in nominative
constructions, but not as attributes, and relative sentences are used instead of substantivized
forms (such as intí as siniu 'he who is older' for 'the older').
30. Demonstrative Pronouns and Pronominals; the Article
30.1. Demonstrative Pronouns

The demonstrative adjectives of other languages are expressed in Old Irish by postponing to a
substantive with its article some adverbs of place or, rather, locative particles. Hence:
'this' = article + substantive + so/sa
(se/seo/sea after palatal consonant)
'the above mentioned' = article + substantive + sin
(Note that in both cases the s- is always unlenited)
'that near you, the yonder' = article + substantive + ucut
'that, the yonder' = article + substantive + tall
Examples of the first type are (i)na bó so 'of this cow' in Lessons 2 and 3 as opposed to the
palatalized in mboin se 'this cow (acc.sing.)' and forsin grellaig se 'on this bog' (both in
Lesson 3).
Examples of the second type are ind amsir sin 'at that time', a llá sin 'on that day', in oidchi sin
'that night' (Lessons 1, 4, and 5), issind áth sin 'in that ford' (Lesson 4), and ba hiat sin 'it was
them indeed' (Lesson 10).
For the third type cf. in fer ucut 'that yonder man, that man near you' in Lesson 8.
Emphasized forms are obtained by placing stressed -í (hí) before the enclitic locative particle,
cf. din Tháin í sin 'through this very cattle-raid' in Lesson 3. In such cases, -siu replaces -so as
in in fer (h)í-siu 'this very man'.
For the demonstrative pronouns, the sequences with í but without substantive are used, e.g.
int-í-siu or ind-í-siu 'this one', as°beir-som anísiu 'he says this', int-í-sin or int-í-thall 'the
above'. Cf. also cinnas conicfaesu anní sin? 'how will you be able to do this?' in Lesson 4.
After prepositions, se is used for the accusative, siu for the dative, and sin with those
prepositions which admit both accusative and dative (cf. íar sin 'after that' in Lesson 2).
A frequent anaphoric pronoun is su(i)de (yo-/-yā-stem) with the neuter sod(a)in and side,
neuter són in the enclitic forms. Cf. ol-ṡu(i)de 'said he' and as°bert side 'the latter said',
together with ocus óenchoss fo suidiu 'and a single leg under the just mentioned', immach do
suidiu 'outside with him' (both in Lesson 2), Cuirithir mac Doborchon, éces side dno
'Cuirithir son of Doborchu, a poet himself as well' (Lesson 5), firḟlaith cétamus: luithir side fri
cach fó 'the true ruler in the first place: he is moved, this one, toward every good thing', insoet
a ṡlóig side 'his own (i.e. of the aforementioned) hosts turn away' (both in Lesson 6).
30.2. Other Demonstrative Elements

The deictic stressed í can also be used enclitically after the forms of the article, to express the
antecedent of a following relative clause, as e.g. in frecre dondí as°robrad 'an answer to what
has been said'.
30.3. The Article

Old Irish has no indefinite article. From recently discovered Gaulish texts, it appears that the
creation of a definite article is an innovation isogloss shared by Goidelic with Gaulish and
Brittonic, even if the use of the definite article is still avoided in the oldest Irish language and
in poetry. It is also avoided whenever a substantive is determined otherwise: by its semantic
content (e.g. talam 'the earth', as in i dalam 'on the earth' or in for aislingi fer talman 'upon the
vision of all the men of the earth', Lessons 1 and 10), by a possessive pronoun (cf. mo chúairt
'my tour' and ar mac 'our son' in Lesson 5 or com chleittíniu 'with my javelin' in Lesson 4), or
by a genitive (as can be appreciated first of all in story titles such as Compert Con Culainn
'The Conception of Cu Chulainn', Táin Bó Regamna 'The Cattle Raid of the Important Calf',
Comrac Liadaine ocus Cuirithir 'The Encounter of Liadain and Cuirithir').
In Irish, its forms are suppletive: while nominative and accusative singular of the neuter
retain an older demonstrative saN, all other cases and genders are based on a new compound
stem sindo-, albeit more or less reduced due to its proclitic position. Note that final -d#
always becomes t before #s.
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom. in(t) indL aN
Acc. (-s)inN (-s)inN (-s)aN
Gen. in(d)L (in)naH in(d)L
Dat. -(s)in(d)L -(s)in(d)L -(s)in(d)L
Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter

Nom. in(d)L (in)naH (in)naH
Acc. (in)naH, -snaH (in)naH, -snaH (in)naH, -snaH
Gen. (in)naN (in)naN (in)naN
Dat. -(s)naib -(s)naib -(s)naib
The nominative and accusative singular neuter may still be used as an antecedens with the
meaning 'that (which), what' before a leniting relative clause, cf. an ro°scribus 'what I have
written' and nebchretem a n-ad°ḟíadar 'not to believe what is declared'.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 7
The selection of this lesson is taken from Immram Brain, 'Bran's Voyage', which tells of
Bran's journey to the Land of the Women. This short tale, consisting as in most cases of prose
and verse, has come down to us in various manuscripts from the 11th to the 16th century
A.D., but on linguistic grounds it can be dated to the early 8th century A.D., being therefore
the earliest representative of the Old Irish genre of immrama or sea-voyages. The author is, as
usual, unknown. The present text is based on the edition of Séamus Mac Mathúna, who
attempts to reconstruct the lost archetype out of the evidence of the different manuscripts.
The term immram (lit. 'rowing about') denotes in Irish literature sea-voyages to miraculous
islands beyond the inhabited world, motivated by religious reasons (cf. e.g. the Latin
Navigatio Sancti Brendani) either of penitential nature or simply to come closer to God by
leaving one's country and family behind. Their central aspect, however, is the rowing about
between the various islands, each of them with its own characteristics and clearly distinct
from the others. They represent a kind of Golden Age where the mortal inhabitants live in
blissful harmony and free of sorrows, awaiting Doomsday.
A closely related genre is that of the echtrae, which also relate voyages to and subsequent
adventures in the Otherworld, a miraculous place beyond the inhabited world, often located
under the sea, inside the Earth, or within the boundaries of a magic mist. In the voyages of
the echtrae type, there are no religious motives involved, the place is usually just one instead
of several, and the inhabitants are immortals of supernatural qualities.
The version of Immram Brain as we know it contains elements of both genres, and combines
pre-Christian Irish beliefs with Christian ideas. However, as Bran's voyage is referred to as an
immram in the text itself, it is classified as belonging to the first genre.
The text relates how a mysterious woman appearing in the fort of the protagonist, Bran son of
Febal, tells him about a magic apple-tree on the island of Emain Ablach, a terrestrial paradise
far away to the west of Ireland and abode of the sea-god Manannán mac Lir, which she
describes as a place
Cen brón, cen dubai, cen bás,
cen nach galar, cen indgas [...]
'Without sorrow, without grief, without death,
without any sickness, without debility from wounds' [...]
Subsequently, Bran sets out to find this island with three times nine companions: on their way
they encounter the sea-god, who directs them to an island inhabited by laughing people, after
which they reach a different island inhabited exclusively by women. There, Bran and his
retinue spend many blissful years, not noticing the passing of time. When finally Nechtan,
one of Bran's companions, is overcome by homesickness, they decide to return to Ireland but
are warned by the queen of the island not to set foot on Irish soil. Upon their arrival, Nechtan
disregards the warning and immediately crumbles to dust, as they had spent so many years on
the magic island that they were well past their dying age; Bran on the contrary remains on the
boat and, after telling their adventures to some onlookers on the shore, sets out again for new
adventures.
Our selection from Immram Brain consists of several verses with which the mysterious
woman describes Emain Ablach to Bran (§ 4-8).
Fil inis i netarcéin
• fil -- verb; Middle Irish present impersonal singular, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- there is
• inis -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ī-stem, of <inis> island -- an island
• netarcéin -- noun; nasalized dative singular neuter of <etercían> far, distant, remote --
the far distance
imme taitnet gabra réin,
• imme -- preposition; compound form of preposition <imbL, immL> around, about;
mutually + suffixed relative particle <-e> who, which -- around which
• taitnet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> shines, is
refulgent -- glisten
• gabra -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <gabor> (white) horse, mare --
horses
• réin -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <rían> course, route; sea, ocean -
- sea-
rith find friss toíbgel tonnat,
• rith -- noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <rith> run, course -- as a...
course
• find -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright -- white
• friss -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular accusative neuter of <frithL,
friH> against, towards -- against it
• toíbgel -- adjective; compound of <toíb> side + nominative singular masculine of
<gel> fair, white, bright -- white-rimmed
• tonnat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, prototonic, of <do°sná>
swims -- they swim
cetheoir cossa foslongat
• cetheoir -- numeral; nominative feminine of <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four -- four
• cossa -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- legs
• foslongat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fo°loing> supports, sustains + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <sN, s>
she -- hold it up
Is lí súile, sreth íar mbúaid,
• lí -- noun; nominative singular feminine, guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
colour -- a delight
• súile -- noun; genitive plural feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye -- to the eyes
• sreth -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sreth> strewing; arrangement
-- an arrangement
• íar -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- beyond
• mbúaid -- noun; nasalized dative singular neuter, i-stem, of <boid, búaid> victory;
excellence, special quality; advantage -- excellence
a mmag for clechtat in tṡlúaig;
• a -- article; nominative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• mmag -- noun; nasalized nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field --
plain
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- upon which
• clechtat -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative,
of <clechtaid> practices -- exercise
• in -- article; nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• tṡlúaig -- noun; lenited nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop,
host, army -- hosts
consna curach fri carpat
• consna -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, deuterotonic, of <con°sní>
contends, competes -- competes
• curach -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <curach> coracle, skiff,
boat -- the coracle
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- against
• carpat -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-chariot, wagon
-- the chariot
isin maig des Findarcat.
• isin -- preposition; compound form of <in, iN> in, into + dative singular neuter of
article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• maig -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plain
• des -- preposition; <dess> right, south of -- south of
• Findarcat -- toponym; dative singular of <Findarcat> White Silver -- Findargad
Cossa findruine foë;
• cossa -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg -- legs
• findruine -- noun; compound of <find, finn> white, bright + genitive singular
feminine, yā-stem, of <druine> skill in craftmanship, manual dexterity -- of fair
craftmanship
• foë -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular feminine accusative of <foL>
under -- under it
taitni tre bithu gnóë;
• taitni -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> shines,
is refulgent -- it shines
• bithu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bith> world; life; age, period -
- ages
• gnóë -- noun; genitive singular feminine, yā-stem, of <gnóe> beauty -- of beauty
caín tír tre bithu batha
• caín -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful --
beautiful
• tír -- noun; nominative singular neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land -- a...
country
• tre -- preposition; <triL, treL> through -- throughout
• bithu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bith> world; life; age, period -
- the ages
• batha -- noun; genitive singular neuter, u-stem, of <bath> sea, ocean -- of the sea
for snig inna hilblátha.
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- on which
• snig -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
<snigid> pours down, flows, drops -- drops
• inna -- article; variant of nominative plural masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• hilblátha -- noun; compound of aspirated <il> many, numerous + nominative plural
masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower, blossom; bloom -- multitude of blossoms
Fil and bile co mbláthaib
• fil -- verb; Middle Irish present impersonal singular, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- there is
into -- there
• bile -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <bile> (ancient and venerated)
tree -- an ancient and venerated tree
• mbláthaib -- noun; nasalized dative plural masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower,
blossom; bloom -- blossoms
fors ngairet éoin do thráthaib,
• fors -- preposition; compound form of <for> on, over + infixed pronoun 3rd person
plural of <sN, s> she -- on which
• ngairet -- verb; nasalized 3rd person plural present indicative active, conjunct,
syntactically relative, of <gairid> calls -- call
• éoin -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird -- the birds
• thráthaib -- noun; lenited dative plural neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of time,
(canonical) hour -- the hours
is tre choicetal is gnáth
• choicetal -- noun; lenited accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <co(i)cetal>
harmonious music -- harmonious music
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, of
copula <is> is -- that it is
• gnáth -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <gnáth> usual, customary; known --
usual
congairet uili cach tráth.
• congairet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <con°gair> calls together -- that they... call together
• uili -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <uile> all, whole -- all
• cach -- pronominal; accusative singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any --
every
• tráth -- noun; accusative singular neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of time, (canonical)
hour -- hour
Taitnet líga cach datha
• taitnet -- verb; 3rd person plural present indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> shines, is
refulgent -- shine
• líga -- noun; nominative plural feminine, guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
colour -- colours
• cach -- pronominal; genitive singular neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any -- every
• datha -- noun; genitive singular neuter, u-stem, of <dath> colour; hue, tint -- of... hue
tresna maige moíthgnatha;
• tresna -- article; compound form of <triL, treL> through + accusative plural neuter of
<in, aN, indL> the -- throughout the
• maige -- noun; accusative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plains
• moíthgnatha -- adjective; compound form of <moíth> gentle, tender + accusative
plural neuter, o-stem, of <gnáth> usual, customary; known -- famously smooth
is gnáth sube, sreth imm chéul,
• gnáth -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <gnáth> usual, customary; known --
continuous
• sube -- noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <subae> joy, pleasure,
happiness -- joy
• sreth -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <sreth> strewing; arrangement
-- a display
• imm -- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- with
• chéul -- noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-stem, of <céol> music -- music
isin maig des Arcatnéul.
• isin -- preposition; compound form of <in, iN> in, into + dative singular neuter of
article <in, aN, indL> the -- in the
• maig -- noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- plain
• des -- preposition; <dess> right, south of -- south of
• Arcatnéul -- toponym; dative singular of <Arcatnél> Silver Cloud -- Argadnel
Lesson Text
Fil inis i netarcéin
imme taitnet gabra réin,
rith find friss toíbgel tonnat,
cetheoir cossa foslongat
Is lí súile, sreth íar mbúaid,

a mmag for clechtat in tṡlúaig;
consna curach fri carpat
isin maig des Findarcat.
Cossa findruine foë;

taitni tre bithu gnóë;
caín tír tre bithu batha
for snig inna hilblátha.
Fil and bile co mbláthaib

fors ngairet éoin do thráthaib,
is tre choicetal is gnáth
congairet uili cach tráth.
Taitnet líga cach datha

tresna maige moíthgnatha;
is gnáth sube, sreth imm chéul,
isin maig des Arcatnéul.
Translation
There is an island in the far distance
Around which sea-horses glisten:
As a fair, white-rimmed course they swim against it,
Four legs hold it up.
It is a delight to the eyes, an arrangement beyond excellence,
The plain upon which the hosts exercise:
The coracle competes against the chariot
In the plain south of Findargad.
Legs of fair craftmanship under it,
It shines through ages of beauty:
A beautiful country throughout the ages of the sea,
On which the multitude of blossoms drops.
There is an ancient and venerated tree with blossoms there,
On which the birds call to the hours:
It is through harmonious music that it is usual
That they all call together every hour.
Colours of every hue shine
Throughout the famously smooth plains:
Joy is continuous, a display with music,
In the plain south of Argadnel.
Grammar
31. Negative Sentences

Negative sentences are introduced by:
• nícon(L)/nicon(L), a somewhat emphatic negative particle only used in principal
clauses: cf. nícon ḃíad 'I might not exist [at all]', nícon chotli 'he does [indeed] not
sleep', nico-t ḃia ícc 'there will be no cure [whatsoever] for you' in Lessons 5, 6, and
4;
• ní/ni, the unmarked negative particle used in principal sentences (such as ni cumgai
'you cannot' and ní ... noscarfamais 'we would not have parted' in Lesson 3, ní
chomraicfind 'I would not meet' in Lesson 8, ní chéla 'I may not conceal' and ní
dénaim 'let us not do' in Lesson 5) and also in some types of subordinate clauses (such
as air ní soí 'for he does not turn', ní ... nimderga 'that he may not redden', and ní
cráidfed 'that there would not result torment' in Lessons 6 and 5). Quite often it
introduces a focussed element of the sentence to which the rest is then attached by
means of a relative clause: cf. ní dam ass áil 'not with me that there is desire' in
Lesson 8, meaning 'it is not me who desires';
• ná/na, nád/nad, nách-/nach-, allomorphs of the specifically secondary negative
particle: they are used before the imperative (ná hapair 'don't tell!' in Lesson 8) or
after the conjunctions araN 'in order that'(ar ná loiti 'so that it does not spoil' in Lesson
5), coN 'so that' (con-ná facbatis 'until they left nothing' in Lesson 1), aN 'when, while',
and, respectively, in relative and interrogative clauses (cid na dénaim 'why don't we
make?' in Lesson 5) and before infixed pronouns; for nach cf. also cid nach é 'why it
is not him?' and úair nach dénaim 'since it is not that I do' in Lessons 2 and 9. The
secondary negative particle is also employed to introduce a negative disjunctive: e.g.
... na fer ná lossa '... nor grass nor herbs', ní bid clad ná airbe 'there would not be a
dyke nor a fence', ní bó charat na choicéli 'it is not the cow of a friend nor of a
companion', ar-na bó co foill na forráin 'so that he may not break with neglect or
violence', nach in n-ech 'not with regard to the horse' in Lessons 1, 2, 6, 3.
Finite verbal forms always apppear in their conjunct inflections. Copula and the substantive
verb are either implicit in the negative particles (ní dír '[it is] not fitting', ní fóelid '[it is] not
happy', ní sechbaid '[it is] not wrong' in Lessons 2 and 8) or use special forms. In particular,
the substantive verb is mostly supplied by fil and related forms, which govern the accusative
of the logical subject since they correspond to W. gwelet 'to see' (see Lesson 3, point 12.2);
cf. ni-s-fil 'they are not' as opposed to ni-s-tá 'they have not'.
One of the expressions used for the autonomous negative is naicc as in Lesson 3: naicc ní i n-
neoch 'nothing anywhere'.
32. The Verb: Present Indicative
Apart from the usages of the present indicative most commonly known from other Indo-
European languages, Old Irish employs it as a narrative tense (praesens historicum), cf. Inlaat
noí cairptiu [] láa n-and 'One day then they yoke nine chariots' and Fo-s-rumat ind euin remib
'The birds go before them' in Lesson 1 or Tíagait ass árum 'They set out after this' in Lesson
2.
The present indicative can also be preceded by the preverb ro- in order to indicate either an
action already completed at the time another action takes place, or a more general perfective
present as in Lesson 6 is tre ḟir [...] ro-saig [...] mind 'it is through justice that he attains the
summit'. The preverb ro can also convey the meaning of possibility, althought this is more
often achieved by prefixing it to a subjunctive (see point 37 in Lesson 8).
móraid 'magnifies':
AI Active Active Passive Absolute Passive

Absolute Conjunct Conjunct
1 Sg. mór(a)im(m) °mór(a)im(m)
2 Sg. mór(a)i °mór(a)i
3 Sg. mór(a)id/-(a)ith °móra mórth(a)ir
Rel. móras(s) mórthar
General °mórthar
Form
1 Pl. mórm(a)i °móram
Rel. mórm(a)e
2 Pl. mórth(a)e °mór(a)id/-(a)ith
3 Pl. mór(a)it °mórat mór(a)itir/mórt(a)ir °móratar/°mórtar
Rel. móraite/-ate/-ite móratar/mórtar
lécid 'leaves':
A II Active Active Passive Passive

Absolute Conjunct Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. lécim(m) °lécim(m)
2 Sg. léci °léci
3 Sg. lécid/-ith °léci léicthir
Rel. léces(s) léicther
General Form °léicther
1 Pl. léicmi °lécem

Rel. léicme
2 Pl. léicthe °lecid/-ith
3 Pl. lécit °lécet [other verbs °lécetar/(°air-

with ending -itir léicter)
are attested]
Rel. léicde/léicte/ *lécetar/léicter

lécite
suidigedar 'sets':
A II Deponent Absolute Deponent Passive Passive

Conjunct Absolute Conjunct
1 Sg. [other verbs with ending °suidigur

-iur are attested]
2 Sg. suidigther °suidigther
3 Sg. suidigidir °suidigedar suidigthir
Rel. suidigedar suidigther
General Form °suidigther
1 Pl. suidigmir °suidigmer
Rel. suidigmer
2 Pl. suidigthe °suidigid/-ith
3 Pl. suidigitir °suidigetar/-eddar suidigtir °suidigter
Rel. suidigetar/-eddar suidigter
berid 'bears':
BI Active Absolute Active Conjunct Passive Absolute Passive Conjunct
1 Sg. biru °biur
2 Sg. biri °bir
3 Sg. berid/-ith °beir ber(a)ir
Rel. beres(s) berar
General °berar
Form
1 Pl. berm(a)i °beram
Rel. berm(a)e
2 Pl. *beirthe °berid/-ith
3 Pl. ber(a)it °berat bert(a)ir °bertar
Rel. berd(a)e/bert(a)e bertar
33. The Noun: Consonantal Stems

Roughly the same Indo-European consonantal-stem inflection is shared by Old Irish:
• r-stems (a few nouns, masculine or feminine, indicating family members, such as athir
'father', bráthir 'brother', máthir 'mother', i.a. in Lesson 8);
• n-stems (numerous nouns, of all three genders, belonging to historically different
subgroups, some of them productive; cf. ainm 'name', aride 'bench', brú 'belly', deilm
'loud noise', Ériu 'Ireland', flathem 'ruler', forim 'chase', géim 'roaring', im 'butter', íriu
'land', talam 'earth', ursa 'door-post' in Lessons 3, 2, 3, 5, 1 and 9, 6, 1, 2, 10, 1, 1 and
10, 10);
• nt-stems (lexicalized participles such as carae 'friend' and a few other words such as
fiche 'twenty', respectively in Lesson 2 and 1; mostly masculine and neuter, since the
old feminines showed Common Celtic *-ntī);
• dental stems (masculine and feminine: agentive nouns such as are 'charioteer', eirr
'chariot-fighter', genn 'wedge', tene 'fire', tuga 'thatch' in Lessons 1 and 6, 1, 2, 8, 10,
together with some derivatives with productive suffixes such as bethu 'life' in Lessons
3 and 6);
• guttural stems (masculine and feminine: originally just some extant Indo-European
root-nouns, such as lí 'beauty' or rig 'fore-arm' in Lessons 7 and 4 and rí 'king', from
which the inflection analogically expanded to other stems).
For the inflection cf. respectively ath(a)ir 'father', brithem (masc.) 'judge' and ainm (ntr.)
'name', car(a)e 'friend', teng(a)e 'tongue', rí 'king':
Singular 'father' 'judge' 'name' 'friend' 'tongue' 'king'
Nom. ath(a)ir brithem ainm car(a)e teng(a)e rí
Voc. ath(a)ir brithem ainm car(a)e teng(a)e rí
Acc. ath(a)ir brithem(o)in/-main ainm car(a)it teng(a)id ríg
Gen. athar brithemon/-man anm(a)e carat tengad ríg
Dat. ath(a)ir brithem(o)in/-main anmaimm/ainm car(a)it teng(a)id ríg
Plural 'father' 'judge' 'name' 'friend' 'tongue' 'king'
Nom. a(i)thir brithemoin/-main anman(n) carait teng(a)id ríg
Voc. *aithrea brithemna cairtea/-dea

Acc. aithrea/athra brithemna anman(n) cairtea/-dea tengtha ríg
Gen. aithre/athr(a)e brithemon/-man anman(n) carat tengad ríg
Dat. aithrib/athr(a)ib brithemn(a)ib anman(na)ib cairtib/-dib tength(a)ib ríg(a)ib
Dual 'father' 'judge' 'name' 'friend' 'tongue' 'king'
Nom/Acc. *athir brithemoin/-main ainm car(a)it teng(a)id ríg
Gen. athar brithemon/-man carat tengad ríg
Dat. aithrib/athr(a)ib brithemn(a)ib anman(na)ib cairtib/-dib tength(a)ib ríg(a)ib
34. Comparison of the Adjective: the Equative Grade

The equative is a special grade of comparison which developed from an old Indo-European
comparative and came to signify that a person or thing has a quality in the same grade as
another one.
The normal equative suffix is -ithir, used after monosyllabic stems, whereas polysyllables
take -idir.
Cf. suthainidir from suthain 'lasting' as opposed to sithithir ... fri 'as long as' and to fírithir 'as
true', both in lesson 5.
34.2. Other Formations

Apart from a few irregular equatives like lir 'as many' and móir 'as big' to il and, respectively,
már/mór, an older type of equative is found, which Irish shares with Gaulish and Brittonic:
this is a compound formation, obtained by prefixing com- to the genitive of a substantive and
later on also to the nominative of an adjective; cf. coimchliss ... friut 'as skilled as you' (lit. 'of
the same skill [cless] to you') and, respectively, comthrén friut 'as strong [trén] as you',
together with many others in Lesson 4.
34.3. Syntax
None of these forms shows any traces of inflection. Like the other comparison grades, the
equatives are also used only in nominative constructions and not as attributes.
35. Pronouns Suffixed to Prepositions

Pronouns coalesce with prepositions in a way that makes the former almost completely
unrecognizable. While the traditional handbooks call the result "conjugated prepositions," we
prefer to speak, for the sake of clarity, of "pronominalized prepositions." They are very
frequent since, apart form introducing the subject of verbal nouns (dóib 'with them' in Lesson
9) and the agent as well as all kind of indirect objects (such as dam 'to me' and 'for me', duit
and fort 'against you', fri(u)t 'to you', immum 'for me' in Lessons 3, 2, 4, 8, 5) and other
complements (i.a. airi and de 'from it', cenae 'without him', dib 'from them' and 'of them', dit
'off you', etarru 'between them', foa 'under it', fris 'with him', leu 'with them', re(i)mib 'before
them', trít 'through it' in Lessons 8, 3 and 4, 5, 1 and 9, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 1 and 2, 2), they are also
used as adverbs (cf. i.a. and 'there' and 'then' in Lessons 5, 7, 1, 8, ass 'out' in Lesson 2,
iarum/íarum 'afterwards' and 'then', but originally 'after it' in Lessons 2, 3, 5, 8) and even help
to substitute the missing verb 'to have' (e.g. immi 'on him' and impe 'around her' in Lesson 2,
dam 'with me', duit 'with you' and dóib 'to them' in Lessons 8 and 1, leu 'with them' and lé 'on
her' in Lesson 1 and 2). In other cases they can substitute a possessive pronoun (duit 'to you'
in Lesson 2) or introduce the second element of comparison after an equative (duit 'as you' in
Lesson 4). Cf. also lem 'with me' and let 'with you' meaning 'in my/your opinion' in Lesson 8,
lem 'by me' meaning 'through my intervention' and úaim 'from me' meaning 'on my part' in
Lesson 3 and 4, or dó 'to him' meaning 'that he belonged' in Lesson 5.
The inflection may be differentiated according to the case governed by the preposition; in the
following, la 'with' is given as an example of preposition governing the accusative, di 'from'
of those governing the dative, and for 'on' of those which can govern both dative and
accusative:
Singular 'with' 'fro 'on'

m'
1st lem(m)/lim(m)/l dím form

eim/lium(m)
2nd lat(t) dít fort
3rd masc. leiss/les(s)/lais(s) de for vs. foir/fair
3rd fem. lee di fuiri vs. forrae
3rd ntr. leiss/les(s)/lais(s) de for vs. foir/fair
Plural 'with' 'from' 'on'
1st linn/leinn/lenn dín(n) fornn
2nd lib díb fuirib/fo(i)rib
3rd leu diib/díib/díb for(a)ib vs. forru

Old Irish Online
Lesson 8
The present selection is taken from the Early Middle Irish Fingal Rónaín, 'The Kin-slaying of
Ronan'. Preserved in two manuscripts, one transcribed around 1160 and the other from ca.
1500 A.D., the original seems to date back to the early 10th century A.D. on account of
linguistic evidence. Although the Irish author is, as usual, unknown, we have shown the tale,
which in the indigenous literary tradition is also described as a well-known (irdairc) tragedy
(Aided Maelfothartaig maic Rónaín 'The tragedy of Maelfothartaig son of Ronan'), to go back
to the Classical story of Phaedra and Hippolytus, in the versions both by Euripides and
Seneca, the latter one being the more similar of the two. As is usual with medieval Irish
"translations" from Classical works, the Irish scholar extracts his materials from more than
one source (this time including Vergil and possibly even Apuleius), adapting the general
setting to early medieval Ireland and even attempting to characterize both the old king and
the father of his second young bride with two indigenous kings, albeit the time gap between
the two historical kings was ca. 200 years.
Beside no less than seventeen coincidences in the plot, also the names are meaningful, given
that an equivalent of the onomastic element Greek Hippo- appears in the name Echaid (from
ech 'horse') of the father of the evil queen, who is herself nameless and always referred to as
ingen Echdach 'the daugther of Eochaid (i.e. Horseman)'. Moreover, the name Aedán, 'Son of
Aed' of the killer of the prince reveals him to be just a literary alter ego of king Rónán mac
Aeda, 'Ronan son of Aed', surely because the Irish scholar had to operate without the god
Neptunus, who in the Classical plot is the king's father and the prince's punisher.
Even if the extant and very short Fingal Rónaín is told in the usual ancient Irish manner as a
mixture of verse (94 lines) with prose and dialogues (176 lines on the whole), its structure
still bears witness of the original five acts, of which it seems to have been a kind of abridged
version used for theatrical improvisation. The 1st act contains an introduction where the
young prince is described as a mighty hunter and the sweetheart of all young women; in the
following four or perhaps even five scenes, the king seeks a new bride, the bride is introduced
to his son, and a maid is sent by the new queen to arrange a date with the stepson. In the five
scenes corresponding to the 2nd act, the maid goes to the prince, but only speaks to Congal,
one of his foster-brothers, who is shocked and offers to arrange a sexual encounter between
Mael Fotharthaig and the maid instead; the queen, to whom this is reported, at first decides to
accept the offer, as it will give the maid a chance to communicate the queen's desire to her
stepson personally, but afterwards grows impatient and threatens to kill the maid unless she
acts on her behalf; at her next encounter with the prince, the maid tells him about the queen's
desire and threats, while Mael Fotharthaig is horrified and decides to leave the country. In the
six scenes corresponding to the 3rd act, the prince is asked back by his own people, visits the
father of his stepmother, dates the maid, and arranges with his stepbrothers a system to avoid
meeting the queen, while she is eager to meet him. The next group of five scenes,
corresponding to the 4th act, shows Congal chasing the queen away from the mock meeting-
point, then the queen accusing the stepson of attempted rape, which is allegedly proved with
the help of a riddle recited partly by Mael Fothartaig and partly by the queen, and
subsequently the killing of the prince by a warrior called Aedán as ordered by king Rónán;
before dying, the prince declares his innocence, accuses the queen, and tells the wounded
jester to mind the laughing audience. Only four scenes form the 5th act, where the parents of
the queen are killed, Rónán laments his son's death, the queen is rueful and kills herself, and
Mael Fothartaig is finally avenged by one of his sons (by the name of Aed!) killing his
murderer.
N.B. To give an idea of the dramatic fourth act of the tragedy, we quote here both halves of
the riddle together with the lament by king Ronan and the queen in the poetic rendering of
Ruth Lehmann (An Introduction to Old Irish, with Winfred P. Lehmann: The Modern
Language Association of America, New York, 1975). Note that her rendering, which follows,
is intended to convey the poetical devices employed by the Irish author but not the literal
content of the verses.
Mael Fothartaig: Cold in the whirlwind girding
for Aife's cattle herding.
Eochaid's daughter: Vain herding: no cows

coming
nor anyone for loving.
Ronan and Eochaid's daughter after the prince's death --
Ronan: Cold the wind
past the warrior's house skimmed;
dear the warriors I would find
between me and winds that whined.
Sleep now, daughter of Eochaid,
bitterly winds are stinging;
woe is me, Mael Fothartaig

slain for a woman's sinning.
Sleep now, daughter of Eochaid,
I rest not till thou'rt sleeping,
looking on Mael Fothartaig
in his shirt of blood steeping.
Eochaid's Woe is me, corpse laid yonder

daughter:
toward whom all eyes would wander;

what we committed of sin
was thy pain, since rejecting.
Ronan: Sleep now, daughter of Eochaid,
mad men might take thy scheming,
though thy damp cloak thou smearest,
not my dearest thou'rt keening.

Our selected passage corresponds to the last four scenes of the 2nd act. Note that the words of
Mael Fotharthaig when he gives gives vent to his indignation about the proposal of his
stepmother are very similar to those of Hippolytos in Seneca's Phaedra (more details in P. de
Bernardo Stempel, "Phaedra und Hippolytos in irischem Gewand," Nachleben der Antike -
Formen ihrer Aneignung: Festschrift Klaus Ley, ed. B. Bosold DasGupta et al., Berlin:
Weidler 2006, pp. 237-266).
Ní dam ass áil, or sí, acht do ingin Echdach rop áil Mael Fothartaig na cardess.
• dam -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- with
me
• ass -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, relative of copula <is> is
-- that is
• áil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- desire
• or -- indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said -- said
she
• acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- but
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- with
• ingin -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- the daughter
• Echdach -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Echaid> Echaid -- of
Echaid
• rop -- verb; 3rd person singular RO-present subjunctive, syntactically relative, of
copula <is> is -- that would be
• áil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- desire
• Mael Fothartaig -- proper name masculine; accusative singular masculine of <Mael
Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig -- for Mael Fothartaig
• na -- article; genitive plural of <in, aN, indL> the -- of the
• cardess -- noun; genitive plural masculine, u-stem, of <cardess, cairdes> friendship,
love, cohabitation -- sexual encounters
Ná hapair, a ben!, or Congal.
• hapair -- verb; aspirated 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of
<as°beir> says, speaks -- do... say
• a -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- ...
• ben -- noun; vocative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- woman
• Congal -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Congal> Congal -- Congal
Bia marb dianat chluine Mael Fothartaig!
• bia -- verb; variant of 2nd person singular future indicative, absolute, of substantive
verb <attá> is -- you will be
• marb -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <marb> dead -- dead
• dianat -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <diaN> when; if + infixed
pronoun 2nd person singular <datL> you -- if... you
• chluine -- verb; lenited 3rd person singular present subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<ro°cluinethar> hears -- should hear
• Mael Fothartaig -- proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of <Mael
Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig -- Mael Fothartaig
Dogénsa do lessu féin frisseom chena, mad áil duit.
• dogénsa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative active,
absolute, of <do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa>
I -- indeed I shall do
• do -- possessive pronoun 2nd person singular <doL, tL> your -- your
• lessu -- noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les>
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you --
bidding
• féin -- pronominal; <féin, feissin> -self, own -- own
• frisseom -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd person singular masculine
<seom, som> he, it -- in respect to him
• chena -- adverb; <chena> besides -- though
• mad -- verb; compound form of adverb <má, ma> if + 3rd person singular present
subjunctive of copula <is> is -- if it should be
• áil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <áil> desire -- a desire
• duit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to --
with you
Atbeir ind ócben friesi.
• atbeir -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <as°beir>
says, speaks + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular neuter <tL> this -- communicates
this
• ócben -- noun; compound of adjective <oac, óc> young + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- maid
• friesi -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 3rd person singular feminine
accusative of <frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 3rd person
singular feminine <si> she -- to her
Is maith lem, or sisi, ar rolémasu a rád ind aithisc acht co comrís féin fris; ocus déna mo lessa
iarum friss.
• maith -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <maith> good -- very well
• lem -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- with me
• sisi -- emphatic personal pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
she, it -- she
• ar -- conjunction; <air, ar> for -- since
• rolémasu -- verb; 2nd person singular future indicative, deuterotonic, of
<ro°laimethar> dares + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you --
you will dare
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- to him
• rád -- verbal noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <ráidid> saying,
uttering, speaking -- communicating
• ind -- article; genitive singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• aithisc -- noun; genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <aithesc> message -- message
• acht -- preposition; <acht> except, only, save, but -- provided
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- that
• comrís -- verb; 2nd person singular present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<con°ricc> meets, encounters -- you should meet
• féin -- pronominal; <féin, feissin> -self, own -- yourself
• fris -- preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <frithL, friH> against,
towards -- with him
• déna -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does;
makes -- you shall do
• lessa -- noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les>
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- own
bidding
• iarum -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter dative of <íarN,
íarmL-> after -- afterwards
• friss -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of
<frithL, friH> against, towards -- to him
Dogníther.
• dogníther -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<do°gní> does; makes -- is done
Foid ind ócben leis .i. la Mael Fothartaig.
• foid -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid,
foaid> sleeps together -- sleeps with
• ócben -- noun; compound of adjective <oac, óc> young + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- maid
• leis -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular masculine accusative of <laH>
among, by, with -- with him
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- with
Maith tra, or sí, ní dingnesu mo lessa a fechtsa?
• maith -- adjective; used as adverb; <maith> good -- well
• tra -- adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover -- then
she
• dingnesu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular future indicative active,
prototonic, of <do°gní> does; makes + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu,
so, su> you -- will you indeed... do
• lessa -- noun; compound form of accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les>
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- own
bidding
• a -- article; accusative singular neuter of <in, aN, indL> the -- this
• fechtsa -- noun; compound form of accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <fecht>
course, journey; time, occasion + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -
- time
Is ferr let in fer ucut t' oenur?
• is -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- is it
• ferr -- adjective; comparative of <maith> good -- better
• let -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <laH> among, by,
with -- with you
• ucut -- adverb; <ucut> yonder -- yonder
• t' -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular of <doL, tL> your -- yours
• oenur -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <oenar> one person, one alone --
alone
Bet marbso dano limsa!
• bet -- verb; variant of 2nd person singular future indicative of copula <is> is -- you
will be
• marbso -- adjective; compound form of nominative singular feminine of <marb> dead
+ emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- dead
• limsa -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <laH> among,
by, with + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- through myself
Feccaid in ben laa nand ic coí fri Mael Fothartaig.
• feccaid -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative active, absolute, of <feccaid>
begins -- starts
• in -- article; nominative singular feminine of <in, aN, indL> the -- the
• ben -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- woman
• laa -- noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight -- one
day
• nand -- pronominalized preposition; nasalized 3rd person singular neuter dative of
<in, iN> in, into -- then
• ic -- preposition; variant of <oc> at, with, by -- to
• coí -- verbal noun; dative singular feminine of <caí> weeping -- cry
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- in front of
Cid daí, a ben? or sé.
• cid -- stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why -- why
• daí -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
<attá> is -- are you vexed
• sé -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
he
Ingen Echdach oc báig mo marbtha frim, olsi, uair nach dénaim a lles fritso, co comairsed
frit.
• ingen -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter -- the
daughter
• Echdach -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Echaid> Echaid -- of
Echaid
• báig -- verbal noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <bág> threat -- threatening
• marbtha -- verbal noun; genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of <marbad> killing,
slaying -- killing
• frim -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards -- to me
• olsi -- indeclinable; compound form of indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
• uair -- conjunction; <úair, uair> since -- since
present indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> is -- it is not
• dénaim -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active, prototonic, syntactically
relative, of <do°gní> does; makes -- that I do
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- her
• lles -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <les> remedy; advantage --
bidding
• fritso -- pronominalized preposition; compound form of 2nd person singular
accusative of <frithL, friH> against, towards + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you -- to you
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- so that
• comairsed -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<con°ricc> meets, encounters -- she could meet
• frit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards -- with you
Dóich dano, or sé.
• dóich -- adverb; <doích> likely -- likely
he
Ní sechbaid duit, or sé, rogabais chommairchi.
• sechbaid -- noun; nominative singular, i-stem, of <sechbaid> excess; error -- wrong
• duit -- pronominalized preposition; 2nd person singular dative of <duL, doL> to -- of
you
he
• rogabais -- verb; 2nd person singular perfect indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid>
takes; proceeds; recites -- you took
• chommairchi -- noun; lenited accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of
<commairche> protection, refuge -- protection
Dianom berthasa, a ben, or sé, i cualchlais tened fo thrí co ndernad min ocus luaith dím, ní
chomraicfind fri mnaí Rónáin, cid ed nommainsed airi sin uile.
• dianom -- conjunction; compound form of <diaN> when; if + infixed pronoun 1st
person singular <domL, dumL> I -- even if I
• berthasa -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular past subjunctive passive,
conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se,
sa> I -- myself were thrown
he
• i -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- into
• cualchlais -- noun; compound of <cúal> faggot + lenited accusative singular feminine,
ā-stem, of <clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit -- a faggot-pit
• tened -- noun; genitive singular feminine, dental stem, of <tene, teine> fire -- of fire
• fo -- preposition; <foL> under -- times
• thrí -- numeral; lenited accusative singular masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- three
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- and
• ndernad -- verb; nasalized 3rd person singular perfect subjunctive, prototonic, of
<do°gní> does; makes -- were made
• min -- noun; nominative singular feminine of <men, min> powder, dust -- dust
• luaith -- noun; nominative singular feminine, i-stem, of <lúaith> ashes -- ashes
• dím -- pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular dative of <diL, deL> from, of --
of me
• chomraicfind -- verb; variant of 1st person singular secondary future, prototonic, of
<con°ricc> meets, encounters -- I would... meet
• fri -- preposition; <frithL, friH> against, towards -- with
• mnaí -- noun; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- the wife
• Rónáin -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Rónán> Ronan -- of Ronan
• cid -- conjunction; compound form of conjunction <cía> although, even if + enclitic
present subjunctive of copula <is> is -- though it be
• ed -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular neuter of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it -- it
• nommainsed -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular past subjunctive active,
conjunct, syntactically relative, of <aingid> protects + infixed pronoun 1st person
singular <mL, mmL> I -- that might save me
• airi -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person singular neuter accusative <arL, airL>
before, for, in front of, east of -- from
that
• uile -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <uile> all, whole -- all
Regatsa dano, or sé, for a himgabáil.
• regatsa -- verb; compound form of 1st person singular future indicative, absolute, of
<téit> goes + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I -- I shall go
he
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- in order to
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine <aH> her -- her
• himgabáil -- verbal noun; aspirated dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <imgabál,
imgabáil> avoiding; evasion -- avoid
Lesson Text
Ní dam ass áil, or sí, acht do ingin Echdach rop áil Mael Fothartaig na cardess.
Ná hapair, a ben!, or Congal. Bia marb dianat chluine Mael Fothartaig! Dogénsa do
lessu féin frisseom chena, mad áil duit.
Atbeir ind ócben friesi.
Is maith lem, or sisi, ar rolémasu a rád ind aithisc acht co comrís féin fris; ocus déna
mo lessa iarum friss.
Dogníther.
Foid ind ócben leis .i. la Mael Fothartaig.
Maith tra, or sí, ní dingnesu mo lessa a fechtsa? Is ferr let in fer ucut t' oenur? Bet
marbso dano limsa!
Feccaid in ben laa nand ic coí fri Mael Fothartaig.
Cid daí, a ben? or sé.
Ingen Echdach oc báig mo marbtha frim, olsi, uair nach dénaim a lles fritso, co
comairsed frit.
Dóich dano, or sé. Ní sechbaid duit, or sé, rogabais chommairchi. Dianom berthasa, a
ben, or sé, i cualchlais tened fo thrí co ndernad min ocus luaith dím, ní chomraicfind
fri mnaí Rónáin, cid ed nommainsed airi sin uile. Regatsa dano, or sé, for a himgabáil.
Translation
"[It is] not with me that [there] is desire," said she, "but with the daughter of Echaid
that [there] would be desire for Mael Fothartaig, of the(ir) sexual encounters."
"Do not say [this], woman!" said Congal. "You will be dead if Mael Fothartaig should
hear you! Indeed I shall do your own bidding in respect to him, though, if it should be
a desire with you."
The maid communicates this to her (i.e. to her mistress).
"It is very well with me," said she, "since you will dare communicating the message
to him, provided that you yourself should meet with him, and you shall do my own
bidding to him afterwards."
[It] is done [then].
The maid sleeps with him, that is, with Mael Fothartaig.
"Well then," she said, "will you indeed not do my own bidding this time? Is it better
with you [that] the man yonder [be] yours alone? You will be dead then through
myself!"
One day then the woman starts to cry in front of Mael Fothartaig.
"Why are you vexed, woman?" said he.
"The daughter of Echaid at threatening my killing to me," said she, "since it is not that
I do her bidding to you so that she could meet with you."
"Likely then," said he. "[It was] not wrong of you," said he, "you took protection."
"Woman," said he, "even if I myself were thrown into a faggot-pit of fire three times,
and dust and ashes were made of me, I would not meet with the wife of Ronan,
though it be it that might save me from all that [burning]." "I shall go then," he said,
"in order to avoid her."
Grammar
36. Subordination
36.1. Temporal Clauses

In our selections, we find temporal clauses with
• ó 'since' and the perfect indicative (ó ro°scarus 'since I have parted' in Lesson 5);
• in 'when' and the present indicative (in-de cluinethar 'when he hears it' and in-den aici
'when he sees it' in Lesson 6);
• aN 'when' and the preterite indicative (a m-boí 'when he was' in Lesson 2);
• in da(i)n 'at the time' and the preterite indicative (in dan m-bátar ann 'when they were
there' in Lesson 2) or the future indicative (in dain no-m-bia-su oc comruc 'at the time
when you will be in combat' in Lesson 4, where it is also repeated as in n-attan ro-m-
bia-su oc comruc 'another time when you will be in combat'). In Middle Irish this
conjunction is shortened to tan and used with the past indicative, cf. tan tánuc 'when I
came' in Lesson 10;
• coN 'until' and the preterite indicative (co m-boí hi 'until he was' in Lesson 5) or the
perfect (co-n-us°toracht 'until he came' in Lesson 9). With the perfective present
subjunctive (i.e. the present subjunctive prefixed with ro) it expresses an action to be
completed in the future, as in Lesson 3: coN rab dartaid in lóeg 'until the calf ... will
have become a yearling'.
36.2. Causal Clauses

In our selections, causal clauses are introduced by ar and by uair, both with the indicative:
• ar 'for' is attested with the present indicative in Lesson 6 (ar nícon chotli 'for he does
not sleep' and ar is dortuth fuiliche 'for bloodshed is the destruction...'), with the
preterite indicative in Lesson 1 (ar ba bes 'for it was custom'), and with the future in
Lesson 4 (ar bam escong-sa ocus fo chichiur 'for ... I will be an eel and I will throw
...') and Lesson 8 (ar ro°lema-su 'since you will dare').
• uair 'since' as in Lesson 8 (uair nach dénaim 'since it is not that I do'), where it is
followed by a negated and hence prototonic present indicative, was originally a
temporal conjunction, being derived from the loanword corresponding to Latin hora
'hour'.
36.3. Concessive Clauses

Concessive clauses are usually introduced by cíaL/céL 'although, even if', which appears as ci
before initial vowels and coalesces with the negative particle into cení/ceni or cini.
In Lesson 5, the past subjunctive of the subordinate clause is linked to a preterite indicative of
the principal clause: ba he-som mo chrideserc cia no°charainn 'it was him my heart's love,
even if I might have loved ...' In Lesson 9, the irreality expressed by both subordinate clauses
in the past subjunctive (dia-nom bertha co n-dernad min ocus luaith 'even if I were thrown ...
and dust and ashes were made') is mirrored by the use of the secondary future as a conditional
in the principal clause: ní chomraicfind 'I would not meet'.
Cia with the present subjunctive of the copula coalesces into cid, as in Lesson 3 where the
present subjunctive of the subordinate clause is governed by a future indicative in the
principal clause: cid dorrignis bieith olc de 'whatever [it be that] you may do ..., misfortune
will result'. It is also often found in the sense of 'even' as in Lesson 1: conná facbatis cid
mecnu 'until they left not even roots' (lit. 'until they left nothing, although it be roots').
37. The Verb: The Subjunctive

As already stated (Lesson 1, point 3.3), the stem of the subjunctive, from which the present
and the past subjunctive are formed, is independent from the present stem.
This stem mostly takes the shape of a so-called a-subjunctive, but those strong verbs whose
root ends in a dental or guttural stop or spirant, or whose present or preterite indicative has a
geminated nn, show an s-subjunctive.
The inflection of the past subjunctive shows no special forms for deponentia and is
practically always used as a conjunct form.
The different formations are confronted in the following table (móraid 'magnifies', lécid
'leaves', suidigedar 'sets', berid 'bears', téit 'goes' and guidid 'prays'):
Present Subjunctive Active Absolute
AI A II (Act., Dep.) Strong Verbs

1 Sg. móra lécea, *suidiger bera, tíasu
2 Sg. mór(a)e léce, suidigther ber(a)e, tési
3 Sg. mór(a)id/-(a)ith lécid/-ith, suidigidir ber(a)id/-(a)ith, téis
Rel. móras(s) léces(s), suidigedar beras(s), tías
1 Pl. mórm(a)i/-(a)immi léicmi, suidigmir berm(a)i, tíasm(a)i
Rel. mórm(a)e léicme, suidigmer berm(a)e, tíasm(a)e
2 Pl. mórth(a)e léicthe, suidigthe berth(a)e, *téiste
3 Pl. mór(a)it lécit, suidigitir ber(a)it, tías(a)it
Rel. mórd(a)e/-t(a)e/ lé(i)cde/-te/ berd(a)e/-t(a)e, tíast(a)e
mór(a)ite lécite, suidigetar
Present Subjunctive Active Conjunct
AI A II (Act., Dep.) Strong Verbs
1 Sg. °mór °léic, °suidiger °ber, °tías
2 Sg. °mór(a)e °léce, °suidigther °ber(a)e, °téis
3 Sg. °móra °lécea, °suidigedar °bera, °téi/°té
1 Pl. °móram °lécem, °suidigmer °beram, °tíasam
2 Pl. °mór(a)id/-aith °lécid/-ith, °suidigid/-ith °ber(a)id/-(a)ith, °tésid
3 Pl. °mórat °lécet, °suidigetar °berat, °tíasat
Present Subjunctive Passive Absolute
AI A II (Act. = Dep.) Strong Verbs
3 Sg. mórth(a)ir suidigthir berth(a)ir, gessair
Rel. mórthar suidigther berthar, gessar
3 Pl. mórt(a)ir/mór(a)itir suidigtir bert(a)ir, ----
Rel. mórtar/móratar suidigter bertar, ----
Present Subjunctive Passive Conjunct

General Form °mórthar °suidigther °berthar, °gessar
3 Pl. °mórtar/°móratar °suidigter °bertar, °gessatar
Past Subjunctive Active
1 Sg. mór(a)in(n) suidigin(n) ber(a)in(n),

gessin(n)
2 Sg. mórtha suidigthea bertha, gesta
3 Sg. mórad/-ath suidiged/-eth berad/-ath, gessed
1 Pl. mórm(a)is suidigmis berm(a)is, gesm(a)is
2 Pl. mórth(a)e suidigthe berth(a)e, gest(a)e
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis bert(a)is, gest(a)is
Past Subjunctive Passive
General Form mórth(a)e suidigthe berth(a)e, gest(a)e
3 Pl. mórt(a)is suidigtis bert(a)is, gest(a)is
The addition of ro to the subjunctive either strenghtens the semantic component of possibility
or ability (as in rop áil 'that would be desire' in Lesson 8 and in ropud án 'he would be
brilliant' in Lesson 5) or expresses completion of the performed action (as in the coN rab
dartaid 'until it will have become' of Lesson 3 discussed here under point 36.1).
38. Irregular Nouns

To the nouns with irregular declension belong the feminine bó 'cow' (in Lessons 2 to 4) and
the masculine mí 'month' (in Lesson 5):
Nom. bó 'cow' baí baí
Acc. boin bú ---
Gen. bou/báu/báo/bó bou/báu/báo/bó bou/báu/báo/bó
Dat. boin buaib buaib

Nom. mí 'month' mís mí
Acc. mís mísa mí
Gen. mís mís ---
Dat. mís --- ---
Further substantives that may appear irregular at first sight, even if they are quite regular
from a historical point of view, are the ā-stem ben 'woman' (in Lessons 2 to 5, 8 and 9) and
the neuter láa/lá 'day, daylight' (in Lessons 1, 4, 5, 9), which is actually a short form of the
neuter yo-stem la(i)the:
Nom/Voc. ben mná mnaí
Acc. bein/mnaí mná mnaí
Gen. mná ban ban
Dat. mnaí mnáib mnáib
Singular Plural
Nom/Acc. lae/laa/láa lae/lá
Gen. lai lae/lá
Dat. láu/láo/ló/lóu laïb
39. Comparison of the Adjective: the Superlative Grade

The normal superlative suffix is em, which palatalizes the preceding consonant whereas am
appears after consonants resisting palatalization: cf. sinem 'oldest' from sen 'old' as opposed
to ardam 'highest' from ard 'high'.
39.2. Irregular Formations

The superlative of some adjectives is formed from the same root as the positive but without
its suffix (i.a. máam and moam from már/mór 'great', síam from sír 'long', tressam from trén
'strong'), while for other superlatives altogether different roots and formations are used, such
as messam 'worst' as opposed to olc 'bad' or dech/deg 'best' as opposed to maith 'good'.
One should also not forget superlative compounds such as ad-amrae 'very wonderful' and for-
lán 'very full' in Lessons 6 and 10.
39.3. Syntax
None of these forms shows any traces of inflection. Like the other comparison grades, the
superlatives are only used in nominative constructions and not as attributes.
40. Interrogative Pronouns and Sentences

Both direct and indirect interrogative clauses can be introduced:
• by an unstressed pronoun nom/acc. ce/ci/cía 'who or what?' (cich if there is an infixed
pronoun) with gen. coich 'whose?': it is invariant in gender and number and requires
the conjunct form of a full verb as in cía°beir 'who carries?' and cía°acca 'whom didst
thou see?'. When the subjunctive is used, this pronoun supplies an indefinite pronoun.
Cf. also cía° tíasam 'wherever we go';
• by its stressed allomorphs cía 'who?', with ntr. cidL/cedL 'what?' and plural citné
'who/what (is it) that they are?': these are mostly used with the relative form of a verb
(as in cía rannas dúib 'who [is it that] divides for you?' or cid as dénti 'what is [that is]
to be done?') or precede a substantive, in which case a feminine requires cesíL and the
3rd person singular of the copula is implicit, cf. cid leth 'which direction?' in Lesson
2. Cf. also cid do-t-ucai 'what brings you?', cid arndid í 'why [is it] that it is her?', cid
nach é 'why is it not him?', cid ná dénaim-ni óentaid 'why don't we make a union?' and
cid dai 'why are you vexed?' in Lessons 2, 5 and 8.
• by coH 'how or (of) what sort?', with the conjunct form of the verb as in co°acci in
slúag 'how seest thou the host?', or by its equivalent cinnas 'how?' < cindas < cía indas
'which manner or kind?', as in Lesson 4: cinnas conicfae-su 'how will you be able?';
• by the interrogative particle iN, also requiring the conjunct form of the verb: cf. in°n-
aci 'seest thou?' or as°rubart i°m-boí 'he said, i.e. asked, whether there was'. A double
interrogative is introduced by in faL/fáL/baL and a negative interrogative by in nád as
in in-nád °n-accai 'seest thou not?', whereas an interrogative expecting a positive
answer is introduced by cani.
Dús introduces indirect interrogative clauses with the meaning of 'to know, to ascertain if'.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 9
The text selection for this lesson is taken from Lebor Gabála Érenn, 'The Book of the Taking
of Ireland', in the edition of Stewart Macalister. Also known as 'The Book of Invasions', it is a
collection of poems and prose relating the mythical origin of the Irish people and the history
of Ireland through the successive waves of invasions. This fictitious, pseudo-historical work
was compiled in the 11th century and exists in over a dozen manuscripts, representing five
different recensions. The author is unknown, but the work can be regarded as the result of the
efforts of the medieval Irish clerics to link pre-Christian history with Biblical accounts, so
that we find elements of Christian literature beside old Irish lore, whose heroes are portrayed
as historical persons of the remote past. This notwithstanding, up to the 17th century Lebor
Gabála Érenn was often regarded as authoritative by Irish annalists and historians.
Lebor Gabála Érenn begins with the creation of the world and continues with the history of
Ireland down to the time of its compilation. In its present form, in all the principal redactions,
the book falls into ten separate and independent sections: I. From the Creation to the
Dispersal of the Nations; II. The Ancestors of the Gaedil; III-VII. The successive invasions of
Cessair, Partholón, Nemed, the Fir Bolg, and the Túatha Dé Danann; VIII. The invasion of
the sons of Míl, i.e. of the Gaedil; IX. The Roll of the Kings before Christianity; X. The Roll
of the Kings after Christianity.
The first invasion mentioned is that of Cessair, a granddaughter of the Biblical Noah who
arrived with only three men and a multitude of women forty days before the Flood but
perished soon after together with all her followers except for Fintan mac Bóchra, who
survived the centuries in the shape of various animals and witnessed the whole of Irish
history. Also represented as a descendant of Noah, Partholón came to Ireland from Sicily
threehundred years after the Flood, via Greece, Cappadocia, Gothia and Spain, landing at
Inber Scéne (identified with Kenmare in South Kerry); his followers, five thousand men and
four tousand women, were killed by a plague hundred and twenty years later and are
supposed to be buried in a mass grave at Tamlachta 'Pit of Tears' (Tallaght near Dublin?),
their only survivor being Tuan, Partholón's nephew, who also underwent a series of animal
transformations until he was finally reborn as son of a chieftain named Cairill and as such
(i.e. Tuan mac Cairill) told the story of his people. Thirty years after their extintion arrived
Nemed, great-grandson of a brother of Partholón's, but he and his followers were attacked
and in the end subjugated by the Fomoire, a warlike group of prehistoric demons who had
succesfully been fought by the Partholonians; the Nemedians were eventually wiped out by a
big flood, except for thirty warriors who managed to escape by ship and were scattered to
different corners of the world. From the group who managed to escape to Greece descended
the Fir Bolg, who arrived twohundred and thirty years later, divided Ireland into five
provinces and installed a king. From those Nemedians who had escaped to far North
descended the Túatha Dé Danann, a people with magic powers who arrived thirtyseven years
after the former and defeated first the Fir Bolg and later the Fomoire, prior to being defeated
themselves by the next and last invaders, the sons of Míl, at Tailtiu onehundred and fifty
years later and subsequently retiring to live underground in the síde or fairy mounds. The
newcomers had been living in Scythia and later in Egypt before going to Spain, from where
the uncle of Míl , Íth , saw Ireland: enticed by her beauty, he decided to go and live there, but
was killed soon after his arrival, and his death was avenged by the Milesians, who set out to
conquer the island.
Our selection is taken out of section IV and is concerned with the invasions of the Fomoire,
twohundred men and six hundred women led by Cicul Gricen-choss, who spent twohundred
years 'at fishing and fowling', and of Partholón, who defeated them and cleared four fields.
While many of the accounts of the invasions seem entirely fanciful, others may reflect at least
an historical core. Thus, while the Fomoire are said to have lived on fish and fowl, the
Partholonians are supposed to have brought with them important agricultural devices and
techniques, such as ploughs, oxen, husbandry, dairy farming, etc. Since the Partolonians
furthermore buried their dead in long graves made of stone heaps, they might be identified
with the Neolithic farmers as opposed to the hunters-gatherers of the Mesolithic.
Furthermore, while the name of Partholón is not Irish and has been probably influenced by
the Christian Batholomaeus, Íth as in the existing several plains called Mag Ítha, 'The field of
Ith', mirrors the Old Celtic deity Itunos/Ituna and goes back to IE *pi-tu and *pi-tu-s as in
Oir. ith 'corn, grain' and, respectively, Skt. pitú- 'food'.
The first of the plains by the name of Mag Ítha mentioned in our selection, where the
mythical Cicul Gricen choss was killed, is supposed to refer to the plain between Lough
Foyle, Lough Swilly and the river Finn in Counties Donegal and Derry, while the second one
mentioned has been identified with the plain south of Arklow, in Leinster. Mag nEthrige is
supposed to be identical with Mag Tuired, anglicised as 'Moytura', near Cong in Co. Mayo,
and Mag Lí to have bordered on the west bank of the river Bann, Co. Derry, given that the
territory of the Ui mic Úais between Bir (the Moyola river) and Camus (Macosquin) was
situated between Counties Derry and Donegal. Mag Latharna in Dál Araide has been
identified with the low maritime plain near Larne, Co. Antrim, and Inber Domnand with
Malahide Bay north of Dublin.
Is sund atfedar sechtgabáil, .i. gabáil rogab la Ciccul Gricenchoss an Inbiur Domnand:
• sund -- adverb; <sund> here -- here
• atfedar -- verb; 3rd person singular present indicative passive, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <ad°fét> tells, relates -- that... is told
• sechtgabáil -- noun; compound of <sechtN> seven + nominative singular feminine, ā-
stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest -- the Taking of the Seven
• gabáil -- noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking,
conquest -- the taking
• rogab -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative active, conjunct, syntactically
relative, of <gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites -- which took place
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- by
• Ciccul Gricenchoss -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Cicul Gricen-
choss> Cichol Clapperleg -- Cichol Gricen-choss
• an -- preposition; variant of <in, iN> in, into -- in
• Inbiur Domnand -- toponym; dative singular of <Inber Domnann> Rivermouth
Domnann -- Inber Domnann
.i. cóica fer ocus trí cóica ban lín cecha cethraimthi díb, im Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic
Túathaigh meic Gúmóir a Sléib Émóir, ocus Luth Luamnach a máthair.
• cóica -- numeral; nominative singular masculine of <coíca> fifty -- fifty
• fer -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- men
• trí cóica -- numeral; compound form of masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three +
nominative singular masculine of <coíca> fifty -- three times fifty
• ban -- noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife -- women
• lín -- noun; nominative singular neuter, o-stem, of <lín> full number; number -- the
full number
• cecha -- pronominal; variant of genitive singular masculine of <cach, cech> each,
every, any -- of each
• cethraimthi -- noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cethraimthe> quarter,
fourth part -- fourth part
• díb -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
them
• im -- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually -- with
• Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir -- proper name masculine;
lenited accusative singular of <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic Gairb meic Túathaigh
meic Gúmóir> Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the son of Tuatach of the son
of Gumor -- Cichol mac Guil meic Gairb meic Tuathaigh meic Gumoir
• a -- preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from -- from
• Sléib Émóir -- toponym; dative singular of <Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill -- Sliab Emoir
• Luth Luamnach -- proper name feminine; dative singular of <Luth Luamnach> the
Fury of the Pilotage -- Loth Luamnach
• máthair -- noun; nominative singular feminine, r-stem, of <máthir, máthair> mother --
mother
Dá cét bliadan dóib ar íascach ocus ar énach, conustoracht Partholón, co rofersat cath Muighi
hÍtha, dianidh comainm sechtgabáil.
• dá cét -- numeral; compound form of <dáL, díL, dáN> two + nominative plural neuter,
o-stem, of <cétN> hundred -- two hundred
• bliadan -- noun; genitive plural feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year -- years
• dóib -- pronominalized preposition; 3rd person plural dative of <duL, doL> to -- with
them
• ar -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- at
• íascach -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <íascach> fishing -- fishing
• ar -- preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of -- at
• énach -- noun; variant of dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <enach> bird-hunting,
fowling -- fowling
• conustoracht -- verb; compound form of 3rd person singular perfect indicative active,
prototonic, of <do°roich> reaches + conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and +
infixed pronoun 3rd person plural <sN, s> they -- until... came to them
• Partholón -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Partholón> Partholon --
Partholon
• rofersat -- verb; 3rd person plural perfect indicative active, conjunct, of <feraid>
grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds -- they fought
• cath -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight -- the
battle
• Muighi hÍtha -- toponym; genitive singular of <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith -- of Mag
Itha
• dianidh -- verb; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + relative particle
<(s)aN> that which, what + 3rd person singular present indicative, conjunct, of copula
<is> is -- from which originates
• comainm -- noun; nominative singular neuter, n-stem, of <comainm> name,
cognomen -- the name
• sechtgabáil -- noun; compound of <sechtN> seven + nominative singular feminine, ā-
stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest -- Seven-Taking
Co romarbad Cichul ann, ocus co rodíthaigit Fomoraig [...].
• romarbad -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative passive, conjunct, of
<marbaid> kills -- was slain
• Cichul -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Cicul, Cichul, Ciccul>
Cichol -- Cichol
• ann -- adverb; <ann> there -- there
• co -- conjunction; used as verbal particle; <con, coN> until; so that; and -- so
• rodíthaigit -- verb; 3rd person plural Middle Irish perfect indicative passive, conjunct,
of <díthaigid> destroys -- were destroyed
• Fomoraig -- proper name masculine; nominative plural of <Fomorach> Fomorach --
the Fomoraig
Ceithri moigi roslechtad la Partholón ind Érind, .i. Magh nEthrige la Condachto, Magh nÍtha
la Laigniu, .i. Ítha, gilla Parrtholóin do réighigh, Magh Latharna la Dál nAraidhi, Mag Lii la
hÚa mic Úais etir Bir ocus Chamus.
• ceithri -- numeral; nominative neuter of <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four -- four
• moigi -- noun; nominative plural neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- fields
• roslechtad -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive, conjunct, of <sligid> strikes,
slays; clears -- were cleared
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- by
• Partholón -- proper name masculine; accusative singular of <Partholón> Partholon --
Partholon
• ind -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- in
• Érind -- toponym; dative singular, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland -- Ireland
• Magh nEthrige -- toponym; nominative singular of <Mag nEthrige> the Field of
Ethrag -- the Field of Ethrag
• la -- preposition; <laH> among, by, with -- in the territory of
• Condachto -- proper name feminine; accusative plural of <Connacht> Connacht -- the
Connachtmen
• Magh nÍtha -- toponym; variant of nominative singular of <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith
-- the Field of Ith
• Laigniu -- proper name masculine; accusative plural of <Laigni> Leinstermen,
Leinsterwomen -- the Leinstermen
• Ítha -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Íth> Ith -- of Ith
• gilla -- noun; genitive singular masculine, yo-stem, of <gillae> servant, armed man --
the companion
• Parrtholóin -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Partholón> Partholon --
of Partholon
• do -- preposition; <duL, doL> to -- in
• réighigh -- Middle Irish verbal noun; dative singular of <réidig> leveling, smoothing;
clearing (land) -- clearing the land
• Magh Latharna -- toponym; nominative singular of <Mag Latharna> the Field of
Lathairn -- the Field of Lathairn
• Dál nAraidhi -- toponym; accusative singular of <Dál Araide> the district of Arad --
Dal Araide
• Mag Lii -- toponym; nominative singular of <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty -- the
Field of Lii
• hÚa mic Úais -- proper name masculine; aspirated accusative plural of <Ó mac Úais>
the grandson of the son of the Noble one -- the Ui mic Uais
• etir -- preposition; <eter> between, among -- between
• Bir -- toponym; accusative singular of <Bir> Bir -- Bir
• Chamus -- toponym; lenited accusative singular of <Camus> Camus -- Camas
Secht mbliadna íar ngabáil hÉrenn do Phartholón, atbath in cét fer dia muindtir, .i. Fea mac
Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú, bráthair athar do Partholón.
• secht -- numeral; nominative plural of <sechtN> seven -- seven
• mbliadna -- noun; nasalized genitive plural feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year --
years
• íar -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- after
• ngabáil -- noun; nasalized dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking,
conquest -- the conquest
• hÉrenn -- toponym; aspirated genitive singular of <Ériu> Ireland -- of Ireland
• do -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- by
• Phartholón -- proper name masculine; lenited dative singular of <Partholón>
Partholon -- Partholon
• atbath -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<at°baill> dies -- died
• cét -- adjective; <cét> first; fresh, new -- first
• dia -- preposition; compound form of preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- of his
• muindtir -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party,
followers; retinue, company -- retinue
• Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of
<Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru of the son
of Esru -- Fea mac Tortan meic Sru meic Esru
• bráthair -- noun; nominative singular masculine, r-stem, of <bráthir, bráthair> brother
-- brother
• athar -- noun; genitive singular masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father -- of the
father
• Partholón -- proper name masculine; dative singular masculine of <Partholón>
Partholon -- Partholon
Lesson Text
Is sund atfedar sechtgabáil, .i. gabáil rogab la Ciccul Gricenchoss an Inbiur Domnand:
.i. cóica fer ocus trí cóica ban lín cecha cethraimthi díb, im Chicul mac Guil meic
Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir a Sléib Émóir, ocus Luth Luamnach a máthair. Dá
cét bliadan dóib ar íascach ocus ar énach, conustoracht Partholón, co rofersat cath
Muighi hÍtha, dianidh comainm sechtgabáil. Co romarbad Cichul ann, ocus co
rodíthaigit Fomoraig [...].
Ceithri moigi roslechtad la Partholón ind Érind, .i. Magh nEthrige la Condachto,
Magh nÍtha la Laigniu, .i. Ítha, gilla Parrtholóin do réighigh, Magh Latharna la Dál
nAraidhi, Mag Lii la hÚa mic Úais etir Bir ocus Chamus.
Secht mbliadna íar ngabáil hÉrenn do Phartholón, atbath in cét fer dia muindtir, .i. Fea
mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú, bráthair athar do Partholón.
Translation
It is here that the Taking of the Seven is told, that is, the taking which took place by
Cichol Gricen-choss in Inber Domnand: that is, fifty men and three times fifty women
[was] the full number of each fourth part of them, with Cichol mac Guil meic Gairb
meic Tuathaigh meic Gumoir from Sliab Emoir, and Loth Luamnach, his mother. Two
hundred years with them at fishing and at fowling, until Partholon came to them and
they fought the battle of Mag Itha, from which originates the name 'Seven-Taking'.
And Cichol was slain there and so the Fomoraig were destroyed.
Four fields were cleared by Partholon in Ireland, that is the Field of Ethrag in the
territory of the Connachtmen, the Field of Ith in the territory of the Leinstermen -- that
is of Ith, the companion of Partholon in clearing the land --, the Field of Lathairn in
the territory of Dal Araide, the Field of Lii in the territory of the Ui mic Uais, between
Bir and Camas.
Seven years after the conquest of Ireland by Partholon, the first man of his retinue
died, that is Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru of the son of Esru, brother of the
father to Partholon.
Grammar
41. Subordination
41.1. Final Clauses

Final clauses are mostly expressed by the subjunctive, either preceded
• by coL/coN/con
• or by araN, actually ar-aN, as in ar-na bó 'so that he might not break' in Lesson 6.
The latter, however, can also occur with the indicative as in ar ná loiti mo chuairt immum
(Lesson 5) 'so that my tour is not spoiled for me'. The possibility of expressing a final clause
without a finite verb is demonstrated by the selection of lesson 8, where the preposition for
governs a verbal noun with a possessive adjective expressing the direct object: for a h
imgabáil 'in order to avoid her' (lit. 'for her avoiding'). Cf. also do ḟégad a uird 'to observe its
structure' (lit. 'to the observation of its structure') in Lesson 10.
41.2. Consecutive Clauses

Consecutive clauses are introduced by coL/coN/con and expressed by the indicative or the
subjunctive, depending on the semantics of the whole sentence. In our selections we find
always the indicative, either preterite or even perfect (cf. co riacht in n-airidin 'so that he
reached the bench', co n-dechuid geinn trít 'so that a wedge went through it', and co slíged lár
'so that it dragged on the ground', all in Lesson 2) or future (cf. co m-ba éccomlonn mór 'so
that it will be a very unequal combat' and co m-mema do ṡúil 'so that your eye shall burst'),
depending on the perspective.
41.3. Related Speech
In our selections there are three examples of related speech:
• governed by an imperative and expressed by a negated subjunctive present without
further conjunctions, as in apair fris ní ... n-imderga... 'say to him that he may not
redden...' (Lesson 6);
• governed by a preterite indicative and expressed by a past subjunctive introduced by
araN, as in asbert ... ara scortis ... ocus ara cortis... 'he said that they should unyoke ...
and that they should put...' (Lesson 1);
• without finite verbal form, expressed by a verbal noun in the genitive governed by the
verbal noun of a verbum dicendi (i.e. of a verb of speaking, uttering); cf. Ingen
Echdach oc báig mo marbtha frim in Lesson 7, which corresponds to *"E's daughter at
threatening of my killing to me," but means of course "E's daughter threatens me that
she will kill me."
42. The Verb: Future Tense

As already stated in Lesson 1, point 3.3, the future tenses are formed from a special stem
which is independent from that of the present. Even if there is some interference between the
different types, with weak verbs showing typically strong formations and strong verbs
adopting the modern (i.e. exclusively Goidelic) f-future stem, and also many cases of
suppletive stems (such as rega- to téit 'goes', i.a. in Lesson 8), weak verbs normally add a
morpheme -f- to their basic form; their future stem is hence called f-future.
Strong verbs usually form their future stem according to their root. As with the subjunctive,
those verbs whose root ends in a dental or guttural stop or spirant, or show geminated -nn- in
their present and preterite, have a sigmatic future stem; in addition, some of them show
reduplication of the root. All other strong verbs have an asigmatic future stem, inflecting the
root as an Indo-European ā-subjunctive; again, some of them also show root reduplication. In
many cases, what is left of the reduplication is just a long root vowel -é-, so that from a
descriptive point of view there is also an é-future stem, which is moreover a productive type
in later texts.
Only the first two types are presented in the following tables (léicid 'leaves', suidigidir 'puts',
guidid 'prays'), given that the inflection of the asigmatic future is identical with that of the ā-
subjunctive in all forms (see Lesson 8, point 37). Examples of asigmatic future stems are
didma- from daimid 'tames' (1 Sg. °didam, 2 Sg. °didmae, 3 Sg. °didma, 3 Pl. °didmat), íba-
from ibid 'drinks' (1 Sg. íba, 2 Sg. °íb, 2 Sg. °íba, 3 Pl. íbait), cech(a)na- from canid 'sings' (1
Sg. °cechan, 2. Sg. °cechnae, 3. Sg. °cechna etc.), céla- from celid 'conceals', géba- from
ga(i)bid 'takes' and also béra- from berid 'bears, carries': Active 1 Sg. °bér, 2 Sg. °bér(a)e, 3
Sg. béraid vs. °béra, 3 Sg. Rel. béras, 1 Pl. °béram, 2 Pl. bér(a)id, 3 Pl. °bérat; Passive
General Form °bérthar, 3 Pl. °bértar; Secondary future 3 Sg. bérad, 1 Pl. bérmais, 2 Pl.
bérth(a)e, 3 Pl. bért(a)is.
Primitive Future Active Absolute
A II (Act. &Dep.) Strong Verbs (sigmatic)
1 Sg. léicfea, suidigfer *gigsea
2 Sg. léicfe, suidigfider ---

3 Sg. léicfid/-fith, suidigfithir/-fidir gigis
3 Sg. Rel. léicfes(s), *suidigfedar giges
1 Pl. léicfimmi, *suidigfimmir gigsim(m)i
1 Pl. Rel. léicfimme, *suidigfemmar *gigsim(m)e
2 Pl. *léicfithe/-fide, *suidigfide gigeste
3 Pl. léicfit, *suidigfitir gigsit
3 Pl. Rel. léicfite, *suidigfetar gigsite
Primitive Future Active Conjunct
A II (Act. &Dep.) Strong Verbs

(sigmatic)
1 Sg. °léiciub, °suidigfer °gigius
2 Sg. °léicfe, *°suidigfider °gigis
3 Sg. °léicfea, *°suidigfedar *°gig
1 Pl. °léicfem, *°suidigfemmar °gigsem
2 Pl. *°léicfid, *°suidigfid °gigsid
3 Pl. °léicfet, °suidigfetar °gigset
Primitive Future Passive Absolute
A II (Act. = Dep.) Strong Verbs (sigmatic)
3 Sg. léicfidir [other verbs with ending -stir are attested]
3 Sg. Rel. léicfider gigestar
3 Pl. léicfitir [other verbs with ending -saitir are attested]
3 Pl. Rel. léicfiter/-fetar ---
Primitive Future Passive Conjunct
General °léicfider [other verbs with ending -astar are attested]

Form
3 Pl. °léicfiter/-fetar [other verbs with ending -siter/-satar are attested]
Secondary Future Active
1 Sg. léicfin(n) [other verbs with ending -sain are attested]
2 Sg. léicfeda ---
3 Sg. léicfed/-feth gigsed
1 Pl. léicfimmis ---
2 Pl. *léicfide/-fithe ---
3 Pl. léicfitis [other verbs with ending -saitis are attested]
Secondary Future Passive
General léicfide/-fithe [other verbs with ending -astae are attested]

Form
3 Pl. léicfitis [other verbs with ending -st(a)is are attested]
Many future forms appear in the reading selections of Lessons 3 and 4.
43. Nominal Composition

One of the most archaic Indo-European composition patterns documented in our selections is
the dvandva or copulative compound gaisced (Lesson 4), in which the substantives
corresponding to 'spears' and 'shields' are simply juxtaposed to express the collective
'weapons'. In crideṡerc 'heart's love' (Lesson 5), the substantive cride 'heart' is subordinated to
another substantive (serc 'love') according to a well-known type called tatpurusha in Sanskrit
grammar.
Very frequent is the pattern found in firflaith 'the true rule' (Lesson 6), in which an adjective
specifies the following substantive, cf. also sencharpat, senfonnat, bánaicde, dlumaicde (all in
Lesson 6), findruine (in Lesson 7), and even lérgním and mórthimchell in Lesson 10.
Although formally similar, allmar (literally equal to French outre-mer) in Lesson 6 belongs to
a quite different type, given that the whole compound qualifies something outside the
compound itself, which is why they are called "exocentric compounds."
But while allmar as well as the other compounds listed up to now belong to the inherited
Indo-European type with the Determinatum (here the substantive muir 'sea') being preceded
by its Determinans (here the adjective all 'other'), the exocentric compound toíbgel in Lesson
7 belongs to a more recent Celtic Layer, in which the qualifier gel is postponed to the
substantive to which it refers (toíb). It is noteworthy, therefore, that the late text of selection
10 still uses compounds with the inherited syntactic order: perhaps to add a learned, archaic
flavor to the satire?
Another way of forming new words is by prefixing them, cf. in Lesson 7 co(i)cetal,
equivalent to Latin concinnitas, from cétal 'song', or the negative compound anflaith in
Lesson 6, a negated form of flaith 'rule' (i.e. *un-rule) to convey the meaning 'anarchy'.
44. Indefinite Pronouns
44.1. 'each, every'

There are basically three forms:
• a full stressed form which is used for 'everyone': cách (Nom/Acc/Dat.), cáich (Gen.),
as in ocus cách olchenae 'and everybody else' (Lesson 1) or in no°charainn cách
chenae 'I might have loved everybody else besides' (Lesson 5);
• the originally unstressed cach/cech, which is used adjectivally for 'each' and whose
initial stays unlenited in environments requiring lenition, cf. cech dán 'each man of
art', cech lá 'each day', cach tráth 'each hour', fri cach fó 'toward every good thing',
liga cach datha 'colors of every hue' (Lessons 6, 5, 7, 6, 7). The only marked forms are
the genitive singular and the plural forms, all ending in -a (cacha/cecha) as in dortut
cecha flatho 'the destruction of all rule', lín cecha cethraimthi 'the number of each
fourth part', and do dálaib cacha 'from all the encounters' (Lessons 6, 9, 5). With the
numerals, it conveys a distributive meaning, cf. cach fiche 'each unit of twenty' and
cach dá én 'every two birds' in Lesson 2;
• the indeclinable substantival element cechtar 'each (of two)' as in cechtar in-da rann
'each of the two parts'.
44.2. 'any'
This also has basically three forms:
• a full stressed form meaning 'someone/something, anyone/anything' and
'nobody/nothing' after the negative particle: nech (Nom/Acc. animate), ní (Nom/Acc.
neuter), neich (Gen.), neuch/neoch (Dat.), as in naicc ní i n-neoch 'nothing anywhere',
literally 'not anything in any place' (Lesson 3), or in co°gúalae ní 'he heard something'
and co°n-accae ní 'and he saw something' (Lesson 2);
• an originally unstressed nach with naH for the neuter, which is used as an adjective for
'any' and whose only marked forms are the genitive feminine and plural neuter nacha
(cf. the accusative nach rainn 'any part' vs. the genitive nacha rainne), all other cases
being distinguished only by means of the sandhi effects on the following substantive;
• the indeclinable substantival element nechtar 'either (of two)', which is always
followed by a genitive.
44.3. 'other'
This is expressed by the yo-stem adjective aile, which is postposed to the substantive to
which it refers, cf. do chill aili 'to another monastery' in Lesson 5.
The same element can be substantivized by means of the article or of the above mentioned
nach (e.g. int aile, nach aile 'the other, another').
There is also a reduplicated substantival form alaile with alaill for the neuter and other
variants.
45. The Expression of Reflexivity and Middle Voice
45.1. féin
One of the pronouns meaning 'own, self' is féin, which is found in Lesson 8 (do lessu féin
'your own bidding' and acht co comrís féin fris 'provided that you should meet yourself with
him') and in Lesson 3 (ina charpait feissin 'onto his own chariot'). It does not distinguish
different cases, but only person and, in part, gender:
1&2 Sg. féin
3 masc/ntr. fé(i)ssin/fe(i)ssin, fé(i)sin/fe(i)sin, féin
3 fem. fé(i)sine/fe(i)sine, féisne/feisne, féis(s)in/feis(s)in, fissin
1 Pl. fésine/fesine
2 Pl. féis(s)ne/feis(s)ne, fésin/fesin
3 Pl. fés(s)ine/fes(s)ine, féis(s)ne/feis(s)ne, fé(is)sin/fe(is)sin
Another pronoun of this type is fadéin, which appears in the later text of Lesson 10 as fodén,
cf. i n-a beólu fodén 'into his own lips'.
45.2. imm
To express reciprocity, imm is usually added to a verb or substantive, cf. imbúalad 'mutual
smiting', imcháinid 'mutual complain', imchlaidbed 'fighting mutually with swords', imdiupart
'mutual cheating', imḟrecrae 'correspondence', imguin 'reciprocally wounding or slaying' and
many others, each with a corresponding verb as e.g. imm°freccair 'corresponds' or imm°goin
'fights (mutually)'.
45.3. Deponent Inflection

Among the Irish verbs with deponent inflection we find the same types which in Indo-
European languages tend to adopt the middle voice. One group is constituted by the so-called
verba sentiendi, such as ro°cluinethar 'hears', ro°fitir 'knows < *has seen', midithir 'judges',
do°moinethar 'thinks', mebraigidir 'remembers'; another is formed by verbs expressing a
change in the qualities of the subject, such as imdaigidir 'increases (intransitive)', whose
future is in fact used for glossing the Latin deponens uberabitur, and fris°dorchaigedar, which
glosses Latin obtenebrari, or senaigidir 'grows old'; in any case, they express a particular
involvement of the subject, e.g. ro°laimethar 'ventures, dares'. In such cases, many modern
European languages employ a reflexive pattern such as me atrevo 'I dare', me alegro 'I
rejoice'.
Old Irish Online
Lesson 10
This selection is taken from the Middle Irish tale Aislinge Meic Con Glinne, 'The Vision of
Mac Con Glinne', most likely composed in the last quarter of the 11th century A.D. The lost
original version has come down to us in two recensions: the shorter and more coherent
recension H, though representing an earlier tradition, is linguistically later, being preserved in
a Trinity College Dublin manuscript from the 16th or 17th century. This is why the selection
of the present lesson is taken from recension B in the edition of Kenneth Jackson, which
albeit greatly expanded (so much so that the logic of the story has suffered in parts), was
written down by a single scribe between 1408 and 1411 A.D. and contains a number of rare
words.
Aislinge Meic Con Glinne is a satire parodying the literature of visions. Its core lies in the
widespread tradition about a legendary land of abundance or 'Land of the Living', an Earthly
Paradise across the Ocean where the immortals feast eternally, here intertwined with the
popular belief about curing a person of a tape-worm by starving the two and then luring the
hungry worm out of the victim's mouth with delicious food. In Aislinge Meic Con Glinne
these motifs have been expanded into a mockery of the Establishment of the time, and more
specifically of lawyers, literary men and, above all, monks. As usual, the author is unknown,
but from his malicious attitude towards the Church on the one hand and the absence of
mockery regarding the nobility on the other, it has been inferred that he must have been a
disgruntled cleric who had left the Church to become a poet and was hence employed by
noblemen.
The story as preserved in B tells how a wandering scholar named Ainiér Mac Con Glinne,
famous for his gifts of satire and eulogy, seeks out Cathal, king of Munster, who was
possessed by a demon of gluttony, but first comes to stay for a night in the guesthouse of the
monastery of Cork, a shabby place whose owners are outrageously mean and do not treat
their guest with the due hospitality. When Mac Con Glinne satirizes the circumstances,
Manchín, the Abbott, sentences him to various kinds of corporal punishment with subsequent
crucifixion, yet Mac Con Glinne shrewdly delays his execution by insisting on drinking a last
ration of water drop by drop from the pin of his brooch. As the evening is too far advanced to
execute the sentence, Mac Con Glinne is stripped naked and is tied to a pillar until the next
morning, awaiting crucifixion. But at midnight an angel appears to him and reveals a vision
which on the subsequent morning Mac Con Glinne relates to Manchín and his monks in the
form of a verse parody upon the popular voyage tales (cf. Immram Brain in Lesson 7), but
where everything is about food. As a consequence, Manchín sends him to Cathal at once,
since it has been revealed to him that the scholar's vision will cure the king of his disease.
Mac Con Glinne succeeds in freeing Cathal from the demon by reciting his vision in two
poems, to which he adds another parody mocking various elements and genres of Irish
literature and where again food is the central topic. Finally, the scholar is richly rewarded by
the king, and the story ends by stating the virtue of the vision as revealed to and by the
protagonist, and the reward to any person who might recite it.
In our selection (ll. 778-800), Mac Con Glinne is at Cathal's court, reciting his vision of the
Land of Abundance to the king. This takes place during a big feast, ordered by Mac Con
Glinne specifically for the purpose, during which the king, after two nights of fasting, is tied
to the wall and forced to look at the protagonist eating the luscious food while he describes an
edible house on a lake of milk.
"Maith, a Chathail," ar Mac Con Glinne, "aislinge domárfas, ocus itchuala it maithsiu oc
breith for aislingi."
• maith -- adjective; used as adverb; <maith> good -- well
• a -- particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o -- o
• Chathail -- proper name masculine; lenited vocative singular of <Cathal> Cathal --
Cathal
• ar -- indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said -- said
• Mac Con Glinne -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Mac Con
Glinne> Son of the Hound of the Valley -- Mac Con Glinne
• aislinge -- noun; nominative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision, dream -
- a vision
• domárfas -- verb; past indicative passive singular, deuterotonic, of <do°adbat> shows
+ infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL, mmL> I -- has been shown to me
• itchuala -- verb; 1st person singular past indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<at°chluin> hears -- I have heard
• it -- verb; 2nd person singular present indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- you
are
• maithsiu -- adjective; compound form of nominative singular masculine of <maith>
good + emphasizing particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you -- good yourself
• breith -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <breth> passing judgement,
interpreting -- passing judgement
• aislingi -- noun; accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision, dream --
a vision
"Do m' debroth," ol Cathal, "dia mbéraind for aislingi fer talman, ní béraind for th'
aislingise."
• m' -- possessive pronoun; 1st person singular, shortened from <moL, mL> my -- my
• debroth -- noun; compound form of <dé, día> god + dative singular feminine, u-stem,
of <bráth> judgment -- God's doom
• Cathal -- proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of <Cathal> Cathal -
- Cathal
• dia -- conjunction; <diaN> when; if -- even if
• mbéraind -- verb; nasalized 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of
<berid> carries, brings -- I would pass judgement
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- upon
the vision
• fer -- noun; genitive plural masculine, o-stem, of <fer> man -- of the men
• talman -- noun; genitive singular masculine/feminine, n-stem, of <talam> earth,
ground -- of the earth
• béraind -- verb; 1st person singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid>
carries, brings -- I would pass judgement
• th' -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular, variant of <doL, tL> your -- your
• aislingise -- noun; compound form of accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of
<aislinge> vision, dream + emphasizing particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I --
vision myself
"Fortgillim," or Mac Con Glinne, "cen co rucasu, indisfither hí i t' ḟiadnaise."
• fortgillim -- verb; 1st person singular present indicative active, deuterotonic, of <for-t-
gella> affirms, calls to witness, invokes -- I swear
• Mac Con Glinne -- proper name masculine; nominative singular of <Mac Con
Glinne> Son of the Hound of the Valley -- Mac Con Glinne
• cen co -- conjunction; compound of preposition <cenL> without + conjunction <con,
coN> until; so that; and -- even if... not
• rucasu -- verb; compound form of 2nd person singular perfective RO-present
subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings + emphasizing particle 2nd
person singular <siu, so, su> you -- you should... pass judgement
• indisfither -- verb; future indicative passive singular, absolute, of <indis(s)id> tells --
shall be told
• hí -- personal pronoun; 3rd person singular feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it --
she
• t' -- possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular of <doL, tL> your -- your
• ḟiadnaise -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, yā-stem, of <fiadnaise> presence -
- presence
"Fóbrais trá a aislingi.
• fóbrais -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<fóbair> begins, sets about -- he began
• trá -- adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover -- then
vision
Is amlaid didiu ro indis ocus dá mír nó a trí sech bél Cathail i na beólu fodén.
• amlaid -- adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way -- so
• didiu -- particle; <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then -- then
• ro indis -- verb; Middle Irish past indicative active, conjunct, of <indis(s)id> tells --
he told
• dá -- numeral; nominative dual masculine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• mír -- noun; nominative dual masculine, o-stem, of <mír> morsel, mouthful, portion -
- morsels
• nó -- conjunction; <nó> or -- or
• a -- particle; introduces numeral; <aH>... -- ...
• trí -- numeral; nominative plural masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three -- three
• sech -- preposition; <sech> past, beyond -- past
• bél -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face -- mouth
• Cathail -- proper name masculine; genitive singular of <Cathal> Cathal -- Cathal's
• i -- preposition; <in, iN> in, into -- into
• na -- nasalized possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- his
• beólu -- noun; accusative plural masculine, o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face -- lips
• fodén -- indeclinable; <fodén> self, himself; own -- own
"Aislingi itchonnarc araír,
mo dul for fecht dís nó triúr,
co nacca in tech find forlán
i raba a lommnán do biúd.
a vision
• itchonnarc -- verb; 1st person singular past indicative active, deuterotonic, of <ad°cí,
at°chí> sees -- I saw
• araír -- adverb; <araír> last night -- last night
• dul -- verbal noun; nominative singular masculine, u-stem, of <téit> goes -- going
• fecht -- noun; accusative singular masculine, o-stem, of <fecht> course, journey; time,
occasion -- a journey
• dís -- personal numeral; dative singular feminine of <dias> two people, pair, couple --
two
• nó -- conjunction; <nó> or -- or
• triúr -- personal numeral; dative singular masculine of <triar> three people -- three
• nacca -- verb; nasalized 1st person singular preterite indicative active, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees -- I saw
• in -- article; accusative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- a
• tech -- noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling --
house
• find -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright -- white
• forlán -- adjective; compound of preposition <for> on, over + accusative singular
masculine of <lán> full, ample -- very full
• raba -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is -- which was
• a -- article; variant of nominative singular masculine of <in, aN, indL> the -- an
• lommnán -- noun; nominative singular masculine of <lom(m)nán> abundance --
abundance
• do -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• biúd -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <biad> food -- food
Co nacca in loch lemnachta
for lár muige find,
co nacca in tech lérgníma
iar na thugaid d' imm.
• loch -- noun; accusative singular masculine, u-stem, of <loch> lake, firth; pool -- lake
• lemnachta -- noun; genitive singular masculine, i-stem, of <lemnacht> new/fresh milk
-- of milk
• for -- preposition; <for> on, over -- in
• lár -- noun; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle -- the
middle
• muige -- noun; genitive singular masculine, s-stem, of <mag> plain, field -- of a...
field
• find -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <find, finn> white, bright -- white
• tech -- noun; accusative singular masculine, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling --
house
• lérgníma -- noun; compound of adjective <léir> diligent + genitive singular
masculine, u-stem, of <gním> action, work -- of diligent activity
• iar -- preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after -- under
• na -- possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- its
• thugaid -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, dental stem, of <tuga> thatch --
thatch
• d' -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• imm -- noun; dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <im(m)> butter -- butter
Tan tánuc 'na mórthimchell
do ḟégad a uird,
maróca ar na cétberbad
ba hiat sin a scuilb.
• tan -- noun; used as conjunction; accusative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain>
time -- when
• tánuc -- verb; 1st person singular past indicative, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c), tig>
approaches; gets; comes -- I came
• 'na -- preposition; compound of <in, iN> in, into + possessive pronoun 3rd person
singular masculine <aL> his, its -- into its
• mórthimchell -- adverb; dative singular masculine, o-stem, of <mórthimchell> great
circuit -- perimeter
• ḟégad -- verbal noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem/o-stem, of <fégaid>
looking at, scanning, observing -- observe
• a -- possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its -- its
• uird -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <ord> arrangement -- structure
• maróca -- noun; nominative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <maróc> sausage -- sausages
• ar -- preposition; variant of <íarN, íarmL-> after -- upon
• na -- possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd person plural <aN> their -- their
• cétberbad -- verbal noun; compound of numeral <cét> first; fresh, new + dative
singular of <berbad> boiling, cooking -- recent boiling
• ba -- verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is -- it was
• hiat -- personal pronoun; aspirated 3rd person plural <iat> they -- them
indeed
• scuilb -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <scolb> splinter, wattle --
thatch-rods
A dí ersaind bocai brechtáin,
a léibend do gruth is d' imm,
imdadai do blonaig bladaig,
scéith iumdai do thanaig thimm. ...
• dí -- numeral; nominative dual feminine of <dáL, díL, dáN> two -- two
• ersaind -- noun; nominative dual feminine, n-stem, of <ursa(n), ersa> door-post --
door-posts
• bocai -- adjective; nominative dual feminine of <boca> soft -- soft
• brechtáin -- noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <brechtán> butter, fat, relish
-- custard
• léibend -- noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <léibend, léibenn> level
surface -- platform
• gruth -- noun; dative singular masculine of <gruth> curds, cheese -- curds
• is -- verb; variant of participle present of copula <is> is -- and
• d' -- preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from, of -- of
• imm -- noun; dative singular masculine, n-stem, of <im(m)> butter -- butter
• imdadai -- noun; variant of nominative plural feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae> bed,
couch -- the beds
• blonaig -- noun; dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <blonac> fat, lard, grease -- lard
• bladaig -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <bladach> famous, renowned;
splendid -- splendid
• scéith -- noun; nominative plural masculine, o-stem, of <scíath> shield, wing -- the...
shutters
• iumdai -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <im(m)da> many, abundant --
many
• thanaig -- noun; lenited dative singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tanach> pressed cheese -
- pressed cheese
• thimm -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <timm> soft, pliant; feeble -- pliant
Lesson Text
"Maith, a Chathail," ar Mac Con Glinne, "aislinge domárfas, ocus itchuala it maithsiu
oc breith for aislingi." "Do m' debroth," ol Cathal, "dia mbéraind for aislingi fer
talman, ní béraind for th' aislingise." "Fortgillim," or Mac Con Glinne, "cen co rucasu,
indisfither hí i t' ḟiadnaise." "Fóbrais trá a aislingi. Is amlaid didiu ro indis ocus dá mír
nó a trí sech bél Cathail i na beólu fodén.
"Aislingi itchonnarc araír,

mo dul for fecht dís nó triúr,
co nacca in tech find forlán
i raba a lommnán do biúd.
Co nacca in loch lemnachta

for lár muige find,
co nacca in tech lérgníma
iar na thugaid d' imm.
Tan tánuc 'na mórthimchell

do ḟégad a uird,
maróca ar na cétberbad
ba hiat sin a scuilb.
A dí ersaind bocai brechtáin,

a léibend do gruth is d' imm,
imdadai do blonaig bladaig,
scéith iumdai do thanaig thimm. ...
Translation
"Well, o Cathal," said Mac Con Glinne, "a vision has been shown to me and I have
heard you are good yourself at passing judgement on a vision." "To my God's doom,"
said Cathal, "even if I would pass judgement upon the vision of [all] the men of the
earth, I would not myself pass judgement on your vision." "I swear," said Mac Con
Glinne, "even if you should not pass judgement, she (i.e. the vision) should be told in
your presence." Then he began his vision. It is so then he told [it], and two morsels or
three past Cathal's mouth into his own lips.
"A vision I saw last night,
My going on a journey, two or three [of us],
And I saw a house, white and very full,
In which was an abundance of food.
And I saw a lake of milk
In the middle of a white field,
And I saw a house of diligent activity
Under its thatch of butter.
When I came into its perimeter
To observe its structure:
Sausages upon their recent boiling,
It was them indeed its thatch-rods.
Its two soft door-posts of custard,
Its platform of curds and of butter,
The beds of splendid lard,
The many shutters of pliant pressed cheese. ..."
Grammar
46. Conditional Clauses

There are basically three ways of introducing conditional clauses:
• with maL/máL 'if'; it coalesces into mad with the 3rd singular present subjunctive of
the copula, as in do°gén-sa do lessu..., mad áil duit 'I shall do your bidding ..., if it
should be a desire with you' (Lesson 8), where the apodosis has the indicative future.
When negated, it appears as mani, cf. nico-t ḃia ícc ..., mani-m ḋ e°r°gais-siu 'there
won't be a cure for you ..., unless you ask my pardon' (Lesson 4), where a perfective
present subjunctive in the protasis is, again, linked to an indicative future in the
apodosis. Otherwise it takes the indicative present whenever the condition is past or
present, and the past subjunctive when the condition is unfulfilled or very doubtful;
• with diaN 'if' in positive conditional clauses requiring the subjunctive; cf. día tís ar mo
chend..., do°regsae lat 'if you might come for me..., I shall come with you' (Lesson 5)
and bia marb, dia-nat chluine 'you will be dead, if he should hear you' (Lesson 8),
both with subjunctive present in the protasis and indicative future in the apodosis;
• with acht 'if only, provided that' with doubtful or unfulfilled conditions as in acht
ro°feisind..., ní ... no°scarfamais 'if only I had known..., we would not have parted...'
(Lesson 3), where the protasis is expressed in the past subjunctive and the apodosis in
the secondary future of the indicative.
47. The Verb: Imperative

In Old Irish, the imperative mood is normally formed from the present stem and without
further tense distinctions (only few strong verb form it from their sigmatic subjunctive stem).
Like many other paradigmatical categories, the imperative does not distinguish a special
absolute inflection. Moreover, in compound verbs it is always prototonic, unless the first
element is followed by an infixed pronoun.
As in other languages, there are only few instances of the 1st person singular. Cf. in the
following the forms of móraid 'magnifies', lécid 'leaves', suidigidir 'places', beirid 'bears', and
ro°clu(i)nethar 'hears':
Imperative Active
AI A II (Act., Dep.) B I (Act., Dep.)
1 Sg. --- ---, --- biur, ---
2 Sg. mór léic, suidigthe beir, cluinte
3 Sg. mórad/-ath léced/-eth, suidiged/-eth *bered/-eth, cluined/-eth
1 Pl. móram lécem, suidigem beram, cluinem
2 Pl. mór(a)id/-(a)ith lécid/-ith, suidigid/-ith berid/-ith, cluinid/-ith
3 Pl. mórat lécet, *suidigetar berat, cluinetar
Imperative Passive
AI A II (Act. = Dep.) B I (Dep. = Act.)
General Form mórthar suidigther berar (vs. ta°barr from

do°beir)
3 Pl. mórtar suidigter Bertar
48. Some Productive Noun-Suffixes

Abstract and collective nouns are often expressed by derivatives in -acht/-echt and -e, cf.
ógacht 'chastity', marcadacht 'cavalry' and daire 'oak wood; grove', orbbae 'heritage'; abstracts
from adjectives are also expressed by derivatives in -(i)us/-es, cf. goirtius 'bitterness' from
goirt 'bitter'. Collective formations can also be formed by adding a feminine suffixoid -rad, as
in the ā-stems marcrad 'horsemen, cavalry' and rígrad 'troupe royale'.
To the semantic category of nomina actionis belong derivatives in -ad/-ed, -(i)ud, -igud/-
ugud, -t(i)u, and later also -á(i)l: cf. marbad 'killing' in Lesson 8 and techtad 'having,
possessing', cotlud 'sleeping' in Lesson 2 (from the verb con°tu(i)li), bláthugud 'blossoming',
toimtiu 'act of thinking, opinion' (from the verb do°moinethar 'thinks') and aicsiu 'act of
seeing' in Lesson 1 (from the verb ad°cí), baccáil 'hindering' (from the verb baccaid 'hinders').
Nomina essendi are mostly expressed by derivatives in -as/-es, cf. banas 'condition of a
woman, womanliness', cennas 'leadership', marcachas 'horsemanship'.
Nomina agentis are mainly formed by means of suffixes such as -aige, -em (with genitive -
emón) or -id, to which Latin loan suffixes such as -(a)ire, -óir, -atóir, -denmaid have to be
added: cf. cathaige 'fighter, warrior', flaithem 'ruler' in Lesson 6, selgaid 'hunter' (from selg
'the hunt'), fíachaire 'bird-seer' (from fíach 'raven'), loingseóir 'seaman' (from loinges 'ship'),
glantóir 'purifier', feóldenmaid 'carnifex'.
Diminutives can be formed by adding the suffixes -ín, -án: cf. mírín 'small morsel', lebrán
'little book' (from mír and, respectively, lebor).
Very seldom is the suffix -es for deriving feminines (laíches 'laywoman', mainches 'nun'),
which are rather expressed by prefixing ban- 'woman-' to a masculine substantive, cf. banéces
'poetess' in Lesson 5.
Quite often one can appreciate a whole string of suffixes in one and the same word, cf.
oentaigech 'agreed' from oentaige 'agreement', which is itself derived from oentach 'agreed', a
derivative of the abstract oentu 'unity, consent' from oen/oín 'one'.
49. Word Formation of the Adjectives

Regarding the morphology of adjectives, five inflection classes can be distinguished, with
only minor differences with respect to the substantive declension: o-/ā-stems, yo-/-yā-stems,
i-stems, u-stems, and consonantal stems.
To the first group belong also those adjectives which are derived by means of the suffix -ach/-
ech: originally, they were possessional adjectives derived from a substantive, like clothach
'famous' from cloth 'fame'; cf. also bennach 'horned' or corpach, which glosses Latin
corpulentus and is opposed to corpdae, glossing Latin corporalis.
The latter loan-blend is in fact derived by means of the suffix -(i)de, which belongs to the yo-
/-yā-stems and originally designates something that possesses the same quality as the
substantive from which it is derived; cf. also fáelda 'wolfish' from fáel 'wolf' or ferdae 'male'.
Less productive though still quite numerous are the adjectives formed with suffixoids such as
-mar 'big' and -(*s)amail 'like': cf. compounds such as linnmar 'abounding in pools' (linn
'pool'), which led to forming adjectives like ágmar 'warlike, valorous' from the substantive ág
'fight, battle', and later on to adjectives like lonnmar 'fierce, vigorous' from the adjective lonn
'fierce, strong'. The latter suffixoid is found in adjectives such as mnáamail 'female',
laithemail 'daily', lasamail 'flaming', respectively from ben 'woman', laithe 'day', lasaid 'takes
fire, blazes'.
50. The Necessity of Reading: Some References
Cid glic fri halchi úara,
cid saer ac imirt béla,
cid binn a dord fri dúana,
do chúala as borb nat léga.
Though one be clever at cold splinters of rock,
though one be a master at handling an axe,
though his voice is sweet in singing,
I have heard that he who does not read is ignorant.
The text of this short Irish poem has been taken, together with the translation given by Ruth
P.M. Lehmann, from her collection Early Irish Verse (Austin, 1982: University of Texas
Press), where it is found as No. 58 on pp. 63 and 110, under the title "The Necessity of
Reading."
50.1. Handbooks
• Meid, Wolfgang. Die keltischen Sprachen und Literaturen: ein Überblick. Innsbruck
and Budapest, 1997: Archaeolingua, Series Minor.
• Russell, Paul. An Introduction to the Celtic Languages. London & New York, 1995:
Longman, Linguistics Library.
• Lewis, Henry, and Holger Pedersen. A Concise Comparative Celtic Grammar.
Göttingen, 1974: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
• Thurneysen, Rudolf. A Grammar of Old Irish. Dublin, 1946 and reprints: Dublin
Institute of Advanced Studies.
• Pokorny, Julius. Altirische Grammatik. Berlin, 1969: Sammlung Göschen 896.
• Strachan, John, and Osborn Bergin. Old-Irish Paradigms and Selections from the Old-
Irish Glosses. Dublin, 1949 and reprints: Royal Irish Academy.
• de Bernardo Stempel, Patrizia. Nominale Wortbildung des älteren Irischen:
Stammbildung und Derivation. Tübingen, 1999: Max Niemeyer, Buchreihe der
Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie no. 15.
50.2. Dictionaries
• (Contributions to a) Dictionary of the Irish Language. Dublin, 1913-1976: Royal Irish
Academy.
• Vendryes, Joseph, Edouard Bachellery, and Pierre-Yves Lambert. Lexique
étymologique de l'irlandais ancien. Dublin & Paris, 1959ff. : D.I.A.S. and C.N.R.S.
• Green, Anthony. Old Irish Verbs and Vocabulary. Somerville, 1995: Cascadilla Press.
50.3. Further Readings for Beginners
• Lehmann, Ruth P.M. & Winfred. An Introduction to Old Irish. New York, 1975: The
Modern Language Association of America.
• Meid, Wolfgang. Die Romanze von Froech und Findabair: Táin Bó Froích.
Innsbruck, 1970: Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft, Sonderheft 30.
• Strachan, John, and Osborn Bergin. Stories from the Táin. Dublin, 1944 and reprints:
Royal Irish Academy.
• O'Rahilly, Cecile. Táin Bó Cúailnge: Recension I [Irish text with English translation].
Dublin, 1976: D.I.A.S.
50.4. Further Bibliography

• Bromwich, Rachel. Medieval Celtic Literature: A Select Bibliography. Toronto, 1974:
University of Toronto Press (Toronto Medieval Bibliographies 5).
• CSANA Celtic Studies Bibliography
(http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/celtic/csanabib.html)
Old Irish Online
Master Glossary
Jonathan Slocum, Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, and Caren Esser
This Master Glossary page lists, in an alphabetical order suitable to Old Irish and the script
employed for it, every unique word form that appears in lesson texts and, for each word, its
unique glosses. In addition to the gloss information, sans contextual translation, links are
provided to every appearance, in every numbered lesson, of the word/gloss in question. With
this index one may perform a quick "word look-up" and, in addition, study how words are
used in context by clicking on their links.
A word may be spelled in different ways, and therefore be listed in separate entries, due to the
different writing policies followed in the original manuscripts and edited texts from which the
text selections have been taken.
a: article; accusative singular neuter of aici: verb; 3rd person singular present
<in, aN, indL> the indicative active, prototonic, of <ad°cí,
a: article; nominative singular neuter of at°chí> sees
<in, aN, indL> the aidilcni: noun; accusative plural feminine,
a: article; variant of nominative singular yā-stem, of <aidilcne> necessity, need
masculine of <in, aN, indL> the aili: pronominal; dative singular feminine
a: particle; introduces numeral; <aH>... of <aile> other
a: particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o ailithri: noun; dative singular feminine, yā-
stem, of <ailithre> pilgrimage
a: possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular
feminine <aH> her air: preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in
front of, east of
a: possessive pronoun; 3rd person singular
masculine <aL> his, its airḃe: noun; nominative singular neuter,
yo-stem, of <airbe> hedge, fence
a: preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of, from
airḋirciusa: adjective; compound form of
acht: conjunction; <acht> if only, provided comparative of <airdirc> obvious;
that renowned + emphasizing particle 1st
acht: preposition; <acht> except, only, person singular <se, sa> I
save, but airi: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
adamraib: adjective; dative plural feminine person singular neuter accusative <arL,
of <adamrae> very wonderful airL> before, for, in front of, east of
adfiadar: verb; present indicative aislinge: noun; nominative singular
impersonal singular, deuterotonic, of feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision,
<ad°fét> tells, relates dream
admestar: verb; 3rd person singular present aislingi: noun; accusative singular
subjunctive active, deuterotonic, of feminine, yā-stem, of <aislinge> vision,
<ad°midethar> estimates, evaluates dream
aH: possessive pronoun; 3rd person aislingise: noun; compound form of
singular feminine <aH> her accusative singular feminine, yā-stem, of
<aislinge> vision, dream + emphasizing
aH: preposition; <essH, asH, aH> out of,
particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I
from
aiss: noun; accusative singular feminine of
<aiss, ais> back, hinder part ar: conjunction; <air, ar> for
aithisc: noun; genitive singular neuter, o- ar: conjunction; introduces relative; <ar-
stem, of <aithesc> message aN> so that, in order that, that
aL: particle; introduces vocative; <aL> o ar: indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said
aL: possessive pronoun 3rd person singular ar: possessive pronoun; 1st person plural
masculine <aL> his, its <arN> our
allmaraib: adjective; dative plural feminine ar: preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in
of <allmar> foreign front of, east of
amlaid: adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, ar: preposition; variant of <íarN, íarmL->
so, in this way after
amne: emphatic particle; <amae, amin, ara: conjunction; <ar-aN> so that, in order
amne> thus, in that way, so, then that, that
amsir: noun; accusative singular feminine, araír: adverb; <araír> last night
ā-stem, of <aimser, amsir> time, period, araL: preposition; compound form of
season preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in front
aN: article; accusative singular neuter of of, east of + suffixed possessive pronoun
<in, aN, indL> the 3rd person singular masculine <aL> his, its
aN: conjunction; <aN> as, when aranécath: verb; compound form of 3rd
aN: possessive pronoun 3rd person plural person singular imperative active,
<aN> their prototonic, of <*ar°éci> observes +
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular
an: preposition; variant of <in, iN> in, into masculine <aN> he
an: relative pronoun; <anL> what, that arcat: noun; accusative singular neuter, o-
what stem, of <arcat, argat> silver
anair: adverb; <anair> from the front, Arcatnéul: toponym; dative singular of
before <Arcatnél> Silver Cloud
anba: noun; accusative singular feminine, are: noun; nominative singular masculine,
yā-stem, of <anba> vast quantity dental stem, of <are, arae, ara> charioteer
and: pronominalized preposition; 3rd aret: noun; nominative singular neuter, o-
person singular neuter dative of <in, iN> stem, of <aret, airet> length, interval,
in, into space (of time)
anflaith: noun; compound of <an-> non- + argit: noun; genitive singular masculine, o-
lenited nominative singular feminine, i- stem, of <arcat, argat> silver
stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler
arid: noun; accusative singular masculine,
aníarthúaiḋ: adverb; <aníarthúaid> from dental stem, of <are, arae, ara> charioteer
the north-west, in the north-west
arL: preposition; <arL, airL> before, for, in
ann: adverb; <ann> there front of, east of
anní: demonstrative particle; neuter; armm: noun; accusative singular neuter, o-
<anní> this, that stem, of <arm, armm> armour, weapon
antúaiḋ: adverb; <antúaid> from the north arna: negative; compound form of <ar-aN>
apair: verb; 2nd person singular imperative so that, in order that, that + dependent
active, prototonic, of <as°beir> says, negative particle <ná, na> not, nor
speaks arndiḋ: preposition; compound form of
preposition <arL, airL> before, for, in front relates
of, east of + relative particle <-aN, -saN> athar: noun; genitive singular masculine, r-
that which, what + 3rd person singular stem, of <athir, athair> father
present indicative, conjunct, of copula, <-
did> is atomLġláḋathar: verb; compound form of
3rd person singular present indicative,
asa: preposition; compound form of <essH, deuterotonic, syntactically relative of
asH, aH> out of, from + possessive pronoun <ad°gládathar> addresses, speaks to +
3rd person singular neuter <aL> his, its infixed pronoun 1st person singular
asbert: verb; 3rd person singular preterite <domL, dumL> I
indicative active, deuterotonic, of áil: noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-
<as°beir> says, speaks stem, of <áil> desire
asbert: verb; 3rd person singular preterite áinius: noun; accusative singular
indicative active, deuterotonic, masculine, u-stem, of <áinius> pleasure
syntactically relative, of <as°beir> says,
speaks án: adjective; nominative singular
masculine of <án> splendid, brilliant;
ass: pronominalized preposition; 3rd splendour
person singular neuter dative of <essH, asH,
aH> out of, from áth: noun; accusative singular masculine,
u-stem, of <áth> ford
ass: verb; 3rd person singular present
indicative, absolute, relative of copula áth: noun; dative singular masculine, u-
<is> is stem, of <áth> ford
assaL: preposition; compound form of átho: noun; genitive singular masculine, u-
preposition <essH, asH, aH> out of, from + stem, of <áth> ford
suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person áuderg: adjective; compound of <áu> ear +
singular masculine <aL> his, its nominative singular feminine of adjective
atatLchoṁnaic: verb; compound form of <derg> red
2nd person singular preterite indicative, ḃaH: verb; 3rd person singular preterite
deuterotonic, syntactically relative of indicative, absolute, syntactically relative,
<ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts; happens, of copula <is> is
chances + infixed pronoun 2nd person
ḃáissiu: noun; compound form of lenited
singular <totL, tatL, tL> you
genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <bás>
atáusa: verb; compound form of 1st person death + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular present indicative, deuterotonic, singular <siu, so, su> you
syntactically relative, of substantive verb
ḃen: noun; lenited nominative singular
<attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st person
feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife
singular <se, sa> I
ḃia: verb; 3rd person singular future
atbath: verb; 3rd person singular preterite
indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<attá> is
<at°baill> dies
ḃó: noun; lenited nominative singular
atbeir: verb; 3rd person singular present
feminine irregular of <bó> cow, ox
<as°beir> says, speaks + infixed pronoun ḃraí: noun; lenited nominative dual
3rd person singular neuter <tL> this feminine, u-stem, of <brú, brá> eyebrow,
brow
atfedar: verb; 3rd person singular present
indicative passive, deuterotonic, Ḃroġo: toponym; genitive singular
syntactically relative, of <ad°fét> tells, masculine, u-stem, of <brug, bruig>
region, district beólu: noun; accusative plural masculine,
ba: verb; 3rd person singular preterite o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face
indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is berthae: verb; 3rd person singular preterite
ba: verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, absolute, relative of
indicative, absolute, relative, of copula <berid> carries, brings
<is> is berthasa: verb; compound form of 3rd
baH: verb; 3rd person singular preterite person singular past subjunctive passive,
indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is conjunct, of <berid> carries, brings +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular
baH: verb; 3rd person singular preterite <se, sa> I
indicative, absolute, syntactically relative,
of copula <is> is bet: verb; variant of 2nd person singular
future indicative of copula <is> is
baí: noun; nominative plural feminine,
irregular, of <bó> cow, ox bethu: noun; dative singular masculine,
dental stem, of <bethu> life, existence
bam: verb; 1st person singular future
indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is bél: noun; accusative singular masculine,
o-stem, of <bél> lip; mouth, face
ban: noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-
stem, of <ben> woman, wife béraind: verb; 1st person singular past
subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid>
banéces: noun; compound of <ben> carries, brings
woman, wife + nominative singular
masculine, o-stem, of <éces, éices> bés: noun; nominative singular masculine,
scholar, sage, poet u-stem, of <bés> custom, habit
batha: noun; genitive singular neuter, u- bia: verb; 1st person singular future
stem, of <bath> sea, ocean indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is
báig: verbal noun; dative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <bág> threat bia: verb; 1st person singular future
indicative, absolute, syntactically relative,
bánaicdib: noun; compound of <bán> of substantive verb <attá> is
white, shiny + dative plural feminine, yā-
stem, of <aicde> artefact, article bia: verb; variant of 2nd person singular
future indicative, absolute, of substantive
bása: verb; 1st person singular preterite verb <attá> is
indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is + emphasizing particle 1st person biaṁ: verb; 1st person singular future
singular <se, sa> I indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
<attá> is
bátar: verb; 3rd person plural preterite
indicative relative of substantive verb bias: verb; 3rd person singular future
<attá> is indicative, absolute, relative, of
substantive verb <attá> is
beḋ: verb; 3rd person singular preterite
subjunctive, absolute, relative, of copula biasu: verb; compound form of 2nd person
<is> is singular future indicative, absolute,
syntactically relative, of substantive verb
beḋg: noun; accusative singular masculine, <attá> is + emphasizing particle 2nd
o-stem, of <bedg> start, leap person singular <siu, so, su> you
ben: noun; nominative singular feminine, bieith: verb; 3rd person singular future
ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife indicative, absolute, of substantive verb
ben: noun; vocative singular feminine, ā- <attá> is
stem, of <ben> woman, wife bile: noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-
stem, of <bile> (ancient and venerated) bráthair: noun; nominative singular
tree masculine, r-stem, of <bráthir, bráthair>
Bir: toponym; accusative singular of <Bir> brother
Bir brechtáin: noun; genitive singular
bithu: noun; accusative plural masculine, masculine, o-stem, of <brechtán> butter,
u-stem, of <bith> world; life; age, period fat, relish
biúd: noun; dative singular masculine, o- Breġa: toponym; accusative singular of
stem, of <biad> food <Brega> Brega
bíad: verb; 3rd person singular conditional, breith: noun; dative singular feminine, ā-
conjunct, syntactically relative, of stem, of <breth> passing judgement,
substantive verb <attá> is interpreting
bíḋ: verb; 3rd person singular bréit: noun; accusative singular feminine,
consuetudinal present, absolute, of ā-stem, of <bréit> strip; cloth; shred
substantive verb <attá> is Bricriu: proper name masculine;
bladaig: adjective; dative singular nominative singular of <Bricriu> Bricriu
feminine of <bladach> famous, renowned; brisfea: verb; 1st person singular future
splendid indicative active, absolute, of <brissid>
bliadan: noun; genitive plural feminine, ī- breaks, destroys; defeats
stem, of <blíadain> year bríg: noun; dative singular feminine, ā-
blíadain: noun; accusative singular stem, of <bríg> strength, value
feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year broinn: noun; dative singular feminine, n-
blonaig: noun; dative singular feminine, ā- stem, of <brú> belly, womb
stem, of <blonac> fat, lard, grease brón: noun; nominative singular
bocai: adjective; nominative dual feminine masculine, o-stem, of <brón> sorrow
of <boca> soft busL: verb; 3rd person singular future
boí: verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative, absolute, relative, of copula
indicative of substantive verb <attá> is <is> is
boíL: verb; 3rd person singular preterite cach: pronominal; accusative singular
indicative, syntactically relative, of neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any
substantive verb <attá> is cach: pronominal; genitive singular neuter
borb: noun; nominative singular of <cach, cech> each, every, any
masculine, o-stem, of <borb> oaf cach: pronominal; nominative singular
bó: noun; genitive singular feminine, masculine of <cach, cech> each, every,
irregular, of <bó> cow, ox any
bó: noun; nominative singular feminine, cacha: pronominal; dative plural feminine
irregular, of <bó> cow, ox of <cach, cech> each, every, any
bó: verb; 3rd person singular present caille: noun; genitive singular feminine, ī-
subjunctive active, conjunct, of <bongid> stem, of <caill> wood, forest
breaks cairptiu: noun; accusative plural
bratt: noun; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
masculine, o-stem, of <bratt> cloak, chariot, wagon
mantle caisel: noun; nominative singular
bráth: noun; accusative singular masculine, masculine, o-stem, of <caisel> stone wall,
u-stem, of <bráth> Doomsday rampart
caín: adjective; nominative singular masculine, yo-stem, of <cethraimthe>
masculine of <caín> fine, excellent, quarter, fourth part
beautiful céol: noun; nominative singular neuter, o-
caín: adjective; nominative singular neuter stem, of <céol> music
of <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful cét: adjective; <cét> first; fresh, new
cardess: noun; genitive plural masculine, cétamus: adverb; <cétamus> firstly
u-stem, of <cardess, cairdes> friendship,
love, cohabitation cétberbad: verbal noun; compound of
numeral <cét> first; fresh, new + dative
carpat: noun; accusative singular singular of <berbad> boiling, cooking
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
chariot, wagon cétN: numeral; nominative singular neuter,
o-stem, of <cétN> hundred
cath: noun; accusative singular masculine,
u-stem, of <cath> battle, fight chaingen: noun; lenited nominative
singular feminine, ā-stem, of <caingen>
Cathail: proper name masculine; genitive deal, bargain
singular of <Cathal> Cathal
Chamus: toponym; lenited accusative
Cathal: proper name masculine; singular of <Camus> Camus
nominative singular masculine of
<Cathal> Cathal charat: noun; lenited genitive singular
masculine, nt-stem, of <carae> friend
cách: pronominal; accusative singular
masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone charpait: noun; lenited genitive singular
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
cách: pronominal; nominative singular chariot, wagon
masculine of <cách> everybody, everyone
charpat: noun; lenited accusative singular
cech: pronominal; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
masculine of <cach, cech> each, every, chariot, wagon
any
charput: noun; lenited dative singular
cech: pronominal; nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war-
neuter of <cach, cech> each, every, any chariot, wagon
cecha: pronominal; genitive singular Chathail: proper name masculine; lenited
feminine of <cach, cech> each, every, any vocative singular of <Cathal> Cathal
cecha: pronominal; variant of genitive chela: verb; lenited 1st person singular
singular masculine of <cach, cech> each, subjunctive active, conjunct, of <celid>
every, any conceals, hides
ceithri: numeral; nominative neuter of chena: adverb; <chena> besides
<ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four
chenae: pronominalized preposition;
cen: preposition; <cenL> without lenited 3rd person singular neuter
cen co: conjunction; compound of accusative of <cenL> without
preposition <cenL> without + conjunction chend: noun; lenited accusative singular
<con, coN> until; so that; and neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end
cenae: pronominalized preposition; 3rd chenn: noun; lenited nominative singular
person singular masculine accusative of neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end
<cenL> without
chéul: noun; lenited dative singular neuter,
cetheoir: numeral; nominative feminine of o-stem, of <céol> music
<ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four
Chicul mac Guil meic Gairb meic
cethraimthi: noun; genitive singular
Túathaigh meic Gúmóir: proper name chossa: noun; lenited accusative plural
masculine; lenited accusative singular of feminine, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg
<Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic Gairb chotli: verb; lenited 3rd person singular
meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir> Cichol son present indicative, prototonic, of
of Goll of the son of Garb of the son of <con°tuili> sleeps
Tuatach of the son of Gumor
chotluḋ: noun; lenited dative singular
chill: noun; lenited dative singular masculine, u-stem, of <cotlud> sleeping,
feminine, ā-stem, of <cell> cloister, sleep
monastic settlement
chóri: noun; lenited dative singular
chinn: noun; lenited dative singular neuter, feminine, yā-stem, of <córe, córae> peace
o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end
chrideṡerc: noun; lenited compound of
chíanaib: noun; lenited dative plural <cride> heart + lenited nominative
feminine, ā-stem, of <cían> long time; singular feminine, ā-stem, of <serc> love
period
chridesae: noun; lenited accusative
chleittíniu: noun; lenited dative singular singular neuter, yo-stem, of <cride> heart
masculine, yo-stem, of <cleittíne> javelin, + emphasizing particle 1st person singular
dart <se, sa> I
chlothaib: noun; lenited dative plural chroíḃ: noun; lenited dative singular
masculine, o-stem, of <cloth> fame, feminine, ā-stem, of <cróeb, cráeb>
reputation branch; tree, bush
chluine: verb; lenited 3rd person singular chuindchiḋ: verbal noun; lenited dative
present subjunctive active, conjunct, of singular masculine, i-stem, of <cuingid,
<ro°cluinethar> hears cuindchid> seeking, requesting
choicetal: noun; lenited accusative singular Chuirithir: proper name masculine; lenited
neuter, o-stem, of <co(i)cetal> harmonious accusative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
music Cuirithir
choicéli: noun; lenited genitive singular Chuirithir: proper name masculine; lenited
masculine, yo-stem, of <coicéle, coicéile> genitive singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir>
companion, friend; friendship Cuirithir
choiṁchliss: adjective; lenited compound Chú: proper name masculine; lenited
form of preposition <comL, coN> with + vocative singular of <Cú> Hound
lenited genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of
<cless> feat, skill chúairt: noun; lenited accusative singular
masculine, i-stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour,
chommairchi: noun; lenited accusative journey
singular feminine, yā-stem, of
<commairche> protection, refuge Ciccul Gricenchoss: proper name
masculine; accusative singular of <Cicul
chomraicfind: verb; variant of 1st person Gricen-choss> Cichol Clapperleg
singular secondary future, prototonic, of
<con°ricc> meets, encounters Cichul: proper name masculine;
nominative singular of <Cicul, Cichul,
Chonnachtaib: proper name feminine; Ciccul> Cichol
lenited dative plural of <Connacht>
inhabitant of Connacht ciḋ: conjunction; compound form of
conjunction <cía> although, even if +
Chorco Duibne: toponym; lenited dative suffixed enclitic present subjunctive of
singular masculine, yo-stem, of <Corco copula <is> is
Duibne> Corkaguiney
ciḋL: stressed interrogative pronoun;
neuter; <cidL, cedL> what; why genitive singular masculine, u-stem, of
cid: conjunction; compound form of <cruth> form, appearance
conjunction <cía> although, even if + coṁéscaiḋ: adjective; compound form of
enclitic present subjunctive of copula <is> preposition <comL, coN> with + adjective
is <éscaid> alert, eager; swift
cid: stressed interrogative pronoun; neuter; coṁḟobaiḋ: adjective; compound form of
<cidL, cedL> what; why preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
Cill Letrech: toponym; dative singular adjective <fobaid> quick, prompt, active
feminine, ā-stem, of <Cell Letrech> coṁghaisciḋ: adjective; compound form of
Cloister Letrech preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive
cinnas: adverb; <cinnas> how singular masculine, o-stem, of <gaisced>
weapons, armour; prowess
cía: conjunction; <cía> although, even if
coṁL: preposition; compound form of
claḋ: noun; nominative singular masculine, preposition <comL, coN> with + suffixed
o-stem, of <clad> ditch, dyke possessive pronoun 1st person singular
clechtat: verb; 3rd person plural present <moL, mL> my
indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative, coṁruc: noun; dative singular neuter, o-
of <clechtaid> practices stem, of <comrac> encounter; combat;
clí: adjective; accusative singular feminine collision; sexual relation
of <clé> left coṁthrén: adjective; compound form of
cluinethar: verb; 3rd person singular preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
present indicative active, conjunct, of adjective <trén> strong
<ro°cluinethar> hears comainm: noun; nominative singular
co: conjunction; used as verbal particle; neuter, n-stem, of <comainm> name,
<con, coN> until; so that; and cognomen
co: preposition; <comL, coN> with comairsed: verb; 3rd person singular
preterite subjunctive active, prototonic, of
coH: preposition; <coH> to, until
<con°ricc> meets, encounters
coimthecht: noun; dative singular
comath: verb; 3rd person singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <coimthecht>
imperative active, prototonic, of <con°oí>
company
keeps, preserves
coí: verbal noun; dative singular feminine
comméte: adjective; compound form of
of <caí> weeping
preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive
colluḋ: verbal noun; dative singular neuter, singular feminine, yā-stem, of <méit>
u-stem/s-stem, of <collud> damaging, greatness, magnitude, size
destroying
comrac: noun; nominative singular
coṁchiníuil: adjective; compound form of masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <comrac>
preposition <comL, coN> with + genitive encounter; combat; collision; sexual
singular neuter, o-stem, of <cenél> race, relation
tribe; descent
comrís: verb; 2nd person singular present
coṁchliss: adjective; compound form of subjunctive active, prototonic, of
preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited <con°ricc> meets, encounters
genitive singular neuter, o-stem, of <cless>
coN: conjunction; used as verbal particle;
feat, skill
<con, coN> until; so that; and
coṁchrotha: adjective; compound form of
Conall: proper name masculine;
preposition <comL, coN> with + lenited
nominative singular of <Conall> Conall feminine, ā-stem, of <Connacht>
conbiḃsustar: verb; 3rd person singular inhabitant of Connacht
future indicative passive, deuterotonic, of conná: conjunction; compound form of
<con°boing> breaks; defeats; violates conjunct particle <con, coN> until; so that;
Conchuḃur: proper name masculine; and + dependent negative particle <ná, na>
nominative singular of <Conchubur, not, nor
Conchobar> Conchobar consaíḋfea: verb; 3rd person singular
conda: conjunction; compound form of future indicative active, deuterotonic,
conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and syntactically relative, of <con°saídi> stirs
+ infixed pronoun 3rd person singular up, excites
feminine <daH> she consna: verb; 3rd person singular present
Condachto: proper name feminine; indicative, deuterotonic, of <con°sní>
accusative plural of <Connacht> Connacht contends, competes
congairet: verb; 3rd person plural present conustoracht: verb; compound form of 3rd
indicative active, deuterotonic, person singular perfect indicative active,
syntactically relative, of <con°gair> calls prototonic, of <do°roich> reaches +
together conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and
+ infixed pronoun 3rd person plural <sN,
Congal: proper name masculine; s> they
nominative singular of <Congal> Congal
cor: verbal noun; accusative singular
congbále: noun; genitive singular masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting;
feminine, yā-stem, of <congbál> throwing; letting go
occupation, holding
corastar: verb; 3rd person singular preterite
coNgúalae: verb; 3rd person singular indicative active, prototonic, of <fo°ceird>
preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of sets, puts; throws
<ro°cluinethar> hears
cortis: verb; 3rd person plural past
coNgúalatar: verb; 3rd person plural subjunctive active, conjunct, of
preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of <fo°cuirethar> puts, throws
<ro°cluinethar> hears
cossa: noun; nominative plural feminine,
conicci: preposition; <conicci> as far as, ā-stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg
up to, to, till
cotenocaib: verb; 3rd person singular
conicfaesu: verb; compound form of 2nd present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
person singular future indicative, <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts +
deuterotonic, of <con°icc> can, is able + archaic infixed pronoun 3rd person
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular singular feminine <deH, den> she
<siu, so, su> you -
cotnocéba: verb; compound form of 3rd
coniḋ: conjunction; compound form of person singular future indicative active,
conjunction <con, coN> until; so that; and deuterotonic, of <con°ocaib> truly raises,
+ infixed pronoun 3rd person singular truly exalts + infixed pronoun 3rd person
masculine <idL> he singular masculine <tN> he
coNnaccaesiuṁ: verb; compound form of cotnofathar: verb; compound form of 3rd
3rd person singular preterite indicative person singular future indicative active,
active, deuterotonic, of <ad°cí, at°chí> deuterotonic, of <con°oí> keeps, preserves
sees + emphasizing particle 3rd person + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular
singular masculine <seom, som> he, it masculine <tN> he
Connacht: toponym; genitive plural cóica: numeral; nominative singular
masculine of <coíca> fifty Cú Chulainn: proper name masculine;
cráidfed: verb; 3rd person singular nominative singular of <Cú Chulainn>
conditional active, conjunct, of <cráidid> Hound of Culann
torments, vexes, afflicts Cúailngi: toponym; genitive singular of
crích: noun; accusative singular feminine, <Cúailnge> Cuailnge
ā-stem, of <crích> boundary, territory cúairt: noun; dative singular masculine, i-
Crúachan: toponym; genitive singular of stem, of <cúairt> circle; tour, journey
<Crúachu, Crúachain> Cruachain ḋerġa: adjective; lenited nominative dual
cualchlais: noun; compound of <cúal> feminine of <derg> red
faggot + lenited accusative singular ḋergaissu: verb; 2nd person singular RO-
feminine, ā-stem, of <clas, class> ditch, present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
furrow; pit <do°guid> entreats, asks pardon +
cuing: noun; nominative singular feminine, emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
ā-stem, of <cuing> yoke, chain <siu, so, su> you
Cuirithir: proper name masculine; ḋiaiḋ: noun; lenited accusative singular
accusative singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir> neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end
Cuirithir ḋiaiḋ: noun; lenited dative singular neuter,
Cuirithir: proper name masculine; genitive o-stem, of <dead, diad> end
singular of <Curithir, Cuirithir> Cuirithir ḋiaiḋse: noun; lenited compound form of
Cuirithir: proper name masculine; accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of
nominative singular of <Curithir, <dead, diad> end + emphasizing particle
Cuirithir> Cuirithir 1st person singular <se, sa> I
Cuirithir mac Doborchon: proper name ḋía: noun; lenited dative singular
masculine; nominative singular of masculine, o-stem, of <dé, día> god
<Cuirithir mac Doborchon> Cuirithir son ḋóitind: noun; lenited compound form of
of Doborchu - <dóe> arm + dative singular neuter, o-
cuirm: noun; nominative singular neuter, i- stem, of <ind> end
stem, of <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast, d': preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from,
entertainment of
culgaire: noun; accusative singular neuter, dain: noun; nasalized accusative singular
yo-stem, of <culgaire> noise, rumble of a feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time
chariot daingni: noun; dative singular feminine,
cuṁgai: verb; 2nd person singular present yā-stem, of <daingne> firmness
indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc> can, is daí: verb; 2nd person singular present
able indicative, conjunct, of substantive verb
cuṁgaiṁ: verb; 1st person singular present <attá> is
indicative, prototonic, of <con°icc> can, is dalaṁ: noun; nasalized dative singular
able masculine, n-stem, of <talam> earth,
curach: noun; nominative singular ground
masculine, o-stem, of <curach> coracle, daṁ: pronominalized preposition; 1st
skiff, boat person singular dative of <duL, doL> to
curu: verbal noun; accusative plural daṁsa: pronominalized preposition;
masculine, o-stem, of <cor> putting; compound form of 1st person singular
throwing; letting go dative of <duL, doL> to + emphasizing
particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I Deichtine> Deichtire
dam: pronominalized preposition; 1st deilm: noun; nominative singular neuter,
person singular dative of <duL, doL> to n-stem, of <deilm> loud, rumbling noise
dan: noun; nasalized accusative singular deiss: adjective; dative singular feminine
feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> time of <dess> right, south of
dano: enclitic emphatic particle; <dano, deni: noun; dative singular feminine, yā-
dono> again, now, then stem, of <dene, deine> strength
dartaiḋ: noun; nominative singular derg: adjective; nominative singular
masculine, i-stem, of <dartaid> heifer, bull masculine of <derg> red
calf des: preposition; <dess> right, south of
datha: noun; genitive singular neuter, u- desiul: noun; dative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <dath> colour; hue, tint stem, of <desel, deisel> right-hand side
dá: numeral; nominative dual masculine of déci: verb; 3rd person singular present
<dáL, díL, dáN> two indicative active, prototonic, of <de°éci,
dá cét: numeral; compound form of <dáL, do°écai> looks -
díL, dáN> two + nominative plural neuter, déna: verb; 2nd person singular imperative
o-stem, of <cétN> hundred active, prototonic, of <do°gní> does;
Dáiri maic Ḟiachnai: proper name makes
masculine; genitive singular of <Dáire dénaim: verb; 1st person singular present
mac Fiachnai> Daire son of Fiachnae indicative active, prototonic, syntactically
dáL: numeral; accusative dual masculine of relative, of <do°gní> does; makes
<dáL, díL, dáN> two dénaimni: verb; 1st person plural
L
dá : numeral; nominative dual masculine imperative active, prototonic, of <do°gní>
of <dáL, díL, dáN> two does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st
Dál nAraidhi: toponym; accusative person plural <ni> we
singular of <Dál Araide> the district of dénaimni: verb; 1st person plural present
Arad indicative active, prototonic, of <do°gní>
dálaib: noun; dative plural feminine, ā- does; makes + emphasizing particle 1st
stem, of <dál> meeting, encounter person plural <ni> we
dán: noun; nominative singular masculine, di: preposition; <diL, deL> from, of
o-stem, of <dán> craftsman, man of art dia: conjunction; <diaN> when; if
de: pronominalized preposition; 3rd person dia: preposition; compound form of
singular neuter dative of <diL, deL> from, preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
of possessive pronoun 3rd person singular
debroth: noun; compound form of <dé, masculine <aL> his, its
día> god + dative singular feminine, u- diaH: preposition; compound form of
stem, of <bráth> judgment preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
debuith: noun; nominative singular possessive pronoun 3rd person singular
feminine, i-stem, of <debuith> conflict feminine <aH> her
deéci: verb; 3rd person singular present diaiḋ: noun; accusative singular neuter, o-
indicative active, deuterotonic, of <de°éci, stem, of <dead, diad> end
do°écai> looks diaN: preposition; compound form of
Deichtire: proper name feminine; preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed
nominative singular of <Deichtire, possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN>
their dím: pronominalized preposition; 1st
dianat: conjunction; compound form of person singular dative of <diL, deL> from,
conjunction <diaN> when; if + infixed of
pronoun 2nd person singular <datL> you dír: adjective; nominative singular neuter
dianidh: verb; compound form of of <dír> proper, fit, necessary
preposition <diL, deL> from, of + relative dís: personal numeral; dative singular
particle <(s)aN> that which, what + 3rd feminine of <dias> two people, pair,
person singular present indicative, couple
conjunct, of copula <is> is dísi: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
dianom: conjunction; compound form of person singular feminine dative of <duL,
<diaN> when; if + infixed pronoun 1st doL> to + emphasizing particle 3rd person
person singular <domL, dumL> I singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
didiu: particle; <didiu, didu> now, she, it
therefore, then dlúmaicdib: noun; compound of <dlúm>
didu: particle; <didiu, didu> now, mass, density + dative plural feminine, yā-
therefore, then stem, of <aicde> artefact, article
diL: numeral; accusative dual feminine of dno: shortened from enclitic particle;
<dáL, díL, dáN> two <dano, dono> again, now, then
diL: numeral; nominative dual feminine of do: possessive pronoun 2nd person
<dáL, díL, dáN> two singular <doL, tL> your
dingnesu: verb; compound form of 2nd do: preposition; <duL, doL> to
person singular future indicative active, do: preposition; variant of <diL, deL> from,
prototonic, of <do°gní> does; makes + of
emphasizing particle 2nd person singular dochell: noun; nominative singular
<siu, so, su> you feminine, ā-stem, of <dochell>
dinL: preposition; compound form of niggardliness, inhospitality
preposition <diL, deL> from, of + dative dofunn: verbal noun; nasalized dative
singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL> singular neuter, o-stem, of <tafann>
the hunting, pursuing, expelling
ditL: pronominalized preposition; 2nd dogénsa: verb; compound form of 1st
person singular dative of <diL, deL> from, person singular future indicative active,
of absolute, of <do°gní> does; makes +
dixit: Latin; <dixit> said emphasizing particle 1st person singular
dí: numeral; nominative dual feminine of <se, sa> I
<dáL, díL, dáN> two dogníther: verb; 3rd person singular
N
día: conjunction; <dia > when; if present indicative passive, deuterotonic, of
<do°gní> does; makes
díanechtair: adverb; <díanechtair> from
outside doíḃ: noun; nasalized dative singular
masculine, o-stem, of <tóeb> side
díḃ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person plural dative of <diL, deL> from, of doL: possessive pronoun; 2nd person
singular <doL, tL> your
díb: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person plural dative of <diL, deL> from, of doL: preposition; <duL, doL> to
dídin: noun; dative singular feminine, ā- Dolluḋ: toponym; nominative singular, o-
stem, of <díden> end stem, of <Dollud> distress, damage, havoc
doltachL: adjective; nominative singular <totL, tatL, tL> you
feminine of <doltach> pernicious, hurtful dotLucai: verb; 3rd person singular perfect
doluid: verb; 3rd person singular preterite indicative active, deuterotonic, of
indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét, <do°beir> brings + infixed pronoun 2nd
do°téit> comes; goes person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you
dom: preposition; compound form of doucussa: verb; compound form of 1st
preposition <duL, doL> to + suffixed person singular perfect indicative active,
possessive pronoun 1st person singular deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings
<moL, mL> my dó: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
domárfas: verb; past indicative passive person singular masculine dative of <duL,
singular, deuterotonic, of <do°adbat> doL> to
shows + infixed pronoun 1st person dóer: noun; nominative singular
singular <mL, mmL> I masculine, o-stem, of <dóer> unfree
doménainn: verb; 1st person singular past person
subjunctive active, deuterotonic, of dóiḃ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
<do°moinethar> thinks person plural dative of <duL, doL> to
Donn: adjective; nominative singular dóib: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
masculine of <donn> brown person plural dative of <duL, doL> to
dono: emphatic particle; <dano, dono> dóich: adverb; <doích> likely
again, now, then
duḃ: adjective; nominative singular
doraġ: verb; 1st person singular future masculine of <dub> black
indicative, deuterotonic, of <do°tét,
do°téit> comes; goes duit: pronominalized preposition; 2nd
person singular dative of <duL, doL> to
dorche: noun; nominative singular neuter,
yo-stem, of <dorche, dorchae> darkness duitsiu: pronominalized preposition;
compound form of 2nd person singular
doregsae: verb; 1st person singular future dative of <duL, doL> to + emphasizing
indicative active, deuterotonic, of <do°tét, particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
do°téit> comes; goes + emphasizing you
particle 1st person singular <se, sa> I
dul: verbal noun; nominative singular
dorigenus: verb; 1st person singular masculine, u-stem, of <téit> goes
perfect indicative active, deuterotonic,
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; Echdach: proper name masculine; genitive
makes singular of <Echaid> Echaid
dorísi: adverb; <dorísi, dorís> again, once ecnu: adjective; dative singular masculine,
more yo-stem, of <ecne, ecnae> wise
dorrignis: verb; 2nd person singular ed: personal pronoun; 3rd person singular
perfect indicative active, deuterotonic, neuter of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does; Edṁuinn: toponym; accusative singular of
makes <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand
dortuth: noun; nominative singular eich: noun; genitive singular masculine, o-
masculine, u-stem, of <dortuth, dórtad> stem, of <ech> horse
pouring out; destruction
Eṁuin: toponym; dative singular feminine,
L
dot : preposition; compound form of i-stem of <Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha
preposition <diL, deL> from, of + suffixed
erriḋ: noun; nominative plural masculine,
possessive pronoun 2nd person singular
dental stem, of <eirr, err> chariot-fighter,
champion, warrior o-stem, of <én> bird
ersaind: noun; nominative dual feminine, Érind: toponym; dative singular, n-stem, of
n-stem, of <ursa(n), ersa> door-post <Ériu> Ireland
escongsa: noun; compound form of étach: noun; accusative singular neuter, o-
nominative singular feminine, of <escong> stem, of <étach> clothing, garment
eel + emphasizing particle 1st person étain: noun; genitive singular masculine,
singular <se, sa> I o-stem, of <étan, édan> front, brow,
etarru: pronominalized preposition; 3rd forehead
person plural accusative of <eter> éuin: noun; nominative plural masculine,
between, among o-stem, of <én> bird
eter: preposition; <eter> between, among ḟarraḋ: adverb; lenited; <farrad> beside,
etercertaisu: verb; compound form of 2nd along with
person singular present indicative active, ḟáilti: noun; lenited dative singular
deuterotonic, of <eter°certa> interprets; feminine, yā-stem, of <fáilte> joy,
decides, determines + emphasizing particle happiness
2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you
ḟeirt: noun; lenited accusative dual
etir: preposition; <eter> between, among feminine, ā-stem, of <fert> shaft, pole
é: personal pronoun; 3rd person singular ḟégad: verbal noun; lenited dative singular
masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it masculine, u-stem/o-stem, of <fégaid>
éccoṁlonn: noun; nominative singular looking at, scanning, observing
masculine, o-stem, of <éccomlonn> ḟiadnaise: noun; lenited dative singular
unequal combat, unfair odds feminine, yā-stem, of <fiadnaise> presence
éces: noun; nominative singular masculine, ḟini: noun; lenited dative singular
o-stem, of <éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet feminine, yā-stem, of <fine> kin
écin: adverb; dative singular feminine, ā- ḟir: noun; lenited accusative singular
stem, of noun <écen> necessity, neuter, o-stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice
compulsion
ḟír: noun; lenited dative singular neuter, o-
éim: emphatic particle; <ém, éim> truly, stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice
indeed, then
ḟírḟlaith: noun; compound of lenited <fír>
éit: noun; nominative singular feminine, truth; right; justice + lenited dative
yā-stem, of <éit> cattle singular feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule;
én: noun; accusative dual masculine, o- domain; ruler
stem, of <én> bird ḟlaith: noun; lenited dative singular
én: noun; genitive plural masculine, o- feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain;
stem, of <én> bird ruler
én: noun; nominative dual masculine, o- ḟorníamaib: noun; lenited dative plural
stem, of <én> bird feminine, ā-stem, of <forníam> ornament,
énach: noun; variant of dative singular decoration
masculine, o-stem, of <enach> bird- fail: noun; dative singular feminine, i-
hunting, fowling stem, of <fail> place, spot
énḟlaith: noun; compound of <én> bird + fairce: noun; genitive singular feminine,
lenited nominative singular feminine, i- yā-stem, of <fairrge> sea
stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler - fácbatis: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect
éoin: noun; nominative plural masculine, indicative active, prototonic, of <fo°ácaib>
leaves fil: verb; 3rd person singular present
Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú: indicative, absolute, relative, of
proper name masculine; nominative substantive verb <attá> is
singular of <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú fil: verb; Middle Irish present impersonal
meic Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of singular, absolute, of substantive verb
Sru of the son of Esru <attá> is
feccaid: verb; 3rd person singular present find: adjective; accusative singular
indicative active, absolute, of <feccaid> masculine of <find, finn> white, bright
begins find: adjective; genitive singular masculine
fecht: noun; accusative singular masculine, of <find, finn> white, bright
o-stem, of <fecht> course, journey; time, find: adjective; nominative singular
occasion masculine of <find, finn> white, bright
fechtsa: noun; compound form of Findarcat: toponym; dative singular of
accusative singular neuter, o-stem, of <Findarcat> White Silver
<fecht> course, journey; time, occasion +
emphasizing particle 1st person singular findruine: noun; compound of <find, finn>
<se, sa> I white, bright + genitive singular feminine,
yā-stem, of <druine> skill in craftmanship,
feissin: pronominal; 3rd person singular manual dexterity
masculine of <féin, feissin> -self, own
finn: adjective; nominative singular
fer: noun; accusative singular masculine, feminine of <find, finn> white, bright
o-stem, of <fer> man
finnchuill: noun; compound of <find,
fer: noun; genitive plural masculine, o- finn> white, bright + lenited genitive
stem, of <fer> man singular masculine, o-stem, of <coll>
fer: noun; nominative singular masculine, hazel-tree
o-stem, of <fer> man finnN: adjective; genitive plural feminine
feraiḃ: noun; dative plural masculine, o- of <find, finn> white, bright
stem, of <fer> man fír: noun; nominative singular neuter, o-
feraiḋ: verb; 3rd person singular present stem, of <fír> truth; right; justice
indicative active, absolute, of <feraid> fírḟlaith: noun; compound of <fír> truth;
grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; right; justice + lenited dative singular
pours, sheds feminine, i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain;
ferN: noun; genitive plural masculine, o- ruler
stem, of <fer> man fírinni: noun; accusative singular feminine,
ferr: adjective; comparative of <maith> yā-stem, of <fírinne> truth
good fírithir: adjective; equative of <fír> true
Fertai Loíg: toponym; dative singular flainne: adjective; genitive singular
feminine of <Fertae Loíg> Laeg's tumulus feminine of <flann> blood red
féin: pronominal; <féin, feissin> -self, own flaith: noun; nominative singular feminine,
fér: noun; accusative singular neuter, o- i-stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler
stem, of <fér> grass - flathemon: noun; nasalized genitive
fiche: numeral; nominative singular singular masculine, n-stem, of <flathem,
masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty flaithem> ruler
fichit: numeral; nominative plural flatho: noun; genitive singular feminine, i-
masculine, nt-stem, of <fiche> twenty stem, of <flaith> rule; domain; ruler
fo: preposition; <foL> under for: preposition; <for> on, over
foa: pronominalized preposition; 3rd foraiḃ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person singular masculine dative of <foL> person plural dative of <for> on, over
under forbbtha: noun; genitive singular feminine,
foceird: verb; 3rd person singular present i-stem, of <forbbaid> covering; shroud
indicative active, deuterotonic, of foriṁ: verbal noun; nominative singular
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws neuter, n-stem, of <forim> chase
fodén: indeclinable; <fodén> self, himself; forlán: adjective; compound of preposition
own - <for> on, over + accusative singular
fodrethat: verb; compound form of 3rd masculine of <lán> full, ample
person plural present indicative, forráin: noun; dative singular feminine ā-
deuterotonic, syntactically relative, of stem, of <forrán> violence
<fo°reith> runs under + infixed pronoun
3rd person singular masculine <idN, dN, - fors: preposition; compound form of <for>
N
> he on, over + infixed pronoun 3rd person
plural of <sN, s> she
foë: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person singular feminine accusative of forsinL: preposition; preposition <for> on,
<foL> under over + dative singular feminine of article
<in, aN, indL> the
fogur: noun; accusative singular
masculine, o-stem, of <fogur> sound fortatnesaḃsu: verb; compound form of 1st
person singular future indicative active,
foid: verb; 3rd person singular present deuterotonic, of <for°nesa> strikes, kicks,
indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid, crushes + infixed pronoun 2nd person
foaid> sleeps together singular <totL, tatL, tL> you + emphasizing
foill: noun; dative singular feminine, ā- particle 2nd person singular <siu, so, su>
stem, of <foll, faill> neglect you
foit: verb; 3rd person plural present fortgillim: verb; 1st person singular
indicative active, absolute, of <foad, foid, present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
foaid> sleeps together <for-t-gella> affirms, calls to witness,
foL: preposition; <foL> under invokes
folam: adjective; nominative singular fortongu: verb; 1st person singular present
masculine of <folam> empty, vain indicative, deuterotonic, of <for°toing>
swears, attests
foLchichiur: verb; 1st person singular
future indicative active, deuterotonic, of fortsu: pronominalized preposition;
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws compound form of 2nd person singular
dative of preposition <for> on, over +
fomchanad: verb; 3rd person singular emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
imperfect indicative active, deuterotonic, <siu, so, su> you
of <fo°cain> accompanies with song, sings
to, chants + infixed pronoun 1st person fosaḋ: noun; accusative singular
singular <mL, mmL> I masculine/neuter, o-stem, of <fossad,
fosad> plain surface
Fomoraig: proper name masculine;
nominative plural of <Fomorach> foscath: noun; accusative singular neuter,
Fomorach o-stem, of <foscath, foscad> shade,
protection
fonnath: noun; accusative plural neuter, o-
stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim foslongat: verb; 3rd person plural present
<fo°loing> supports, sustains + infixed friss: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine <sN, person singular masculine accusative of
s> she <frithL, friH> against, towards
fosruṁat: verb; variant of 3rd person frisseom: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
plural present indicative, deuterotonic, of person singular masculine accusative of
<for°ruimi> sets, places; goes <frithL, friH> against, towards +
fó: noun; accusative singular neuter of emphasizing particle 3rd person singular
<fó> good masculine <seom, som> he, it
fóbrais: verb; 3rd person singular preterite frissom: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
indicative active, deuterotonic, of <fóbair> person singular masculine accusative of
begins, sets about <frithL, friH> against, towards +
emphasizing particle 3rd person singular
fóe: pronominalized preposition; 3rd masculine <seom, som> he, it
person singular masculine accusative of
<foL> under fristibi: verb; 3rd person singular present
indicative, deuterotonic, of <fris°tibi>
fóeliḋ: adjective; nominative singular smiles on
feminine of <fóelid> happy
frit: pronominalized preposition; 2nd
fri: preposition; <frithL, friH> against, person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
towards against, towards
friaL: preposition; compound form of fritso: pronominalized preposition;
preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards compound form of 2nd person singular
+ suffixed possessive pronoun 3rd person accusative of <frithL, friH> against,
singular masculine <aL> his, its towards + emphasizing particle 2nd person
friesi: pronominalized preposition; singular <siu, so, su> you
compound form of 3rd person singular friut: pronominalized preposition; 2nd
feminine accusative of <frithL, friH> person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards + emphasizing particle against, towards
3rd person singular feminine <si> she -
fuiliche: noun; nominative singular
friH: preposition; <frithL, friH> against, feminine, yā-stem, of <fuiliche>
towards bloodiness, bloodshed
frim: preposition; compound form of fúan: noun; nominative singular neuter, o-
preposition <frithL, friH> against, towards stem, of <fúan> tunic
+ suffixed possessive pronoun 1st person
singular <moL, mL> my ġelltis: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect
indicative active, conjunct, of <gelid>
frim: pronominalized preposition; 1st grazes, devours
person singular accusative of <frithL, friH>
against, towards ġrellaiġ: noun; lenited dative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <grellach> bog, mire
fris: preposition; 3rd person singular
masculine accusative of <frithL, friH> gaḃallorg: noun; compound of <gabul,
against, towards gabal> fork + nominative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <lorg> stick, shaft
fris: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person singular masculine dative of gabáil: noun; nominative singular
<frithL, friH> against, towards feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil>
taking, conquest
friss: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person singular accusative neuter of gabra: noun; nominative plural feminine,
<frithL, friH> against, towards ā-stem, of <gabor> (white) horse, mare
gair: adjective; accusative singular neuter, stem, of <gnóe> beauty
i-stem, of <gair> short; a short time goṁair: adverb; nasalized; <comair> in
gairptiu: noun; nasalized accusative plural front of
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war- gó: noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-
chariot, wagon stem, <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
garpat: noun; nasalized accusative singular judgement
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war- Grellach Dolluiḋ: toponym; nominative
chariot, wagon singular of <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of
garptiḃ: noun; nasalized dative plural Distress
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war- Grellchae Culgairi: toponym; genitive
chariot, wagon singular of <Grellach Culgairi> Bog of the
geinn: noun; nominative singular feminine, Chariot-rumble
dental stem, of <genn, geinn> wedge, gruth: noun; dative singular masculine of
block <gruth> curds, cheese
gend: noun; nasalized accusative singular haḋaiġ: noun; aspirated nominative
neuter, o-stem, of <cenn> head, front; end singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig>
géḃa: verb; 1st person singular future night
indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid> haidchi: noun; aspirated accusative
takes; proceeds; recites singular feminine, yā-stem, of <adaig>
géiṁ: verbal noun; accusative singular night
neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring (of hainm: noun; aspirated nominative
cattle) singular neuter, n-stem, of <ainm> name
géna: verb; 1st person singular future hapair: verb; aspirated 2nd person singular
indicative active, absolute, of <gonaid> imperative active, prototonic, of <as°beir>
slays, kills, wounds says, speaks
géttair: verb; 3rd person singular future harae: noun; aspirated nominative singular
indicative passive, absolute, of <gataid> masculine, dental stem, of <are, arae, ara>
takes away, removes; steals charioteer
gilla: noun; genitive singular masculine, hathair: noun; aspirated dative singular
yo-stem, of <gillae> servant, armed man masculine, r-stem, of <athir, athair> father
glaisslecca: noun; compound form of hálaind: adjective; aspirated nominative
adjective <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey singular masculine of <álaind> beautiful,
+ accusative plural feminine, ā-stem, of lovely
<lecc> rock, stone
hÁth da Ḟerta: toponym; aspirated
glass: adjective; nominative singular accusative singular of <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford
feminine of <glass, glas> greenish, blue, of the Two Mounds
grey
hetercert: noun; aspirated nominative
gnássa: noun; nominative singular singular feminine, ā-stem, of <etercert>
feminine, ā-stem, of <gnás> intercourse + interpretation, discussion, judgement,
emphasizing particle emphasizing particle decision
1st person singular <se, sa> I
hénsi: noun; compound form of aspirated
gnáth: adjective; nominative singular nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
neuter of <gnáth> usual, customary; <én> bird + emphasizing particle 3rd
known person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed>
gnóë: noun; genitive singular feminine, yā- he, she, it
hÉrenn: toponym; aspirated genitive im: preposition; <imbL, immL> around,
singular of <Ériu> Ireland about; mutually
hésom: personal pronoun; 3rd person imḋai: noun; dative singular feminine, yā-
singular masculine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, stem, of <imdae> bed, couch
she, it + emphasizing particle 3rd person imdadai: noun; variant of nominative
singular masculine <seom, som> he, it plural feminine, yā-stem, of <imdae> bed,
héuin: noun; aspirated nominative plural couch
masculine, o-stem, of <én> bird imdích: verb; 3rd person singular present
N
hi: preposition; <in, i > in, into indicative active, deuterotonic, of
hiat: personal pronoun; aspirated 3rd <im(m)°dích> defends, protects
person plural <iat> they imdídnathar: verb; 3rd person singular
hilblátha: noun; compound of aspirated present indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<il> many, numerous + nominative plural <im(m)°dídnathar> protects, releases,
masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower, exempts
blossom; bloom imL: preposition; <imbL, immL> around,
himgabáil: verbal noun; aspirated dative about; mutually
singular feminine, ā-stem, of <imgabál, imL: reposition; compound form of
imgabáil> avoiding; evasion preposition <in, iN> in, into + possessive
himmáin: verbal noun; aspirated dative pronoun 1st person singular <moL, mL>
singular feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin> my
driving; roaming, wandering about imm: noun; dative singular masculine, n-
hí: personal pronoun; 3rd person singular stem, of <im(m)> butter
feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it imm: preposition; <imbL, immL> around,
hUltu: proper name; aspirated accusative about; mutually
plural masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> immach: adverb; <immach> out of, out
Ulidians, Ulstermen immáin: verbal noun; dative singular
hume: noun; accusative singular neuter, feminine, ā-stem, of <immáin> driving;
yo-stem, of <(h)ume, (h)umae> copper roaming, wandering about
hÚa mic Úais: proper name masculine; imme: preposition; compound form of
aspirated accusative plural of <Ó mac preposition <imbL, immL> around, about;
Úais> the grandson of the son of the Noble mutually + suffixed relative particle <-e>
one who, which
.i. : abbreviation of <ed-ón> that is immi: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
N
i: preposition; <in, i > in, into person singular masculine accusative of
<imbL, immL> around, about; mutually
iar: preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after
immotL: preposition; compound form of
iarn: noun; accusative singular neuter, o- preposition; <imbL, immL> around, about;
stem, of <iarn> iron mutually + possessive pronoun 2nd person
iarum: pronominalized preposition; 3rd singular <doL, tL> your
person singular neuter dative of <íarN, immum: pronominalized preposition; 1st
íarmL-> after - person singular accusative of <imbL,
ic: preposition; variant of <oc> at, with, by immL> around, about; mutually
ille: adverb; <illei, ille> hither; since; impe: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
moreover person singular feminine accusative of
<imbL, immL> around, about; mutually
iN: preposition; <in, iN> in, into singular, absolute, of <indis(s)id> tells
in: article; accusative singular feminine of indL: article; genitive singular masculine
<in, aN, indL> the of <in, aN, indL> the
in: article; accusative singular masculine indL: article; nominative plural masculine
of <in, aN, indL> the of <in, aN, indL> the
in: article; nominative plural masculine of inġen: noun; nominative singular feminine,
<in, aN, indL> the ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter
in: article; nominative singular feminine of ingen: noun; nominative singular feminine,
<in, aN, indL> the ā-stem, of <ingen> daughter
in: article; nominative singular masculine ingin: noun; dative singular feminine, ā-
of <in, aN, indL> the stem, of <ingen> daughter
inaH: article; genitive singular feminine of inis: noun; nominative singular feminine,
<in, aN, indL> the ī-stem, of <inis> island
inaH: preposition; compound form of inL: article; genitive singular masculine of
preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed <in, aN, indL> the
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular inL: article; nominative singular feminine
feminine <aH> her of <in, aN, indL> the
inaL: preposition; compound form of inlaat: verb; 3rd person plural present
preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°lá>
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular undertakes, arranges, adjusts
masculine <aL> his, its
inN: article; accusative singular feminine
inaN: preposition; compound form of of <in, aN, indL> the
preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN> inN: article; accusative singular masculine
their of <in, aN, indL> the
Inbiur Domnand: toponym; dative singular inN: preposition; <in, iN> in, into
of <Inber Domnann> Rivermouth inna: article; variant of nominative plural
Domnann masculine of <in, aN, indL> the
ind: article; accusative singular feminine inna: preposition; compound form of
of <in, aN, indL> the preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
ind: article; genitive singular neuter of <in, possessive pronoun 3rd person singular
aN, indL> the masculine <aL> his, its
ind: article; nominative singular feminine innaL: preposition; compound form of
of <in, aN, indL> the preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular
ind: preposition; <in, iN> in, into masculine <aL> his, its
inde: conjunction; compound form of innaN: preposition; compound form of
conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular possessive pronoun 3rd person plural <aN>
feminine <deH, den> she their
inden: conjunction; compound form of inneltiu: adjective; dative singular
conjunction <in, iN> when + archaic masculine of preterite indicative passive
infixed pronoun 3rd person singular participle <inneltae> yoked, harnessed
feminine <deH, den> she
insnádat: verb; 3rd person plural present
indisfither: verb; future indicative passive indicative active, deuterotonic, of
<in°snádi> defers, puts off itL: preposition; compound form of
insoet: verb; 3rd person plural present preposition <in, iN> in, into + suffixed
indicative active, deuterotonic, of <in°soí> possessive pronoun 2nd person singular
turns, returns <doL, tL> your
is: verb; 3rd person singular present iumdai: adjective; nominative plural
indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is masculine of <im(m)da> many, abundant
is: verb; 3rd person singular present í: demonstrative particle; <í> this, these,
indicative, absolute, syntactically relative, those
of copula <is> is íar: preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after
is: verb; variant of participle present of íarairsom: noun; accusative singular
copula <is> is feminine, ā-stem, of <íarar, íarair> search
isin: preposition; compound form of <in, + emphasizing particle; 3rd person
iN> in, into + dative singular neuter of singular masculine <seom, som> he, it
article <in, aN, indL> the íarmo: adverb; <íarmo> behind
issindL: preposition; compound form of íarN: preposition; <íarN, íarmL-> after
preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative íaruṁ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> person singular neuter dative of <íarN,
the íarmL-> after
issindL: preposition; compound form of íarum: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative person singular neuter dative of <íarN,
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> íarmL-> after
the
íascach: noun; dative singular masculine,
issinL: preposition; compound form of o-stem, of <íascach> fishing
preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> ícc: noun; nominative singular feminine, ā-
the stem, of <ícc> cure; solution
issinL: preposition; compound form of íL: personal pronoun; 3rd person singular
preposition <in, iN> in, into + dative feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
singular neuter of article <in, aN, indL> the Ítha: proper name masculine; genitive
issinN: preposition; compound form of singular of <Íth> Ith
preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative la: preposition; <laH> among, by, with
singular feminine of article <in, aN, indL>
laa: noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-
the
stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight
issinN: preposition; compound form of
laH: preposition; <laH> among, by, with
preposition <in, iN> in, into + accusative
singular masculine of article <in, aN, indL> Laigniu: proper name masculine;
the accusative plural of <Laigni>
Leinstermen, Leinsterwomen
it: verb; 2nd person singular present
indicative, absolute, of copula <is> is lat: pronominalized preposition; 2nd
person singular accusative of <laH>
itchonnarc: verb; 1st person singular past
among, by, with
indicative active, deuterotonic, of <ad°cí,
at°chí> sees lá: noun; nominative singular neuter, yo-
stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight
itchuala: verb; 1st person singular past
indicative active, deuterotonic, of láaN: noun; accusative singular neuter, yo-
<at°chluin> hears stem, of <láaN, láN> day, daylight
lár: noun; accusative singular neuter, o- singular feminine accusative of <laH>
stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle among, by, with
lár: noun; dative singular masculine, o- léibend: noun; nominative singular
stem, of <lár> floor, surface; middle masculine, o-stem, of <léibend, léibenn>
lár: noun; dative singular neuter, o-stem, of level surface
<lár> floor, surface; middle lérgníma: noun; compound of adjective
le: preposition; <laH> among, by, with <léir> diligent + genitive singular
masculine, u-stem, of <gním> action, work
leis: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
person singular masculine accusative of Liadaine: proper name feminine; genitive
<laH> among, by, with singular of <Líadain> Liadain
leith: noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, liḃ: pronominalized preposition; 2nd
of <leth> side, direction person plural accusative of <laH> among,
by, with
leṁ: pronominalized preposition; 1st
person singular accusative of <laH> limsa: pronominalized preposition; 1st
among, by, with person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with + emphasizing particle 1st
lem: pronominalized preposition; 1st person singular <se, sa> I
person singular accusative of <laH>
among, by, with linn: noun; accusative singular feminine,
yā-stem, of <linn> pool, lake, sea
lemnachta: noun; genitive singular
masculine, i-stem, of <lemnacht> lí: noun; nominative singular feminine,
new/fresh milk guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
colour
les: noun; accusative singular masculine,
o-stem, of <les> yard Líadain: proper name feminine; accusative
singular of <Líadain> Liadain
lessa: noun; compound form of accusative
singular masculine, u-stem, of <les> Líadain: proper name feminine;
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle nominative singular of <Líadain> Liadain
1st person singular <se, sa> I Líadain: proper name feminine; vocative
lessu: noun; compound form of accusative singular of <Líadain> Liadain
singular masculine, u-stem, of <les> líga: noun; nominative plural feminine,
remedy; advantage + emphasizing particle guttural stem, of <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
2nd person singular <siu, so, su> you colour
let: pronominalized preposition; 2nd lín: noun; nominative singular neuter, o-
person singular accusative of <laH> stem, of <lín> full number; number
among, by, with llá: noun; nasalized accusative singular
leth: noun; nominative singular neuter, s- neuter, yo-stem, of <láaN, láN> day,
stem, of <leth> side, direction daylight
leu: pronominalized preposition; 3rd lles: noun; accusative singular masculine,
person plural accusative of <laH> among, u-stem, of <les> remedy; advantage
by, with loch: noun; accusative singular masculine,
leusoṁ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd u-stem, of <loch> lake, firth; pool
person plural accusative of <laH> among, loiti: verb; 3rd person singular present
by, with + emphasizing particle 3rd person indicative active, conjunct, of <lottid>
plural <seom, som> he, it injures, spoils, destroys
lé: pronominalized preposition; 3rd person lommnán: noun; nominative singular
masculine of <lom(m)nán> abundance <má, ma> if + 3rd person singular present
lossa: noun; accusative plural masculine, subjunctive of copula <is> is
u-stem, of <luss, lus> herb, plant, Mael Fothartaig: proper name masculine;
vegetable accusative singular masculine of <Mael
lotir: verb; 3rd person plural preterite Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig
indicative of <luith, luid> moves; flies Mael Fothartaig: proper name masculine;
Lóeġuire: proper name masculine; nominative singular masculine of <Mael
nominative singular of <Lóegaire, Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig
Lóeguire> Loegaire maġ: noun; accusative singular neuter, s-
Lóeg: proper name masculine; accusative stem, of <mag> plain, field
singular of <Lóeg> Laeg Mag Lii: toponym; nominative singular of
Lóeg: proper name masculine; nominative <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty
singular of <Lóeg> Laeg Magh Latharna: toponym; nominative
lóeg: noun; nominative singular masculine, singular of <Mag Latharna> the Field of
o-stem, of <lóeg> calf Lathairn
luaith: noun; nominative singular Magh nEthrige: toponym; nominative
feminine, i-stem, of <lúaith> ashes singular of <Mag nEthrige> the Field of
Ethrag
luid: verb; 3rd person singular preterite
indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes Magh nÍtha: toponym; variant of
nominative singular of <Mag Ítha> the
luirg: noun; nominative plural masculine, Field of Ith
o-stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course
maiġe: noun; accusative plural neuter, s-
luithir: verb; 3rd person singular present stem, of <mag> plain, field
indicative passive, absolute, of <luith,
luid> moves; flies maig: noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem,
of <mag> plain, field
lurg: noun; dative singular masculine, o-
stem, of <lorg> trail, path, course maige: noun; accusative plural neuter, s-
stem, of <mag> plain, field
Luth Luamnach: proper name feminine;
dative singular of <Luth Luamnach> the maith: adjective; nominative singular
Fury of the Pilotage feminine of <maith> good
ṁacḋacht: indeclinable; <macdacht> adult maith: adjective; nominative singular
neuter of <maith> good
ṁaiġ: noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem,
of <mag> plain, field maith: adjective; used as adverb; <maith>
good
ṁuintir: noun; accusative singular
feminine, ā-stem, of <muinter> family; maithi: noun; nominative plural masculine,
party, followers; retinue, company i-stem, of adjective <maith> good
m': possessive pronoun; 1st person maithsiu: adjective; compound form of
singular, shortened from <moL, mL> my nominative singular masculine of <maith>
good + emphasizing particle 2nd person
mac: noun; nominative singular masculine, singular <siu, so, su> you
o-stem, of <macc, mac> son
manimL: conjunction; compound form of
Mac Con Glinne: proper name masculine; negative conjunction <mani> if not +
nominative singular of <Mac Con Glinne> infixed pronoun 1st person singular <mL,
Son of the Hound of the Valley mmL> I
mad: verb; compound form of adverb marb: adjective; nominative singular
feminine of <marb> dead mecnu: noun; accusative plural masculine,
marbso: adjective; compound form of o-stem, of <mecon, mecan> root
nominative singular feminine of <marb> meṁais: verb; 3rd person singular future
dead + emphasizing particle 2nd person indicative, absolute, of <maidid> breaks,
singular <siu, so, su> you bursts
marbtha: verbal noun; genitive singular mé: independent personal pronoun; 1st
masculine, u-stem, of <marbad> killing, person singular <mé> I
slaying min: noun; nominative singular feminine
maróca: noun; nominative plural feminine, of <men, min> powder, dust
ā-stem, of <maróc> sausage mind: noun; accusative singular neuter, o-
már: noun; accusative singular neuter, o- stem, of <mind> crown, diadem, summit
stem, of <már, mór> big, great mí: noun; accusative singular masculine, s-
máthair: noun; nominative singular stem, of <mí> month
feminine, r-stem, of <máthir, máthair> mí: noun; nominative singular masculine,
mother s-stem, of <mí> month
mba: verb; nasalized 3rd person singular mír: noun; nominative dual masculine, o-
future indicative, conjunct, of copula <is> stem, of <mír> morsel, mouthful, portion
is
mmag: noun; nasalized nominative
mbátar: verb; nasalized 3rd person plural singular neuter, s-stem, of <mag> plain,
preterite indicative, syntactically relative, field
of substantive verb <attá> is
mmeṁa: verb; 3rd person singular future
mbethu: noun; dative singular masculine, indicative, conjunct, of <maidid> breaks,
dental stem, of <bethu> life, existence bursts
mbéraind: verb; nasalized 1st person mnaí: noun; accusative singular feminine,
singular past subjunctive active, conjunct, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife
of <berid> carries, brings
mnaí: noun; nasalized accusative singular
mbláthaib: noun; nasalized dative plural feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife
masculine, u-stem, of <bláth> flower,
blossom; bloom mo: possessive pronoun; 1st person
singular of <moL, mL> my
mbliadna: noun; nasalized genitive plural
feminine, ī-stem, of <blíadain> year mochtide: adjective; nominative singular
masculine of <mochtide> great, mighty
mboin: noun; nasalized accusative singular
feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox moigi: noun; nominative plural neuter, s-
stem, of <mag> plain, field
mboí: verb; nasalized 3rd person singular
preterite indicative of substantive verb moíthgnatha: adjective; compound form of
<attá> is <moíth> gentle, tender + accusative plural
neuter, o-stem, of <gnáth> usual,
mbó: noun; nasalized genitive plural customary; known
feminine, irregular, of <bó> cow, ox
mór: adjective; nominative singular
mbu: verb; nasalized 3rd person singular masculine of <már, mór> big, great -
preterite indicative, conjunct, of copula
<is> is mórchathu: noun; compound form of
adjective <már, mór> big, great + lenited
mbúaid: noun; nasalized dative singular accusative plural masculine, u-stem, of
neuter, i-stem, of <boid, búaid> victory; <cath> battle, fight
excellence, special quality; advantage
mórthimchell: adverb; dative singular
masculine, o-stem, of <mórthimchell> naL: verbal particle; compound form of
great circuit verbal particle <no> (introduces imperfect)
muige: noun; genitive singular masculine, + infixed pronoun 3rd person singular
s-stem, of <mag> plain, field neuter <aL> it
Muighi hÍtha: toponym; genitive singular nand: pronominalized preposition;
of <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith nasalized 3rd person singular neuter dative
of <in, iN> in, into
muindtir: noun; dative singular feminine,
ā-stem, of <muinter> family; party, nariḋin: noun; nasalized accusative
followers; retinue, company singular masculine, n-stem, of <aride,
airide> bench
'na: preposition; compound of <in, iN> in,
into + possessive pronoun 3rd person nattan: noun; nasalized dative singular
singular masculine <aL> his, its - feminine, ā-stem, of <attan, attain>
another time
na: article; genitive plural of <in, aN, indL>
the ná: dependent negative particle; <ná, na>
not, nor
na: dependent negative particle; <ná, na>
not, nor nánradu: noun; nasalized accusative plural
masculine, o-stem, of <ánrad> hero,
na: nasalized possessive pronoun; 3rd warrior, champion
person singular masculine <aL> his, its
náth: noun; nasalized accusative singular
na: possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd masculine, u-stem, of <áth> ford
person plural <aN> their
náuderg: adjective; nasalized compound of
na: possessive pronoun; nasalized 3rd <áu> ear + genitive plural feminine of
person singular masculine <aL> his, its adjective <derg> red
nacca: verb; nasalized 1st person singular ndaiṁ: noun; nasalized dative singular
preterite indicative active, prototonic, of feminine, u-stem, of <dom, dam> house,
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees home
naccae: verb; nasalized 3rd person singular ndechuiḋ: verb; nasalized 3rd person
preterite indicative active, prototonic, of singular perfect indicative, prototonic, of
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees <téit> goes
naccatar: verb; nasalized 3rd person plural ndegae: noun; nasalized genitive plural
preterite indicative active, prototonic, of feminine, i-stem, of <daig> flame, fire;
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees pang
nach: negative particle; compound form of ndernad: verb; nasalized 3rd person
negative <nad> not + 3rd person singular singular perfect subjunctive, prototonic, of
present indicative, conjunct, of copula <do°gní> does; makes
<is> is
ndénainn: verb; 1st person singular past
naH: article; genitive singular feminine of subjunctive active, prototonic,
<in, aN, indL> the syntactically relative, of <do°gní> does;
naicc: negative particle; <naicc> no, not makes
naicsiu: verbal noun; nasalized nominative nDésse: proper name; nasalized genitive
singular feminine, n-stem, of <aicsiu> plural masculine, i-stem, of <déis> vassal
seeing ndiaiḋ: noun; nasalized accusative singular
nairlise: noun; nasalized genitive plural neuter, o-stem, of <dead, diad> end
feminine, yā-stem, of <airlise> forecourt, ndís: verb; nasalized 2nd person singular
enclosure present subjunctive active, prototonic, of
<do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches; gets; dative singular neuter of <ní> something,
comes anything
ndíuchrastar: verb; nasalized 3rd person no: verbal particle; introduces imperfect;
singular preterite indicative, prototonic, of <no>...
<do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up nocharainn: verb; 1st person singular past
nDún Iṁriḋ: toponym; nasalized dative subjunctive active, conjunct, of <caraid>
singular of <Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid loves
nech: noun; nasalized accusative singular noí: indeclinable numeral; <noí> nine
masculine, o-stem, of <ech> horse nombiasu: verb; 2nd person singular future
nEṁuin: toponym; nasalized dative indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative,
singular feminine, i-stem, of <Emain, of substantive verb <attá> is +
Emuin> Emain Macha emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
netarcéin: noun; nasalized dative singular <siu, so, su> you
neuter of <etercían> far, distant, remote nommainsed: verb; compound form of 3rd
nÉre: toponym; nasalized dative singular person singular past subjunctive active,
feminine, n-stem, of <Ériu> Ireland conjunct, syntactically relative, of
<aingid> protects + infixed pronoun 1st
ngabáil: noun; nasalized dative singular person singular <mL, mmL> I
feminine, ā-stem, of <gabál, gabáil>
taking, conquest noscarfamais: verb; 1st person plural
secondary future indicative active,
ngairet: verb; nasalized 3rd person plural conjunct, syntactically relative, of
present indicative active, conjunct, <scaraid> separates, parts
syntactically relative, of <gairid> calls
notLḃenaḃsu: verb; compound form of
ngéim: verbal noun; nasalized accusative verbal particle <no>... + infixed pronoun
singular neuter, n-stem, of <géim> roaring 2nd person singular <totL, tatL, tL> you +
(of cattle) 1st person singular future indicative active,
ni: independent negative particle; <ní, ni> conjunct, of <benaid> beats, strikes, slays,
not wounds + emphasizing particle 2nd person
singular <siu, so, su> you
nicotL: independent negative; compound
form of negative particle <nícon, nicon> nó: conjunction; <nó> or
not + infixed pronoun 2nd person singular nuile: adjective; nasalized genitive plural
<totL, tatL, tL> you masculine of <uile> all, whole
nimderga: verb; nasalized 3rd person oc: preposition; <oc> at, with, by
singular present subjunctive active,
prototonic, nasalizing relative, of ocaH: preposition; compound form of
<im(m)°derga> reddens preposition <oc> at, with, by + suffixed
possessive pronoun 3rd person singular
ní: indefinite pronoun; accusative singular feminine <aH> her
neuter of <ní> something, anything
ocbath: verb; 3rd person singular
ní: independent negative particle; <ní, ni> imperative active, prototonic, of <ocaib>
not raises, exalts
nícon: independent negative particle; ocus: conjunction; <ocus> and
<nícon, nicon> not
oenur: noun; dative singular masculine, o-
nírenn: noun; nasalized genitive singular stem, of <oenar> one person, one alone
feminine, n-stem, of <íriu> land, earth, soil
oidchi: noun; accusative singular feminine,
nneoch: indefinite pronoun; nasalized yā-stem, of <adaig> night
ol: indeclinable; <ol> says, said accusative singular of <Partholón>
olc: noun; accusative singular neuter, o- Partholon
stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune Partholón: proper name masculine; dative
olc: noun; nominative singular neuter, o- singular masculine of <Partholón>
stem, of <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune Partholon
olchenae: adverb; <olchenae> besides Partholón: proper name masculine;
nominative singular of <Partholón>
olsi: indeclinable; compound form of Partholon
indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine Phartholón: proper name masculine;
<(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it lenited dative singular of <Partholón>
Partholon
olsissi: indeclinable; compound form of
indeclinable <ol> says, said + emphatic raḃ: verb; 3rd person singular RO-present
personal pronoun 3rd person singular subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is> is
feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it raba: verb; 3rd person singular perfect
olsí: indeclinable; compound form of indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative,
indeclinable <ol> says, said + personal of substantive verb <attá> is
pronoun 3rd person singular feminine rád: verbal noun; accusative singular
<(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it masculine, o-stem, of <ráidid> saying,
or: indeclinable; variant of <ol> says, said uttering, speaking
os: verb; participle present of copula <is> regatsa: verb; compound form of 1st
is person singular future indicative, absolute,
of <téit> goes + emphasizing particle 1st
ó: conjunction; <ó> since person singular <se, sa> I
ó: preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by reiṁiḃ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
ócben: noun; compound of adjective <oac, person plural dative of <reN> before
óc> young + nominative singular reṁiḃ: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
feminine, ā-stem, of <ben> woman, wife person plural dative of <reN> before
óenchoss: noun; compound of <óen-> one, remi: adverb; <remi> ahead
single + nominative singular feminine, ā-
stem, of <coss, cos> foot, leg réiḋi: adjective; accusative plural neuter of
<réid> smooth, even, level
óenech: noun; compound of <óen-> one,
single + nominative singular masculine, o- réighigh: Middle Irish verbal noun; dative
stem, of <ech> horse singular of <réidig> leveling, smoothing;
clearing (land)
óentaid: noun; accusative singular
masculine, dental stem, of <oentu> unity, réin: noun; genitive singular masculine, o-
alliance, sexual union stem, of <rían> course, route; sea, ocean
óL: preposition; <óL, úaL> from, by riacht: verb; 3rd person singular perfect
indicative active, prototonic, of <ro°saig>
ón: indeclinable; demonstrative pronoun reaches
neuter singular <ón> this, that
riġiḋ: noun; accusative singular feminine,
ór: noun; accusative singular neuter, o- dental stem, of <rig> fore-arm
stem, of <ór> gold
rith: noun; nominative singular masculine,
Parrtholóin: proper name masculine; u-stem, of <rith> run, course
genitive singular of <Partholón> Partholon
ro indis: verb; Middle Irish past indicative
Partholón: proper name masculine; active, conjunct, of <indis(s)id> tells
rocharus: verb; 1st person singular perfect nasalized 2nd person singular RO-future
indicative active, conjunct, syntactically indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative,
relative, of <caraid> loves of substantive verb <attá> is +
rocharussa: verb; 1st person singular emphasizing particle 2nd person singular
perfect indicative active, conjunct, <siu, so, su> you
syntactically relative, of <caraid> loves + rond: noun; nominative singular
emphasizing particle 1st person singular masculine, u-stem, of <rond, ronn> chain,
<se, sa> I bond
rocráidius: verb; 1st person singular rop: verb; 3rd person singular RO-present
perfect indicative active, conjunct, of subjunctive, syntactically relative, of
<cráidid> torments, vexes, afflicts copula <is> is
rodart: verb; 3rd person singular perfect ropud: verb; 3rd person singular perfect
indicative active, conjunct, of <dairid> subjunctive, conjunct, of copula <is> is
bulls - rosaig: verb; 3rd person singular present
rodíthaigit: verb; 3rd person plural Middle indicative active, perfective, conjunct,
Irish perfect indicative passive, conjunct, syntactically relative, of <saigid> seeks,
of <díthaigid> destroys obtains
rofeisind: verb; variant of 1st person roscarus: verb; 1st person singular perfect
singular preterite subjunctive active, indicative active, conjunct, of <scaraid>
deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows separates, parts
rofersat: verb; 3rd person plural perfect roslechtad: verb; 3rd person singular
indicative active, conjunct, of <feraid> perfect passive, conjunct, of <sligid>
grants, affords, supplies, gives; performs; strikes, slays; clears
pours, sheds rotethainn: verb; 3rd person singular
rofess: verb; perfect impersonal singular, perfect indicative active, conjunct, of
deuterotonic, of <ro°fitir> knows <teinnid, tennaid> cuts, cracks, breaks
rogab: verb; 3rd person singular perfect Rónáin: proper name masculine; genitive
indicative active, conjunct, syntactically singular of <Rónán> Ronan
relative, of <gaibid> takes; proceeds; rucad: verb; 3rd person singular perfect
recites passive, deuterotonic, of <do°beir> brings
rogabais: verb; 2nd person singular perfect rucasu: verb; compound form of 2nd
indicative active, absolute, of <gaibid> person singular perfective RO-present
takes; proceeds; recites subjunctive active, conjunct, of <berid>
roLchúala: verb; 1st person singular perfect carries, brings + emphasizing particle 2nd
indicative active, deuterotonic, person singular <siu, so, su> you
syntactically relative, of <ro°cluinethar> ṡin: anaphoric demonstrative pronoun;
hears lenited; <sin> this, that, those, the
rolémasu: verb; 2nd person singular future aforementioned
indicative, deuterotonic, of <ro°laimethar> ṡlóig: noun; nominative plural masculine,
dares + emphasizing particle 2nd person o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army
singular <siu, so, su> you
ṡorchi: noun; lenited dative singular
romarbad: verb; 3rd person singular feminine, yā-stem, of <sorche, sorchae>
perfect indicative passive, conjunct, of light, brightness
<marbaid> kills
ṡóer: noun; lenited dative singular
rombiasu: verb; compound form of masculine, o-stem, of <sóer> free man
ṡuiḋiu: anaphoric demonstrative pronoun; sé: personal pronoun; 3rd person singular
lenited dative singular masculine of <sude, masculine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
suide> this one, the aforementioned side: anaphoric demonstrative pronoun;
ṡuiḋiu: verbal noun; lenited dative singular nominative singular masculine of <sude,
neuter, o-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting suide> this one, the aforementioned
ṡúil: noun; lenited nominative singular sin: anaphoric demonstrative pronoun;
feminine, i-stem, of <súil> eye <sin> this, that, those, the aforementioned
saṁaiscse: noun; nominative singular sise: emphatic personal pronoun 3rd
feminine, ī-stem, of <samaisc> heifer + person singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed>
emphasizing particle 1st person singular he, she, it
<se, sa> I sisi: emphatic personal pronoun 3rd person
saṁlaiḋ: adverb; <samlaid, amlaid> thus, singular feminine <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he,
so, in this way she, it
sceo: conjunction; <sceo> and sithithir: adjective; equative of <síth> long
scéith: noun; nominative plural masculine, sium: emphasizing particle; 3rd person
o-stem, of <scíath> shield, wing singular masculine <seom, som> he, it
scortis: verb; 3rd person plural past sí: personal pronoun 3rd person singular
subjunctive active, conjunct, of <scuirid> feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
unyokes síar: adverb; <síar> backwards, back
scuilb: noun; nominative plural masculine, síḋ: noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of
o-stem, of <scolb> splinter, wattle <síd> fairy fort
se: demonstrative pronoun; <se> this, síL: personal pronoun 3rd person singular
these feminine of <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
sech: preposition; <sech> past, beyond síthḃe: noun; nominative singular neuter,
sechaṁ: pronominalized preposition; 1st yo-stem, of <síthbe> pole, shaft
person singular accusative of <sech> past, Sléib Émóir: toponym; dative singular of
beyond <Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill
sechbaid: noun; nominative singular, i- sliġeḋ: verb; 3rd person singular imperfect
stem, of <sechbaid> excess; error indicative active, conjunct, of <sligid>
secht: numeral; nominative plural of strikes, slays; clears
<sechtN> seven Slíaḃ Fúait: toponym; accusative singular
sechtair: adverb; <sechtair> outside of <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill
sechtgabáil: noun; compound of <sechtN> slógaib: noun; dative plural masculine, o-
seven + nominative singular feminine, ā- stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army
stem, of <gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest snechtae: noun; nominative singular
sencharpait: noun; compound form of masculine, yo-stem, of <snechtae,
<sen> old + lenited genitive singular snechta> snow
masculine, o-stem, of <carpat> war- snig: verb; 3rd person singular present
chariot, wagon indicative, conjunct, syntactically relative,
senḟonnith: noun; compound form of of <snigid> pours down, flows, drops
<sen> old + lenited genitive singular so: demonstrative pronoun; <so> this,
neuter, o-stem, of <fonnat> wheel-rim these
sethnu: preposition; <sethnu, sethno> soḋsa: noun; nominative singular feminine,
through, across
ā-stem, of <sod, sad> bitch, wolf-bitch + tathigtis: verb; 3rd person plural imperfect
emphasizing particle 1st person singular indicative active, conjunct, of <taithigid>
<se, sa> I frequents, practices
soithcedach: adjective; nominative Táin: noun; dative singular feminine, i-
singular masculine of <soithcedach> stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid
prosperous, fortunate Táin Bó Cúailngi: noun; accusative
soí: verb; 3rd person singular present singular feminine, i-stem, of <Táin Bó
indicative active, conjunct, of <soith> Cúailnge> Cattle-Raid of Cuailnge
turns Táno: noun; genitive singular feminine, i-
som: emphasizing particle; 3rd person stem, of <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid
singular masculine <seom, som> he, it tánuc: verb; 1st person singular past
sreth: noun; nominative singular feminine, indicative, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c),
ā-stem, of <sreth> strewing; arrangement tig> approaches; gets; comes
sube: noun; nominative singular neuter, tech: noun; accusative singular masculine,
yo-stem, of <subae> joy, pleasure, s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling
happiness tened: noun; genitive singular feminine,
suḋiu: verbal noun; dative singular neuter, dental stem, of <tene, teine> fire
yo-stem, of <sude, suide> sitting ténaṁar: noun; compound of <én> bird +
suíthi: noun; genitive singular masculine, nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
yo-stem, of <suíthe> wisdom, knowledge <amar> singing, song
sund: adverb; <sund> here - ténlorg: noun; compound of <én> bird +
súile: noun; genitive plural feminine, i- nominative singular masculine, o-stem, of
stem, of <súil> eye <lorg> trail, path, course
t': possessive pronoun; 2nd person singular th': possessive pronoun; 2nd person
of <doL, tL> your singular, variant of <doL, tL> your
tacarthaib: noun; dative plural neuter, yo- thanaig: noun; lenited dative singular
stem, of <tacre, tacrae> pleading, feminine, ā-stem, of <tanach> pressed
declaration, dispute cheese
tair: adverb; <tair> in front thig: noun; lenited dative singular neuter,
s-stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling
taitnet: verb; 3rd person plural present
indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> thimm: adjective; dative singular feminine
shines, is refulgent of <timm> soft, pliant; feeble
taitni: verb; 3rd person singular present thír: noun; lenited accusative singular
indicative, prototonic, of <do°aitni> neuter, s-stem, of <tír> earth, territory,
shines, is refulgent land
talman: noun; genitive singular thoichib: noun; lenited dative plural neuter
masculine/feminine, n-stem, of <talam> of <toich> natural, proper
earth, ground thráthaib: noun; lenited dative plural
tan: noun; used as conjunction; accusative neuter, u-stem, of <tráth> period of time,
singular feminine, ā-stem, of <tan, tain> (canonical) hour
time thrí: numeral; lenited accusative singular
tar: preposition; <tar> across, over masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three
tarḃ: noun; nominative singular masculine, thugaid: noun; lenited dative singular
o-stem, of <tarb> bull feminine, dental stem, of <tuga> thatch
tiġḃae: adjective; nominative singular stem, of <tráth> period of time,
masculine of <tigbae> surviving (canonical) hour
tiġe: noun; genitive singular neuter, s- tre: preposition; <triL, treL> through
stem, of <teg, tech> house, dwelling tresna: article; compound form of <triL,
tíaġait: verb; 3rd person plural present treL> through + accusative plural neuter of
indicative, absolute, of <téit> goes <in, aN, indL> the
tír: noun; dative singular neuter, s-stem, of trianaL: preposition; compound form of
<tír> earth, territory, land preposition <triL, treL> through + suffixed
tír: noun; nominative singular neuter, s- possessive pronoun 3rd person singular
stem, of <tír> earth, territory, land masculine <aL> his, its
tís: verb; 2nd person singular present triúr: personal numeral; dative singular
subjunctive, prototonic, of <do°icc, tic(c), masculine of <triar> three people
tig> approaches; gets; comes trí: numeral; nominative plural masculine
tochoṁracht: verbal noun; nominative of <trí, tri, teoir> three
singular feminine, ā-stem, of trí cóica: numeral; compound form of
<tochomracht> distress, weariness, masculine of <trí, tri, teoir> three +
vexation nominative singular masculine of <coíca>
toingte: verb; 3rd person plural present fifty
indicative, absolute, relative of <tongaid> tríH: numeral; nominative plural masculine
swears, takes an oath of <trí, tri, teoir> three
toingthe: verb; 3rd person plural present trít: pronominalized preposition; 3rd
indicative, absolute, relative of <tongaid> person singular masculine accusative of
swears, takes an oath <triL, treL> through
toíbgel: adjective; compound of <toíb> trócairi: noun; accusative singular
side + nominative singular masculine of feminine, yā-stem, of <trócaire> mercy
<gel> fair, white, bright tṡlúaig: noun; lenited nominative plural
toléci: verb; 3rd person singular present masculine, o-stem, of <slóg, slúag> troop,
indicative active, deuterotonic, of host, army
<do°léici> yields tú: personal pronoun; 2nd person singular
tongusa: verb; 1st person singular present <tú> you
indicative, absolute, of <tongaid> swears, túaithbiul: noun; dative singular
takes an oath + emphasizing particle 1st masculine, o-stem, of <túaithbel> left-
person singular <se, sa> I hand side
tonnat: verb; 3rd person plural present túath: noun; genitive plural feminine, ā-
indicative active, prototonic, of <do°sná> stem, of <tóth, túath> tribe, people
swims
uair: conjunction; <úair, uair> since
toscartha: verb; 3rd person plural preterite
indicative passive, deuterotonic, of ucut: adverb; <ucut> yonder
<do°scara> overthrows, ruins uile: adjective; accusative singular neuter
tra: adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, of <uile> all, whole
indeed, moreover uile: adjective; nominative singular
trá: adverb; <trá, tra> then, well, so, feminine of <uile> all, whole
indeed, moreover uili: adjective; nominative plural
tráth: noun; accusative singular neuter, u- masculine of <uile> all, whole
uird: noun; genitive singular masculine, o- Ulstermen
stem, of <ord> arrangement úaimLse: pronominalized preposition;
N
Ulaḋ : noun; genitive plural masculine, o- compound form of 1st person singular
stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen dative of <óL, úaL> from, by +
Ulaiḋ: proper name; nominative plural emphasizing particle 1st person singular
masculine, o-stem, of <Ulaid> Ulidians, <se, sa> I
Old Irish Online

Base Form Dictionary
Jonathan Slocum, Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel, and Caren Esser
This Base Form Dictionary index lists, in an alphabetical order suitable to the language and
the script employed for it, every unique base form underlying one or more surface (word)
forms in lesson texts. For each base form a general meaning (if any) is shown, along with
links to every usage, in every numbered lesson, of the associated surface forms. With this
index, one may click on any link to perform a quick "usage look-up," and thereby study how
surface forms in texts are constructed from base forms.
<acht> except, only, save, but <airdirc> obvious; renowned
<acht> if only, provided that <airlise> forecourt, enclosure
<adaig> night <aislinge> vision, dream
<adamrae> very wonderful <aiss, ais> back, hinder part
<ad°cí, at°chí> sees <aithesc> message
<ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts; happens, <aL> his, its
chances <aL> it
<ad°fét> tells, relates <aL> o
<ad°gládathar> addresses, speaks to <allmar> foreign
<ad°midethar> estimates, evaluates <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that way, so,
<aH> ... then
<aH> her <amar> singing, song
<aicde> artefact, article <aN> as, when
<aicsiu> seeing <aN> he
<aidilcne> necessity, need <aN> their
<aile> other <an-> non-
<ailithre> pilgrimage <-aN, -saN> that which, what
<aimser, amsir> time, period, season <anair> from the front, before
<aingid> protects <anba> vast quantity
<ainm> name <aníarthúaid> from the north-west, in the
<air, ar> for north-west
<airbe> hedge, fence <anL> what, that what
<ann> there <berid> carries, brings
<anní> this, that <bethu> life, existence
<antúaid> from the north <bél> lip; mouth, face
<araír> last night <bés> custom, habit
<ar-aN> so that, in order that, that <biad> food
<arcat, argat> silver <bile> (ancient and venerated) tree
<Arcatnél> Silver Cloud <Bir> Bir
<are, arae, ara> charioteer <bith> world; life; age, period
<aret, airet> length, interval, space (of <bladach> famous, renowned; splendid
time) <bláth> flower, blossom; bloom
<*ar°éci> observes <blíadain> year
<aride, airide> bench <blonac> fat, lard, grease
<arL, airL> before, for, in front of, east of <boca> soft
<arm, armm> armour, weapon <boid, búaid> victory; excellence, special
N
<ar > our quality; advantage
<as°beir> says, speaks <bongid> breaks
<at°baill> dies <borb> oaf
<at°chluin> hears <bó> cow, ox
<athir, athair> father <bratt> cloak, mantle
<attan, attain> another time <bráth> Doomsday
<attá> is <bráth> judgment
<áil> desire <bráthir, bráthair> brother
<áinius> pleasure <brechtán> butter, fat, relish
<álaind> beautiful, lovely <Brega> Brega
<án> splendid, brilliant; splendour <breth> passing judgement, interpreting
<ánrad> hero, warrior, champion <bréit> strip; cloth; shred
<áth> ford <Bricriu> Bricriu
<Áth da Ḟerta> Ford of the Two Mounds <brissid> breaks, destroys; defeats
<áu> ear <bríg> strength, value
<bath> sea, ocean <brón> sorrow
<bág> threat <brug, bruig> region, district
<bán> white, shiny <brú> belly, womb
<bás> death <brú, brá> eyebrow, brow
<bedg> start, leap <cach, cech> each, every, any
<ben> woman, wife <caill> wood, forest
<benaid> beats, strikes, slays, wounds <caingen> deal, bargain
<berbad> boiling, cooking <caisel> stone wall, rampart
<caí> weeping <cless> feat, skill
<caín> fine, excellent, beautiful <clé> left
<Camus> Camus <cloth> fame, reputation
<carae> friend <coH> to, until
<caraid> loves <co(i)cetal> harmonious music
<cardess, cairdes> friendship, love, <coicéle, coicéile> companion, friend;
cohabitation friendship
<carpat> war-chariot, wagon <coimthecht> company
<cath> battle, fight <coíca> fifty
<Cathal> Cathal <coll> hazel-tree
<cách> everybody, everyone <collud> damaging, destroying
<celid> conceals, hides <comainm> name, cognomen
<cell> cloister, monastic settlement <comair> in front of
<Cell Letrech> Cloister Letrech <comL, coN> with
<cenél> race, tribe; descent <commairche> protection, refuge
L
<cen > without <comrac> encounter; combat; collision;
<cenn> head, front; end sexual relation
<ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four <con, coN> until; so that; and
<cethraimthe> quarter, fourth part <Conall> Conall
<céol> music <con°boing> breaks; defeats; violates
<cét> first; fresh, new <Conchubur, Conchobar> Conchobar
<cétamus> firstly <con°gair> calls together
<cétN> hundred <Congal> Congal
<chena> besides <congbál> occupation, holding
<Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic Gairb <con°icc> can, is able
meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir> Cichol son <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till
of Goll of the son of Garb of the son of <Connacht> Connacht
Tuatach of the son of Gumor
<Connacht> inhabitant of Connacht
<Cicul Gricen-choss> Cichol Clapperleg
<con°ocaib> truly raises, truly exalts
<Cicul, Cichul, Ciccul> Cichol
<con°oí> keeps, preserves
<cidL, cedL> what; why
<con°ricc> meets, encounters
<cinnas> how
<con°saídi> stirs up, excites
<cía> although, even if
<con°sní> contends, competes
<cían> long time; period
<con°tuili> sleeps
<clad> ditch, dyke
<cor> putting; throwing; letting go
<clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit
<Corco Duibne> Corkaguiney
<clechtaid> practices
<coss, cos> foot, leg
<cleittíne> javelin, dart
<cotlud> sleeping, sleep <de°éci, do°écai> looks
<córe, córae> peace <deH, den> she
<cráidid> torments, vexes, afflicts <Deichtire, Deichtine> Deichtire
<cride> heart <deilm> loud, rumbling noise
<crích> boundary, territory <dene, deine> strength
<cróeb, cráeb> branch; tree, bush <derg> red
<cruth> form, appearance <desel, deisel> right-hand side
<Crúachu, Crúachain> Cruachain <dess> right, south of
<cuing> yoke, chain <dé, día> god
<cuingid, cuindchid> seeking, requesting <déis> vassal
<Cuirithir mac Doborchon> Cuirithir son <diaN> when; if
of Doborchu <dias> two people, pair, couple
<cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast, entertainment <-did> is
<culgaire> noise, rumble of a chariot <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then
<curach> coracle, skiff, boat <diL, deL> from, of
<Curithir, Cuirithir> Cuirithir <dixit> said
<Cú> Hound <díanechtair> from outside
<Cú Chulainn> Hound of Culann <díden> end
<Cúailnge> Cuailnge <dír> proper, fit, necessary
<cúairt> circle; tour, journey <díthaigid> destroys
<cúal> faggot <dlúm> mass, density
H
<da > she <do°adbat> shows
<daig> flame, fire; pang <do°aitni> shines, is refulgent
<daingne> firmness <do°beir> brings
<dairid> bulls <dochell> niggardliness, inhospitality
<dano, dono> again, now, then <do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up
<dartaid> heifer, bull calf <do°gní> does; makes
<dath> colour; hue, tint <do°guid> entreats, asks pardon
L
<dat > you <do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches; gets;
<Dáire mac Fiachnai> Daire son of comes
Fiachnae <doích> likely
<dál> meeting, encounter <doL, tL> your
<Dál Araide> the district of Arad <do°léici> yields
L L N
<dá , dí , dá > two <Dollud> distress, damage, havoc
<dán> craftsman, man of art <doltach> pernicious, hurtful
<dead, diad> end <dom, dam> house, home
<debuith> conflict <domL, dumL> I
<do°moinethar> thinks <éit> cattle
<donn> brown <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then
<dorche, dorchae> darkness <én> bird
<dorísi, dorís> again, once more <Ériu> Ireland
<do°roich> reaches <éscaid> alert, eager; swift
<dortuth, dórtad> pouring out; destruction <étach> clothing, garment
<do°scara> overthrows, ruins <étan, édan> front, brow, forehead
<do°sná> swims <fail> place, spot
<do°tét, do°téit> comes; goes <fairrge> sea
<dóe> arm <farrad> beside, along with
<dóer> unfree person <fáilte> joy, happiness
<druine> skill in craftmanship, manual <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic Esrú> Fea
dexterity son of Tortan of the son of Sru of the son
<dub> black of Esru
<duL, doL> to <feccaid> begins
<Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid <fecht> course, journey; time, occasion
<-e> who, which <fer> man
<ech> horse <feraid> grants, affords, supplies, gives;
performs; pours, sheds
<Echaid> Echaid
<fert> shaft, pole
<ecne, ecnae> wise
<Fertae Loíg> Laeg's tumulus
<Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand
<fégaid> looking at, scanning, observing
<ed-ón> that is
<féin, feissin> -self, own
<eirr, err> chariot-fighter, champion,
warrior <fér> grass
<Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha <fiadnaise> presence
<enach> bird-hunting, fowling <fiche> twenty
<escong> eel <find, finn> white, bright
<essH, asH, aH> out of, from <Findarcat> White Silver
<eter> between, among <fine> kin
<etercert> interpretation, discussion, <fír> true
judgement, decision <fír> truth; right; justice
<eter°certa> interprets; decides, <fírinne> truth
determines <flaith> rule; domain; ruler
<etercían> far, distant, remote <flann> blood red
<(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it <flathem, flaithem> ruler
<éccomlonn> unequal combat, unfair odds <foad, foid, foaid> sleeps together
<écen> necessity, compulsion <fo°ácaib> leaves
<éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet <fobaid> quick, prompt, active
<fo°cain> accompanies with song, sings <gairid> calls
to, chants <gaisced> weapons, armour; prowess
<fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws <gataid> takes away, removes; steals
<fo°cuirethar> puts, throws <gáu, gó> falsehood, false judgement
<fodén> self, himself; own <gel> fair, white, bright
<fogur> sound <gelid> grazes, devours
<foL> under <genn, geinn> wedge, block
<folam> empty, vain <géim> roaring (of cattle)
<foll, faill> neglect <gillae> servant, armed man
<fo°loing> supports, sustains <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey
<Fomorach> Fomorach <gnás> intercourse
<fonnat> wheel-rim <gnáth> usual, customary; known
<for> on, over <gním> action, work
<forbbaid> covering; shroud <gnóe> beauty
<fo°reith> runs under <gonaid> slays, kills, wounds
<forim> chase <grellach> bog, mire
<for°nesa> strikes, kicks, crushes <Grellach Culgairi> Bog of the Chariot-
<forníam> ornament, decoration rumble
<forrán> violence <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of Distress
<for°ruimi> sets, places; goes <gruth> curds, cheese
<for-t-gella> affirms, calls to witness, <iarn> iron
invokes <iat> they
<for°toing> swears, attests <idL> he
<foscath, foscad> shade, protection <idN, dN, -N> he
<fossad, fosad> plain surface <il> many, numerous
<fó> good <illei, ille> hither; since; moreover
<fóbair> begins, sets about <imbL, immL> around, about; mutually
<fóelid> happy <imdae> bed, couch
<fris°tibi> smiles on <imgabál, imgabáil> avoiding; evasion
<frithL, friH> against, towards <im(m)> butter
<fuiliche> bloodiness, bloodshed <immach> out of, out
<fúan> tunic <immáin> driving; roaming, wandering
<gabál, gabáil> taking, conquest about
<gabor> (white) horse, mare <im(m)da> many, abundant
<gabul, gabal> fork <im(m)°derga> reddens
<gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites <im(m)°dích> defends, protects
<gair> short; a short time <im(m)°dídnathar> protects, releases,
exempts
<in, aN, indL> the <loch> lake, firth; pool
<in, iN> in, into <lom(m)nán> abundance
N
<in, i > when <lorg> stick, shaft
<Inber Domnann> Rivermouth Domnann <lorg> trail, path, course
<ind> end <lottid> injures, spoils, destroys
<indis(s)id> tells <Lóeg> Laeg
<ingen> daughter <lóeg> calf
<inis> island <Lóegaire, Lóeguire> Loegaire
<in°lá> undertakes, arranges, adjusts <luith, luid> moves; flies
<inneltae> yoked, harnessed <luss, lus> herb, plant, vegetable
<in°snádi> defers, puts off <Luth Luamnach> the Fury of the Pilotage
<in°soí> turns, returns <lúaith> ashes
<is> is <Mac Con Glinne> Son of the Hound of
<í> this, these, those the Valley
<íarar, íarair> search <macc, mac> son
<íarmo> behind <macdacht> adult
<íarN, íarmL-> after <Mael Fothartaig> Mael Fothartaig
<íascach> fishing <mag> plain, field
<ícc> cure; solution <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith
<íriu> land, earth, soil <Mag Latharna> the Field of Lathairn
<Íth> Ith <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty
<laH> among, by, with <Mag nEthrige> the Field of Ethrag
<Laigni> Leinstermen, Leinsterwomen <maidid> breaks, bursts
<láaN, láN> day, daylight <maith> good
<lán> full, ample <mani> if not
<lár> floor, surface; middle <marb> dead
<lecc> rock, stone <marbad> killing, slaying
<lemnacht> new/fresh milk <marbaid> kills
<les> remedy; advantage <maróc> sausage
<les> yard <má, ma> if
<leth> side, direction <már, mór> big, great
<léibend, léibenn> level surface <máthir, máthair> mother
<léir> diligent <mecon, mecan> root
<linn> pool, lake, sea <men, min> powder, dust
<lí> beauty, lustre, glory; colour <mé> I
<Líadain> Liadain <méit> greatness, magnitude, size
<lín> full number; number <mind> crown, diadem, summit
<mí> month <Partholón> Partholon
<mír> morsel, mouthful, portion <ráidid> saying, uttering, speaking
L L
<m , mm > I <remi> ahead
<mochtide> great, mighty <reN> before
<moíth> gentle, tender <réid> smooth, even, level
<moL, mL> my <réidig> leveling, smoothing; clearing
<mórthimchell> great circuit (land)
<muinter> family; party, followers; <rig> fore-arm
retinue, company <rith> run, course
<nad> not <rían> course, route; sea, ocean
<naicc> no, not <ro°cluinethar> hears
<ná, na> not, nor <ro°fitir> knows
<ni> we <ro°laimethar> dares
<ní> something, anything <rond, ronn> chain, bond
<ní, ni> not <ro°saig> reaches
<nícon, nicon> not <Rónán> Ronan
<no> (introduces imperfect) <saigid> seeks, obtains
<no> ... <samaisc> heifer
<noí> nine <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way
<nó> or <(s)aN> that which, what
<oac, óc> young <scaraid> separates, parts
<oc> at, with, by <sceo> and
<ocaib> raises, exalts <scíath> shield, wing
<ocus> and <scolb> splinter, wattle
<oenar> one person, one alone <scuirid> unyokes
<oentu> unity, alliance, sexual union <se> this, these
<ol> says, said <se, sa> I
<olc> evil, wrong; misfortune <sech> past, beyond
<olchenae> besides <sechbaid> excess; error
<ord> arrangement <sechtair> outside
<ó> since <sechtN> seven
<Ó mac Úais> the grandson of the son of <sen> old
the Noble one <seom, som> he, it
<óen-> one, single <serc> love
L L
<ó , úa > from, by <sethnu, sethno> through, across
<ón> this, that <si> she
<ór> gold <sin> this, that, those, the aforementioned
<siu, so, su> you <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid
<síar> backwards, back <Táin Bó Cúailnge> Cattle-Raid of
<síd> fairy fort Cuailnge
<síth> long <teg, tech> house, dwelling
<síthbe> pole, shaft <teinnid, tennaid> cuts, cracks, breaks
<sligid> strikes, slays; clears <tene, teine> fire
<Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill <téit> goes
<Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill <tigbae> surviving
<slóg, slúag> troop, host, army <timm> soft, pliant; feeble
<sN, s> she <tír> earth, territory, land
<sN, s> they <tL> this
<snechtae, snechta> snow <tN> he
<snigid> pours down, flows, drops <tochomracht> distress, weariness,
vexation
<so> this, these
<toich> natural, proper
<sod, sad> bitch, wolf-bitch
<toíb> side
<soith> turns
<tongaid> swears, takes an oath
<soithcedach> prosperous, fortunate
<totL, tatL, tL> you
<sorche, sorchae> light, brightness
<tóeb> side
<sóer> free man
<tóth, túath> tribe, people
<sreth> strewing; arrangement
<trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, moreover
<subae> joy, pleasure, happiness
<tráth> period of time, (canonical) hour
<sude, suide> sitting
<trén> strong
<sude, suide> this one, the aforementioned
<triar> three people
<suíthe> wisdom, knowledge
<triL, treL> through
<sund> here
<trí, tri, teoir> three
<súil> eye
<trócaire> mercy
<tacre, tacrae> pleading, declaration,
dispute <tuga> thatch
<tafann> hunting, pursuing, expelling <tú> you
<tair> in front <túaithbel> left-hand side
<taithigid> frequents, practices <ucut> yonder
<talam> earth, ground <uile> all, whole
<tan, tain> time <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen
<tanach> pressed cheese <(h)ume, (h)umae> copper
<tar> across, over <ursa(n), ersa> door-post
<tarb> bull <úair, uair> since
Old Irish Online
English Meaning Index
Jonathan Slocum, Caren Esser, and Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel
This English Index lists, in alphabetical order, seemingly significant words used in the
"general meaning" glosses of Base Forms underlying one or more surface (word) forms in
lesson texts. For each English word, base forms having that word in their general meanings
are shown, along with links to every usage, in every numbered lesson, of the associated
surface forms. With this index, one may click on any link to perform a quick "usage look-up,"
and thereby study how surface forms in texts are constructed from base forms sharing a
general English meaning word. In order to reduce clutter in this index, certain high-frequency
English "function" words are ignored unless there are no "content" words in the meaning.
This index was created by software, not by human hand, using lesson materials authored with
very few constraints on the expression of "meaning" other than it being in English. Selecting
significant words from free-form text via software is a notoriously difficult task. For
example, while most meanings in these lessons are expressed as "glosses," some or parts may
be comments directed toward the human reader, who is expected to discern the difference.
Computer software cannot yet make such subtle linguistic distinctions, so all words in a
meaning are treated alike. With few exceptions, then, all words are indexed. The results are
neither produced nor presented with any claims to superior linguistic sensitivity, but at least
the full meaning texts are shown for your inspection and judgment. Modest effort was
invested in tuning the software to ignore [apparently] superfluous, high-frequency words
(e.g., the preposition "of") that, in the presence of [apparently] more important words,
contribute little or no useful information to an index; unfortunately this may result in some
words, in some contexts, being unfairly omitted.
ABLE: <con°icc> can, is able speaks to
ABOUT: <fóbair> begins, sets about ADJUSTS: <in°lá> undertakes, arranges,
L L
ABOUT: <imb , imm > around, about; adjusts
mutually ADULT: <macdacht> adult
ABOUT: <immáin> driving; roaming, ADVANTAGE: <boid, búaid> victory;
wandering about excellence, special quality; advantage
ABUNDANCE: <lom(m)nán> abundance ADVANTAGE: <les> remedy; advantage
ABUNDANT: <im(m)da> many, abundant AFFIRMS: <for-t-gella> affirms, calls to
ACCOMPANIES: <fo°cain> accompanies witness, invokes
with song, sings to, chants AFFLICTS: <cráidid> torments, vexes,
ACROSS: <sethnu, sethno> through, afflicts
across AFFORDS: <feraid> grants, affords,
ACROSS: <tar> across, over supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds
ACTION: <gním> action, work AFOREMENTIONED: <sin> this, that,
those, the aforementioned
ACTIVE: <fobaid> quick, prompt, active
AFOREMENTIONED: <sude, suide>
ADDRESSES: <ad°gládathar> addresses, this one, the aforementioned
AFTER: <íarN, íarmL-> after ARRANGEMENT: <ord> arrangement
AGAIN: <dano, dono> again, now, then ARRANGEMENT: <sreth> strewing;
AGAIN: <dorísi, dorís> again, once more arrangement
AGAINST: <frithL, friH> against, towards ARRANGES: <in°lá> undertakes,
arranges, adjusts
AGE: <bith> world; life; age, period
ART: <dán> craftsman, man of art
AHEAD: <remi> ahead
ARTEFACT: <aicde> artefact, article
ALE: <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast,
entertainment ARTICLE: <aicde> artefact, article
ALE-FEAST: <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast, ASHES: <lúaith> ashes
entertainment ASKS: <do°guid> entreats, asks pardon
ALERT: <éscaid> alert, eager; swift ATTESTS: <for°toing> swears, attests
ALL: <uile> all, whole AVOIDING: <imgabál, imgabáil>
ALLIANCE: <oentu> unity, alliance, avoiding; evasion
sexual union AWAY: <gataid> takes away, removes;
ALONE: <oenar> one person, one alone steals
ALONG: <farrad> beside, along with BACK: <aiss, ais> back, hinder part
ALTHOUGH: <cía> although, even if BACK: <síar> backwards, back
AMONG: <eter> between, among BACKWARDS: <síar> backwards, back
AMONG: <laH> among, by, with BARGAIN: <caingen> deal, bargain
AMPLE: <lán> full, ample BATTLE: <cath> battle, fight
ANCIENT: <bile> (ancient venerated) tree BEATS: <benaid> beats, strikes, slays,
wounds
AND: <ocus> and
BEAUTIFUL: <caín> fine, excellent,
AND: <sceo> and beautiful
ANOTHER: <attan, attain> another time BEAUTIFUL: <álaind> beautiful, lovely
ANY: <cach, cech> each, every, any BEAUTY: <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty
ANYTHING: <ní> something, anything BEAUTY: <gnóe> beauty
APPEARANCE: <cruth> form, BEAUTY: <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
appearance colour
APPROACHES: <do°icc, tic(c), tig> BED: <imdae> bed, couch
approaches; gets; comes
BEER: <cuirm> ale, beer; ale-feast,
ARAD: <Dál Araide> the district of Arad entertainment
ARM: <dóe> arm BEFORE: <anair> from the front, before
ARMED: <gillae> servant, armed man BEFORE: <arL, airL> before, for, in front
ARMOUR: <arm, armm> armour, weapon of, east of
ARMOUR: <gaisced> weapons, armour; BEFORE: <reN> before
prowess BEGINS: <feccaid> begins
ARMY: <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army BEGINS: <fóbair> begins, sets about
L L
AROUND: <imb , imm > around, about; BEHIND: <íarmo> behind
mutually
BELLY: <brú> belly, womb BREAKS: <maidid> breaks, bursts
BENCH: <aride, airide> bench BREAKS: <teinnid, tennaid> cuts, cracks,
BESIDE: <farrad> beside, along with breaks
BESIDES: <chena> besides BREGA: <Brega> Brega
BESIDES: <olchenae> besides BRICRIU: <Bricriu> Bricriu
BETWEEN: <eter> between, among BRIGHT: <find, finn> white, bright
BEYOND: <sech> past, beyond BRIGHT: <gel> fair, white, bright
BIG: <már, mór> big, great BRIGHTNESS: <sorche, sorchae> light,
brightness
BIR: <Bir> Bir
BRILLIANT: <án> splendid, brilliant;
BIRD: <én> bird splendour
BIRD-HUNTING: <enach> bird-hunting, BRINGS: <berid> carries, brings
fowling
BRINGS: <do°beir> brings
BITCH: <sod, sad> bitch, wolf-bitch
BROTHER: <bráthir, bráthair> brother
BLACK: <dub> black
BROW: <brú, brá> eyebrow, brow
BLOCK: <genn, geinn> wedge, block
BROW: <étan, édan> front, brow, forehead
BLOOD: <flann> blood red
BROWN: <donn> brown
BLOODINESS: <fuiliche> bloodiness,
bloodshed BULL: <dartaid> heifer, bull calf
BLOODSHED: <fuiliche> bloodiness, BULL: <tarb> bull
bloodshed BULLS: <dairid> bulls
BLOOM: <bláth> flower, blossom; bloom BURSTS: <maidid> breaks, bursts
BLOSSOM: <bláth> flower, blossom; BUSH: <cróeb, cráeb> branch; tree, bush
bloom BUT: <acht> except, only, save, but
BLUE: <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey BUTTER: <brechtán> butter, fat, relish
BOAT: <curach> coracle, skiff, boat BUTTER: <im(m)> butter
BOG: <grellach> bog, mire BY: <laH> among, by, with
BOG: <Grellach Culgairi> Bog of the BY: <oc> at, with, by
Chariot-rumble
BY: <óL, úaL> from, by
BOG: <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of Distress
CALF: <dartaid> heifer, bull calf
BOILING: <berbad> boiling, cooking
CALF: <lóeg> calf
BOND: <rond, ronn> chain, bond
CALLS: <con°gair> calls together
BOUNDARY: <crích> boundary, territory
CALLS: <for-t-gella> affirms, calls to
BRANCH: <cróeb, cráeb> branch; tree, witness, invokes
bush
CALLS: <gairid> calls
BREAKS: <bongid> breaks
CAMUS: <Camus> Camus
BREAKS: <brissid> breaks, destroys;
defeats CAN: <con°icc> can, is able
BREAKS: <con°boing> breaks; defeats; CANONICAL: <tráth> period of time,
violates (canonical) hour
CARRIES : <berid> carries, brings CLEARS: <sligid> strikes, slays; clears
CATHAL: <Cathal> Cathal CLOAK: <bratt> cloak, mantle
CATTLE: <géim> roaring (of cattle) CLOISTER: <Cell Letrech> Cloister
CATTLE: <éit> cattle Letrech
CATTLE-RAID: <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid CLOISTER: <cell> cloister, monastic
settlement
CATTLE-RAID: <Táin Bó Cúailnge>
Cattle-Raid of Cuailnge CLOTH: <bréit> strip; cloth; shred
CHAIN: <cuing> yoke, chain CLOTHING: <étach> clothing, garment
CHAIN: <rond, ronn> chain, bond CLOUD: <Arcatnél> Silver Cloud
CHAMPION: <eirr, err> chariot-fighter, COGNOMEN: <comainm> name,
champion, warrior cognomen
CHAMPION: <ánrad> hero, warrior, COHABITATION: <cardess, cairdes>
champion friendship, love, cohabitation
CHANCES: <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts; COLLISION: <comrac> encounter;
happens, chances combat; collision; sexual relation
CHANTS: <fo°cain> accompanies with COLOUR: <dath> colour; hue, tint
song, sings to, chants COLOUR: <lí> beauty, lustre, glory;
CHARIOT: <culgaire> noise, rumble of a colour
chariot COMBAT: <comrac> encounter; combat;
CHARIOT-FIGHTER: <eirr, err> collision; sexual relation
chariot-fighter, champion, warrior COMBAT: <éccomlonn> unequal combat,
CHARIOT-RUMBLE: <Grellach unfair odds
Culgairi> Bog of the Chariot-rumble COMES: <do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches;
CHARIOTEER: <are, arae, ara> gets; comes
charioteer COMES: <do°tét, do°téit> comes; goes
CHASE: <forim> chase COMPANION: <coicéle, coicéile>
CHEESE: <gruth> curds, cheese companion, friend; friendship
CHEESE: <tanach> pressed cheese COMPANY: <coimthecht> company
CICHOL: <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil COMPANY: <muinter> family; party,
meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir> followers; retinue, company
Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the COMPETES: <con°sní> contends,
son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor competes
CICHOL: <Cicul Gricen-choss> Cichol COMPULSION: <écen> necessity,
Clapperleg compulsion
CICHOL: <Cicul, Cichul, Ciccul> Cichol CONALL: <Conall> Conall
CIRCLE: <cúairt> circle; tour, journey CONCEALS: <celid> conceals, hides
CIRCUIT: <mórthimchell> great circuit CONCHOBAR: <Conchubur,
CLAPPERLEG: <Cicul Gricen-choss> Conchobar> Conchobar
Cichol Clapperleg CONFLICT: <debuith> conflict
CLEARING: <réidig> leveling, CONGAL: <Congal> Congal
smoothing; clearing (land) CONNACHT: <Connacht> Connacht
CONNACHT: <Connacht> inhabitant of CURE: <ícc> cure; solution
Connacht CUSTOM: <bés> custom, habit
CONQUEST: <gabál, gabáil> taking, CUSTOMARY: <gnáth> usual,
conquest customary; known
CONTENDS: <con°sní> contends, CUTS: <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts;
competes happens, chances
COOKING: <berbad> boiling, cooking CUTS: <teinnid, tennaid> cuts, cracks,
COPPER: <(h)ume, (h)umae> copper breaks
CORACLE: <curach> coracle, skiff, boat DAIRE: <Dáire mac Fiachnai> Daire son
CORKAGUINEY: <Corco Duibne> of Fiachnae
Corkaguiney DAMAGE: <Dollud> distress, damage,
COUCH: <imdae> bed, couch havoc
COUPLE: <dias> two people, pair, couple DAMAGING: <collud> damaging,
destroying
COURSE: <fecht> course, journey; time,
occasion DARES: <ro°laimethar> dares
COURSE: <lorg> trail, path, course DARKNESS: <dorche, dorchae> darkness
COURSE: <rith> run, course DART: <cleittíne> javelin, dart
COURSE: <rían> course, route; sea, ocean DAUGHTER: <ingen> daughter
COVERING: <forbbaid> covering; shroud DAY: <láaN, láN> day, daylight
COW: <bó> cow, ox DAYLIGHT: <láaN, láN> day, daylight
CRACKS: <teinnid, tennaid> cuts, cracks, DEAD: <marb> dead
breaks DEAL: <caingen> deal, bargain
CRAFTMANSHIP: <druine> skill in DEATH: <bás> death
craftmanship, manual dexterity DECIDES: <eter°certa> interprets;
CRAFTSMAN: <dán> craftsman, man of decides, determines
art DECISION: <etercert> interpretation,
CROWN: <mind> crown, diadem, summit discussion, judgement, decision
CRUACHAIN: <Crúachu, Crúachain> DECLARATION: <tacre, tacrae>
Cruachain pleading, declaration, dispute
CRUSHES: <for°nesa> strikes, kicks, DECORATION: <forníam> ornament,
crushes decoration
CUAILNGE: <Cúailnge> Cuailnge DEFEATS: <brissid> breaks, destroys;
CUAILNGE: <Táin Bó Cúailnge> Cattle- defeats
Raid of Cuailnge DEFEATS: <con°boing> breaks; defeats;
CUIRITHIR: <Cuirithir mac Doborchon> violates
Cuirithir son of Doborchu DEFENDS: <im(m)°dích> defends,
CUIRITHIR: <Curithir, Cuirithir> protects
Cuirithir DEFERS: <in°snádi> defers, puts off
CULANN: <Cú Chulainn> Hound of DEICHTIRE: <Deichtire, Deichtine>
Culann Deichtire
CURDS: <gruth> curds, cheese DENSITY: <dlúm> mass, density
DESCENT: <cenél> race, tribe; descent DOMNANN: <Inber Domnann>
DESIRE: <áil> desire Rivermouth Domnann
DESTROYING: <collud> damaging, DOOMSDAY: <bráth> Doomsday
destroying DOOR-POST: <ursa(n), ersa> door-post
DESTROYS: <brissid> breaks, destroys; DOWN: <snigid> pours down, flows,
defeats drops
DESTROYS: <díthaigid> destroys DREAM: <aislinge> vision, dream
DESTROYS: <lottid> injures, spoils, DRIVING: <immáin> driving; roaming,
destroys wandering about
DESTRUCTION: <dortuth, dórtad> DROPS: <snigid> pours down, flows,
pouring out; destruction drops
DETERMINES: <eter°certa> interprets; DUST: <men, min> powder, dust
decides, determines DWELLING: <teg, tech> house, dwelling
DEVOURS: <gelid> grazes, devours DYKE: <clad> ditch, dyke
DEXTERITY: <druine> skill in EACH: <cach, cech> each, every, any
craftsmanship, manual dexterity
EAGER: <éscaid> alert, eager; swift
DIADEM: <mind> crown, diadem,
summit EAR: <áu> ear
DIES: <at°baill> dies EARTH: <talam> earth, ground
DILIGENT: <léir> diligent EARTH: <tír> earth, territory, land
DIRECTION: <leth> side, direction EARTH: <íriu> land, earth, soil
DISCUSSION: <etercert> interpretation, EAST: <arL, airL> before, for, in front of,
discussion, judgement, decision east of
DISPUTE: <tacre, tacrae> pleading, ECHAID: <Echaid> Echaid
declaration, dispute EDMAND: <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand
DISTANT: <etercían> far, distant, remote EDMONN: <Edmann> Edmonn, Edmand
DISTRESS: <Dollud> distress, damage, EEL: <escong> eel
havoc
EMAIN: <Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha
DISTRESS: <Grellach Dolluid> Bog of
EMOIR: <Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill
Distress
EMPTY: <folam> empty, vain
DISTRESS: <tochomracht> distress,
weariness, vexation ENCLOSURE: <airlise> forecourt,
enclosure
DISTRICT: <Dál Araide> the district of
Arad ENCOUNTER: <comrac> encounter;
combat; collision; sexual relation
DISTRICT: <brug, bruig> region, district
ENCOUNTER: <dál> meeting, encounter
DITCH: <clad> ditch, dyke
ENCOUNTERS: <con°ricc> meets,
DITCH: <clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit
encounters
DOBORCHU: <Cuirithir mac
END: <cenn> head, front; end
Doborchon> Cuirithir son of Doborchu
END: <dead, diad> end
DOES: <do°gní> does; makes
END: <díden> end
DOMAIN: <flaith> rule; domain; ruler
END: <ind> end EYEBROW: <brú, brá> eyebrow, brow
ENTERTAINMENT: <cuirm> ale, beer; FACE: <bél> lip; mouth, face
ale-feast, entertainment FAGGOT: <cúal> faggot
ENTREATS: <do°guid> entreats, asks FAIR: <gel> fair, white, bright
pardon
FAIRY: <síd> fairy fort
ERROR: <sechbaid> excess; error
FALSE: <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
ESRU: <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic judgement
Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru
of the son of Esru FALSEHOOD: <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
judgement
ESTIMATES: <ad°midethar> estimates,
evaluates FAME: <cloth> fame, reputation
ETHRAG: <Mag nEthrige> the Field of FAMILY: <muinter> family; party,
Ethrag followers; retinue, company
EVALUATES: <ad°midethar> estimates, FAMOUS: <bladach> famous, renowned;
evaluates splendid
EVASION: <imgabál, imgabáil> avoiding; FAR: <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till
evasion FAR: <etercían> far, distant, remote
EVEN: <cía> although, even if FAT: <blonac> fat, lard, grease
EVEN: <réid> smooth, even, level FAT: <brechtán> butter, fat, relish
EVERY: <cach, cech> each, every, any FATHER: <athir, athair> father
EVERYBODY: <cách> everybody, FEA: <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic
everyone Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru
EVERYONE: <cách> everybody, of the son of Esru
everyone FEAT: <cless> feat, skill
EVIL: <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune FEEBLE: <timm> soft, pliant; feeble
EXALTS: <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly FENCE: <airbe> hedge, fence
exalts
FIACHNAE: <Dáire mac Fiachnai> Daire
EXALTS: <ocaib> raises, exalts son of Fiachnae
EXCELLENCE: <boid, búaid> victory; FIELD: <Mag Latharna> the Field of
excellence, special quality; advantage Lathairn
EXCELLENT: <caín> fine, excellent, FIELD: <Mag Lí> the Field of Beauty
beautiful
FIELD: <Mag nEthrige> the Field of
EXCEPT: <acht> except, only, save, but Ethrag
EXCESS: <sechbaid> excess; error FIELD: <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith
EXCITES: <con°saídi> stirs up, excites FIELD: <mag> plain, field
EXEMPTS: <im(m)°dídnathar> protects, FIFTY: <coíca> fifty
releases, exempts
FIGHT: <cath> battle, fight
EXISTENCE: <bethu> life, existence
FINE: <caín> fine, excellent, beautiful
EXPELLING: <tafann> hunting,
FIRE: <daig> flame, fire; pang
pursuing, expelling
FIRE: <tene, teine> fire
EYE: <súil> eye
FIRMNESS: <daingne> firmness part
FIRST: <cét> first; fresh, new FOWLING: <enach> bird-hunting,
FIRSTLY: <cétamus> firstly fowling
FIRTH: <loch> lake, firth; pool FREE : <sóer> free man
FISHING: <íascach> fishing FREQUENTS: <taithigid> frequents,
practices
FIT: <dír> proper, fit, necessary
FRESH: <cét> first; fresh, new
FLAME: <daig> flame, fire; pang
FRESH: <lemnacht> new/fresh milk
FLIES: <luith, luid> moves; flies
FRIEND: <carae> friend
FLOOR: <lár> floor, surface; middle
FRIEND: <coicéle, coicéile> companion,
FLOWER: <bláth> flower, blossom; friend; friendship
bloom
FRIENDSHIP: <cardess, cairdes>
FLOWS: <snigid> pours down, flows, friendship, love, cohabitation
drops
FRIENDSHIP: <coicéle, coicéile>
FOLLOWERS: <muinter> family; party, companion, friend; friendship
followers; retinue, company
FROM: <diL, deL> from, of
FOMORACH: <Fomorach> Fomorach
FROM: <essH, asH, aH> out of, from
FOOD: <biad> food
FRONT: <anair> from the front, before
FOOT: <coss, cos> foot, leg
FRONT: <arL, airL> before, for, in front of,
FOR: <air, ar> for east of
FORD: <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford of the Two FRONT: <cenn> head, front; end
Mounds
FRONT: <comair> in front of
FORD: <áth> ford
FRONT: <tair> in front
FORE-ARM: <rig> fore-arm
FRONT: <étan, édan> front, brow,
FORECOURT: <airlise> forecourt, forehead
enclosure
FULL: <lán> full, ample
FOREHEAD: <étan, édan> front, brow,
forehead FULL: <lín> full number; number
FOREIGN: <allmar> foreign FURROW: <clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit
FOREST: <caill> wood, forest FURY: <Luth Luamnach> the Fury of the
Pilotage
FORK: <gabul, gabal> fork
GARB: <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic
FORM: <cruth> form, appearance Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir>
FORT: <Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the
son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor
FORT: <síd> fairy fort
GARMENT : <étach> clothing, garment
FORTUNATE: <soithcedach> prosperous,
fortunate GENTLE : <moíth> gentle, tender
FOTHARTAIG: <Mael Fothartaig> Mael GETS: <do°icc, tic(c), tig> approaches;
Fothartaig gets; comes
FOUR: <ceth(a)ir, cethéoir> four GIVES: <feraid> grants, affords, supplies,
gives; performs; pours, sheds
FOURTH: <cethraimthe> quarter, fourth
GLORY: <lí> beauty, lustre, glory; colour HARMONIOUS: <co(i)cetal> harmonious
GO: <cor> putting; throwing; letting go music
GOD: <dé, día> god HARNESSED: <inneltae> yoked,
harnessed
GOES : <do°tét, do°téit> comes; goes
HAVOC: <Dollud> distress, damage,
GOES : <for°ruimi> sets, places; goes havoc
GOES: <téit> goes HAZEL-TREE: <coll> hazel-tree
GOLD: <ór> gold HE: <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
GOLL: <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic HE: <aN> he
Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir>
Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the HE: <idL> he
son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor HE: <idN, dN, -N> he
GOOD: <fó> good HE: <seom, som> he, it
GOOD: <maith> good HE: <tN> he
GRANDSON: <Ó mac Úais> the grandson HEAD: <cenn> head, front; end
of the son of the Noble one HEARS: <at°chluin> hears
GRANTS: <feraid> grants, affords, HEARS: <ro°cluinethar> hears
supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds
HEART: <cride> heart
GRASS: <fér> grass
HEDGE: <airbe> hedge, fence
GRAZES: <gelid> grazes, devours
HEIFER: <dartaid> heifer, bull calf
GREASE: <blonac> fat, lard, grease
HEIFER: <samaisc> heifer
GREAT: <mochtide> great, mighty
HER: <aH> her
GREAT: <már, mór> big, great
HERB: <luss, lus> herb, plant, vegetable
GREAT: <mórthimchell> great circuit
HERE: <sund> here
GREATNESS: <méit> greatness,
magnitude, size HERO: <ánrad> hero, warrior, champion
GREENISH: <glass, glas> greenish, blue, HIDES: <celid> conceals, hides
grey HILL: <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill
GREY: <glass, glas> greenish, blue, grey HILL: <Slíab Émóir> Emoir Hill
GROUND: <talam> earth, ground HIMSELF: <fodén> self, himself; own
GUMOR: <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil HINDER: <aiss, ais> back, hinder part
meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir>
HIS: <aL> his, its
Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the
son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor HITHER: <illei, ille> hither; since;
moreover
HABIT: <bés> custom, habit
HOLDING: <congbál> occupation,
HAPPENS: <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts;
holding
happens, chances
HOME: <dom, dam> house, home
HAPPINESS: <fáilte> joy, happiness
HORSE: <ech> horse
HAPPINESS: <subae> joy, pleasure,
happiness HORSE: <gabor> (white) horse, mare
HAPPY: <fóelid> happy HOST: <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army
HOUND: <Cú> Hound INTERVAL: <aret, airet> length, interval,
HOUND: <Cú Chulainn> Hound of space (of time)
Culann INTO: <in, iN> in, into
HOUND: <Mac Con Glinne> Son of the INTRODUCES: <no> (introduces
Hound of the Valley imperfect)
HOUR: <tráth> period of time, (canonical) INVOKES: <for-t-gella> affirms, calls to
hour witness, invokes
HOUSE: <dom, dam> house, home IRELAND: <Ériu> Ireland
HOUSE: <teg, tech> house, dwelling IRON: <iarn> iron
HOW: <cinnas> how IS: <-did> is
HUE: <dath> colour; hue, tint IS: <attá> is
HUNDRED: <cétN> hundred IS: <is> is
HUNTING: <tafann> hunting, pursuing, ISLAND: <inis> island
expelling IT: <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
HURTFUL: <doltach> pernicious, hurtful IT: <aL> it
IF: <acht> if only, provided that IT: <seom, som> he, it
IF: <cía> although, even if ITH: <Mag Ítha> the Field of Ith
IF: <diaN> when; if ITH: <Íth> Ith
IF: <mani> if not ITS: <aL> his, its
IF: <má, ma> if JAVELIN: <cleittíne> javelin, dart
IMPERFECT: <no> (introduces JOURNEY: <cúairt> circle; tour, journey
imperfect)
JOURNEY: <fecht> course, journey; time,
IMRID: <Dún Imrid> Fort Imrid occasion
INDEED: <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, JOY: <fáilte> joy, happiness
moreover
JOY: <subae> joy, pleasure, happiness
INDEED: <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then
JUDGEMENT: <breth> passing
INHABITANT: <Connacht> inhabitant of judgement, interpreting
Connacht
JUDGEMENT: <etercert> interpretation,
INHOSPITALITY: <dochell> discussion, judgement, decision
niggardliness, inhospitality
JUDGEMENT: <gáu, gó> falsehood, false
INJURES: <lottid> injures, spoils, judgement
destroys
JUDGMENT: <bráth> judgment
INTERCOURSE: <gnás> intercourse
JUSTICE: <fír> truth; right; justice
INTERPRETATION: <etercert>
interpretation, discussion, judgement, KEEPS: <con°oí> keeps, preserves
decision KICKS: <for°nesa> strikes, kicks, crushes
INTERPRETING: <breth> passing KILLING: <marbad> killing, slaying
judgement, interpreting
KILLS: <gonaid> slays, kills, wounds
INTERPRETS: <eter°certa> interprets;
KILLS: <marbaid> kills
decides, determines
KIN: <fine> kin
KNOWLEDGE: <suíthe> wisdom, brightness
knowledge LIKELY: <doích> likely
KNOWN: <gnáth> usual, customary; LIP : <bél> lip; mouth, face
known
LOEGAIRE: <Lóegaire, Lóeguire>
KNOWS: <ro°fitir> knows Loegaire
LAEG: <Fertae Loíg> Laeg's tumulus LONG: <cían> long time; period
LAEG: <Lóeg> Laeg LONG: <síth> long
LAKE: <linn> pool, lake, sea LOOKING: <fégaid> looking at,
LAKE: <loch> lake, firth; pool scanning, observing
LAND: <réidig> leveling, smoothing; LOOKS: <de°éci, do°écai> looks
clearing (land) LOUD: <deilm> loud, rumbling noise
LAND : <tír> earth, territory, land LOVE: <cardess, cairdes> friendship, love,
LAND: <íriu> land, earth, soil cohabitation
LARD: <blonac> fat, lard, grease LOVE: <serc> love
LAST: <araír> last night LOVELY: <álaind> beautiful, lovely
LATHAIRN: <Mag Latharna> the Field of LOVES: <caraid> loves
Lathairn LUSTRE: <lí> beauty, lustre, glory; colour
LEAP: <bedg> start, leap MACHA: <Emain, Emuin> Emain Macha
LEAVES: <fo°ácaib> leaves MAEL: <Mael Fothartaig> Mael
LEFT: <clé> left Fothartaig
LEFT-HAND: <túaithbel> left-hand side MAGNITUDE: <méit> greatness,
LEG: <coss, cos> foot, leg magnitude, size
LEINSTERMEN: <Laigni> Leinstermen, MAKES: <do°gní> does; makes
Leinsterwomen MAN: <dán> craftsman, man of art
LEINSTERWOMEN: <Laigni> MAN: <fer> man
Leinstermen, Leinsterwomen MAN: <gillae> servant, armed man
LENGTH: <aret, airet> length, interval, MAN: <sóer> free man
space (of time)
MANTLE: <bratt> cloak, mantle
LETRECH: <Cell Letrech> Cloister
Letrech MANUAL: <druine> skill in
craftsmanship, manual dexterity
LETTING: <cor> putting; throwing;
letting go MANY: <il> many, numerous
LEVEL: <léibend, léibenn> level surface MANY: <im(m)da> many, abundant
LEVEL: <réid> smooth, even, level MARE: <gabor> (white) horse, mare
LEVELING: <réidig> leveling, MASS: <dlúm> mass, density
smoothing; clearing (land) MEETING: <dál> meeting, encounter
LIADAIN: <Líadain> Liadain MEETS: <con°ricc> meets, encounters
LIFE: <bethu> life, existence MERCY: <trócaire> mercy
LIFE: <bith> world; life; age, period MESSAGE: <aithesc> message
LIGHT: <sorche, sorchae> light,
MIDDLE: <lár> floor, surface; middle NIGGARDLINESS: <dochell>
MIGHTY: <mochtide> great, mighty niggardliness, inhospitality
MILK: <lemnacht> new/fresh milk NIGHT: <adaig> night
MIRE: <grellach> bog, mire NIGHT: <araír> last night
MISFORTUNE: <olc> evil, wrong; NINE: <noí> nine
misfortune NO: <naicc> no, not
MONASTIC: <cell> cloister, monastic NOBLE: <Ó mac Úais> the grandson of
settlement the son of the Noble one
MONTH: <mí> month NOISE: <culgaire> noise, rumble of a
MORE: <dorísi, dorís> again, once more chariot
MOREOVER: <illei, ille> hither; since; NOISE: <deilm> loud, rumbling noise
moreover NON: <an-> non-
MOREOVER: <trá, tra> then, well, so, NOR: <ná, na> not, nor
indeed, moreover NORTH: <antúaid> from the north
MORSEL: <mír> morsel, mouthful, NORTH-WEST: <aníarthúaid> from the
portion north-west, in the north-west
MOTHER: <máthir, máthair> mother NOT: <mani> if not
MOUNDS: <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford of the NOT: <nad> not
Two Mounds
NOT: <naicc> no, not
MOUTH: <bél> lip; mouth, face
NOT: <ná, na> not, nor
MOUTHFUL: <mír> morsel, mouthful,
portion NOT: <ní, ni> not
MOVES: <luith, luid> moves; flies NOT: <nícon, nicon> not
MUSIC: <co(i)cetal> harmonious music NOW: <dano, dono> again, now, then
MUSIC: <céol> music NOW: <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then
MUTUALLY: <imbL, immL> around, NUMBER: <lín> full number; number
about; mutually NUMEROUS: <il> many, numerous
L L
MY: <mo , m > my OAF: <borb> oaf
NAME: <ainm> name OATH: <tongaid> swears, takes an oath
NAME: <comainm> name, cognomen OBSERVES: <*ar°éci> observes
NATURAL: <toich> natural, proper OBSERVING: <fégaid> looking at,
NECESSARY: <dír> proper, fit, necessary scanning, observing
NECESSITY: <aidilcne> necessity, need OBTAINS: <saigid> seeks, obtains
NECESSITY: <écen> necessity, OBVIOUS: <airdirc> obvious; renowned
compulsion OCCASION: <fecht> course, journey;
NEED: <aidilcne> necessity, need time, occasion
NEGLECT: <foll, faill> neglect OCCUPATION: <congbál> occupation,
holding
NEW: <cét> first; fresh, new
OCEAN: <bath> sea, ocean
NEW: <lemnacht> new/fresh milk
OCEAN: <rían> course, route; sea, ocean
ODDS: <éccomlonn> unequal combat, PART: <cethraimthe> quarter, fourth part
unfair odds PARTHOLON: <Partholón> Partholon
OF: <diL, deL> from, of PARTS: <scaraid> separates, parts
OF: <essH, asH, aH> out of, from PARTY: <muinter> family; party,
OF: <immach> out of, out followers; retinue, company
OFF: <in°snádi> defers, puts off PASSING: <breth> passing judgement,
OLD: <sen> old interpreting
ONCE: <dorísi, dorís> again, once more PAST: <sech> past, beyond
ONE: <oenar> one person, one alone PATH: <lorg> trail, path, course
ONE: <sude, suide> this one, the PEACE: <córe, córae> peace
aforementioned PEOPLE: <dias> two people, pair, couple
ONE: <Ó mac Úais> the grandson of the PEOPLE: <triar> three people
son of the Noble one PEOPLE: <tóth, túath> tribe, people
ONE: <óen-> one, single PERFORMS: <feraid> grants, affords,
ONLY: <acht> except, only, save, but supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds
ONLY: <acht> if only, provided that PERIOD: <aimser, amsir> time, period,
OR: <nó> or season
ORDER: <ar-aN> so that, in order that, PERIOD: <bith> world; life; age, period
that PERIOD: <cían> long time; period
ORNAMENT: <forníam> ornament, PERIOD: <tráth> period of time,
decoration (canonical) hour
OTHER: <aile> other PERNICIOUS: <doltach> pernicious,
N
OUR: <ar > our hurtful
OUT: <essH, asH, aH> out of, from PERSON: <dóer> unfree person
OUT: <immach> out of, out PERSON: <oenar> one person, one alone
OUTSIDE: <díanechtair> from outside PILGRIMAGE: <ailithre> pilgrimage
OUTSIDE: <sechtair> outside PILOTAGE: <Luth Luamnach> the Fury
of the Pilotage
OVER: <for> on, over
PIT: <clas, class> ditch, furrow; pit
OVER: <tar> across, over
PLACE: <fail> place, spot
OVERTHROWS: <do°scara> overthrows,
ruins PLACES: <for°ruimi> sets, places; goes
OWN: <fodén> self, himself; own PLAIN: <fossad, fosad> plain surface
OWN: <féin, feissin> -self, own PLAIN: <mag> plain, field
OX: <bó> cow, ox PLANT: <luss, lus> herb, plant, vegetable
PAIR: <dias> two people, pair, couple PLEADING: <tacre, tacrae> pleading,
declaration, dispute
PANG: <daig> flame, fire; pang
PLEASURE: <subae> joy, pleasure,
PARDON: <do°guid> entreats, asks happiness
pardon
PLEASURE: <áinius> pleasure
PART: <aiss, ais> back, hinder part
PLIANT: <timm> soft, pliant; feeble PURSUING: <tafann> hunting, pursuing,
POET: <éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet expelling
POLE: <fert> shaft, pole PUTS: <fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws
POLE: <síthbe> pole, shaft PUTS: <fo°cuirethar> puts, throws
POOL: <linn> pool, lake, sea PUTS: <in°snádi> defers, puts off
POOL: <loch> lake, firth; pool PUTTING: <cor> putting; throwing;
letting go
PORTION: <mír> morsel, mouthful,
portion QUALITY: <boid, búaid> victory;
POURING: <dortuth, dórtad> pouring out;
destruction QUANTITY: <anba> vast quantity
POURS: <feraid> grants, affords, supplies, QUARTER: <cethraimthe> quarter, fourth
gives; performs; pours, sheds part
POURS: <snigid> pours down, flows, QUICK: <fobaid> quick, prompt, active
drops RACE: <cenél> race, tribe; descent
POWDER: <men, min> powder, dust RAISES: <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly
PRACTICES: <clechtaid> practices exalts
PRACTICES: <taithigid> frequents, RAISES: <ocaib> raises, exalts
practices RAMPART: <caisel> stone wall, rampart
PRESENCE: <fiadnaise> presence REACHES: <do°roich> reaches
PRESERVES: <con°oí> keeps, preserves REACHES: <ro°saig> reaches
PRESSED: <tanach> pressed cheese RECITES: <gaibid> takes; proceeds;
PROCEEDS: <gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites
recites RED: <derg> red
PROMPT: <fobaid> quick, prompt, active RED: <flann> blood red
PROPER: <dír> proper, fit, necessary REDDENS: <im(m)°derga> reddens
PROPER: <toich> natural, proper REFUGE: <commairche> protection,
PROSPEROUS: <soithcedach> refuge
prosperous, fortunate REFULGENT: <do°aitni> shines, is
PROTECTION: <commairche> refulgent
protection, refuge REGION: <brug, bruig> region, district
PROTECTION: <foscath, foscad> shade, RELATES: <ad°fét> tells, relates
protection RELATION: <comrac> encounter;
PROTECTS: <aingid> protects combat; collision; sexual relation
PROTECTS: <im(m)°dích> defends, RELEASES: <im(m)°dídnathar> protects,
protects releases, exempts
PROTECTS: <im(m)°dídnathar> protects, RELISH: <brechtán> butter, fat, relish
releases, exempts REMEDY: <les> remedy; advantage
PROVIDED: <acht> if only, provided that REMOTE: <etercían> far, distant, remote
PROWESS: <gaisced> weapons, armour; REMOVES: <gataid> takes away,
prowess removes; steals
RENOWNED: <airdirc> obvious; SAYS: <as°beir> says, speaks
renowned SAYS: <ol> says, said
RENOWNED: <bladach> famous, SCANNING: <fégaid> looking at,
renowned; splendid scanning, observing
REPUTATION: <cloth> fame, reputation SCHOLAR: <éces, éices> scholar, sage,
REQUESTING: <cuingid, cuindchid> poet
seeking, requesting SEA: <bath> sea, ocean
RETINUE: <muinter> family; party, SEA: <fairrge> sea
followers; retinue, company
SEA: <linn> pool, lake, sea
RETURNS: <in°soí> turns, returns
SEA: <rían> course, route; sea, ocean
RIGHT: <dess> right, south of
SEARCH: <íarar, íarair> search
RIGHT: <fír> truth; right; justice
SEASON: <aimser, amsir> time, period,
RIGHT-HAND: <desel, deisel> right-hand season
side
SEEING: <aicsiu> seeing
RIVERMOUTH: <Inber Domnann>
Rivermouth Domnann SEEKING: <cuingid, cuindchid> seeking,
requesting
ROAMING: <immáin> driving; roaming,
wandering about SEEKS: <saigid> seeks, obtains
ROARING: <géim> roaring (of cattle) SEES: <ad°cí, at°chí> sees
ROCK: <lecc> rock, stone SELF: <fodén> self, himself; own
RONAN: <Rónán> Ronan SELF: <féin, feissin> -self, own
ROOT: <mecon, mecan> root SEPARATES: <scaraid> separates, parts
ROUTE: <rían> course, route; sea, ocean SERVANT: <gillae> servant, armed man
RUINS: <do°scara> overthrows, ruins SETS: <for°ruimi> sets, places; goes
RULE: <flaith> rule; domain; ruler SETS: <fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws
RULER: <flaith> rule; domain; ruler SETS: <fóbair> begins, sets about
RULER: <flathem, flaithem> ruler SETTLEMENT: <cell> cloister, monastic
settlement
RUMBLE: <culgaire> noise, rumble of a
chariot SEVEN: <sechtN> seven
RUMBLING: <deilm> loud, rumbling SEXUAL: <comrac> encounter; combat;
noise collision; sexual relation
RUN: <rith> run, course SEXUAL: <oentu> unity, alliance, sexual
union
RUNS: <fo°reith> runs under
SHADE: <foscath, foscad> shade,
SAGE: <éces, éices> scholar, sage, poet protection
SAID: <dixit> said SHAFT : <fert> shaft, pole
SAID: <ol> says, said SHAFT: <lorg> stick, shaft
SAUSAGE: <maróc> sausage SHAFT: <síthbe> pole, shaft
SAVE: <acht> except, only, save, but SHE: <(h)é, síL, (h)ed> he, she, it
SAYING: <ráidid> saying, uttering, SHE: <daH> she
speaking
SHE: <deH, den> she SLAYS: <sligid> strikes, slays; clears
SHE: <sN, s> she SLEEP: <cotlud> sleeping, sleep
SHE: <si> she SLEEPING: <cotlud> sleeping, sleep
SHEDS: <feraid> grants, affords, supplies, SLEEPS: <con°tuili> sleeps
gives; performs; pours, sheds SLEEPS: <foad, foid, foaid> sleeps
SHIELD: <scíath> shield, wing together
SHINES: <do°aitni> shines, is refulgent SMILES: <fris°tibi> smiles on
SHINY: <bán> white, shiny SMOOTH: <réid> smooth, even, level
SHORT: <gair> short; a short time SMOOTHING: <réidig> leveling,
SHOWS : <do°adbat> shows smoothing; clearing (land)
SHRED : <bréit> strip; cloth; shred SNOW: <snechtae, snechta> snow
SHROUD : <forbbaid> covering; shroud SO: <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that way,
so, then
SIDE : <desel, deisel> right-hand side
SO: <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that
SIDE: <leth> side, direction
SO: <con, coN> until; so that; and
SIDE: <toíb> side
SO: <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this way
SIDE: <tóeb> side
SO: <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed,
SIDE: <túaithbel> left-hand side moreover
SILVER: <Arcatnél> Silver Cloud SOFT: <boca> soft
SILVER: <Findarcat> White Silver SOFT: <timm> soft, pliant; feeble
SILVER: <arcat, argat> silver SOIL: <íriu> land, earth, soil
SINCE: <illei, ille> hither; since; SOLUTION: <ícc> cure; solution
moreover
SOMETHING: <ní> something, anything
SINCE: <ó> since
SON: <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil meic
SINCE: <úair, uair> since Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir>
SINGING: <amar> singing, song Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the
son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor
SINGLE: <óen-> one, single
SON: <Cuirithir mac Doborchon> Cuirithir
SINGS: <fo°cain> accompanies with song,
son of Doborchu
sings to, chants
SON: <Dáire mac Fiachnai> Daire son of
SITTING: <sude, suide> sitting
Fiachnae
SIZE: <méit> greatness, magnitude, size
SON: <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic
SKIFF: <curach> coracle, skiff, boat Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru
SKILL: <cless> feat, skill of the son of Esru
SKILL: <druine> skill in craftmanship, SON: <Mac Con Glinne> Son of the
manual dexterity Hound of the Valley
SLAYING: <marbad> killing, slaying SON: <macc, mac> son
SLAYS: <benaid> beats, strikes, slays, SON: <Ó mac Úais> the grandson of the
wounds son of the Noble one
SLAYS : <gonaid> slays, kills, wounds SONG: <amar> singing, song
SONG: <fo°cain> accompanies with song, STRIKES: <for°nesa> strikes, kicks,
sings to, chants crushes
SORROW: <brón> sorrow STRIKES: <sligid> strikes, slays; clears
SOUND: <fogur> sound STRIP: <bréit> strip; cloth; shred
SOUTH: <dess> right, south of STRONG: <trén> strong
SPACE: <aret, airet> length, interval, SUMMIT: <mind> crown, diadem,
space (of time) summit
SPEAKING: <ráidid> saying, uttering, SUPPLIES: <feraid> grants, affords,
speaking supplies, gives; performs; pours, sheds
SPEAKS: <ad°gládathar> addresses, SUPPORTS: <fo°loing> supports, sustains
speaks to SURFACE: <fossad, fosad> plain surface
SPEAKS: <as°beir> says, speaks SURFACE: <lár> floor, surface; middle
SPECIAL: <boid, búaid> victory; SURFACE: <léibend, léibenn> level
excellence, special quality; advantage surface
SPLENDID: <bladach> famous, SURVIVING: <tigbae> surviving
renowned; splendid
SUSTAINS: <fo°loing> supports, sustains
SPLENDID: <án> splendid, brilliant;
splendour SWEARS: <for°toing> swears, attests
SPLENDOUR: <án> splendid, brilliant; SWEARS: <tongaid> swears, takes an
splendour oath
SPLINTER: <scolb> splinter, wattle SWIFT: <éscaid> alert, eager; swift
SPOILS: <lottid> injures, spoils, destroys SWIMS: <do°sná> swims
SPOT: <fail> place, spot TAIN: <Táin> Tain, cattle-raid
SRU: <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic TAKES: <gaibid> takes; proceeds; recites
Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru TAKES: <gataid> takes away, removes;
of the son of Esru steals
START: <bedg> start, leap TAKES: <tongaid> swears, takes an oath
STEALS: <gataid> takes away, removes; TAKING: <gabál, gabáil> taking,
steals conquest
STICK: <lorg> stick, shaft TELLS : <ad°fét> tells, relates
STIRS: <con°saídi> stirs up, excites TELLS: <indis(s)id> tells
STONE: <caisel> stone wall, rampart TENDER: <moíth> gentle, tender
STONE: <lecc> rock, stone TERRITORY: <crích> boundary, territory
STRENGTH: <bríg> strength, value TERRITORY: <tír> earth, territory, land
STRENGTH: <dene, deine> strength THAT: <(s)aN> that which, what
STREWING: <sreth> strewing; THAT: <-aN, -saN> that which, what
arrangement
THAT: <acht> if only, provided that
STRIKES : <ad°cumaing> strikes, cuts;
THAT: <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that
happens, chances
way, so, then
STRIKES : <benaid> beats, strikes, slays,
THAT: <anL> what, that what
wounds
THAT: <anní> this, that aforementioned
THAT: <ar-aN> so that, in order that, that THOSE: <í> this, these, those
N
THAT: <con, co > until; so that; and THREAT: <bág> threat
THAT: <ed-ón> that is THREE: <triar> three people
THAT: <sin> this, that, those, the THREE: <trí, tri, teoir> three
aforementioned THROUGH: <sethnu, sethno> through,
THAT: <ón> this, that across
THATCH: <tuga> thatch THROUGH: <triL, treL> through
THE: <in, aN, indL> the THROWING: <cor> putting; throwing;
N
THEIR: <a > their letting go
THEN: <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that THROWS: <fo°ceird> sets, puts; throws
way, so, then THROWS: <fo°cuirethar> puts, throws
THEN: <dano, dono> again, now, then THUS: <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that
THEN: <didiu, didu> now, therefore, then way, so, then
THEN: <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, THUS: <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this
moreover way
THEN: <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then TILL: <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till
THERE: <ann> there TIME: <aimser, amsir> time, period,
season
THEREFORE: <didiu, didu> now,
therefore, then TIME: <aret, airet> length, interval, space
(of time)
THESE: <se> this, these
TIME: <attan, attain> another time
THESE: <so> this, these
TIME: <cían> long time; period
THESE: <í> this, these, those
TIME: <fecht> course, journey; time,
THEY: <iat> they occasion
THEY: <sN, s> they TIME: <gair> short; a short time
THINKS: <do°moinethar> thinks TIME: <tan, tain> time
THIS: <anní> this, that TIME: <tráth> period of time, (canonical)
THIS: <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this hour
way TINT: <dath> colour; hue, tint
THIS: <se> this, these TO: <duL, doL> to
THIS: <sin> this, that, those, the TOGETHER: <con°gair> calls together
aforementioned
TOGETHER: <foad, foid, foaid> sleeps
THIS: <so> this, these together
THIS: <sude, suide> this one, the TORMENTS: <cráidid> torments, vexes,
aforementioned afflicts
THIS: <tL> this TORTAN: <Fea mac Tortán meic Srú meic
THIS: <í> this, these, those Esrú> Fea son of Tortan of the son of Sru
of the son of Esru
THIS: <ón> this, that
TOUR: <cúairt> circle; tour, journey
THOSE: <sin> this, that, those, the
TOWARDS: <frithL, friH> against, towards union
TRAIL: <lorg> trail, path, course UNITY: <oentu> unity, alliance, sexual
TREE: <bile> (ancient and venerated) tree union
TREE: <cróeb, cráeb> branch; tree, bush UNTIL: <coH> to, until
TRIBE: <cenél> race, tribe; descent UNTIL: <con, coN> until; so that; and
TRIBE: <tóth, túath> tribe, people UNYOKES: <scuirid> unyokes
TROOP: <slóg, slúag> troop, host, army UP: <conicci> as far as, up to, to, till
TRUE: <fír> true UP: <con°saídi> stirs up, excites
TRULY: <con°ocaib> truly raises, truly UP: <do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up
exalts USUAL: <gnáth> usual, customary; known
TRULY: <ém, éim> truly, indeed, then UTTERING: <ráidid> saying, uttering,
TRUTH: <fír> truth; right; justice speaking
TRUTH: <fírinne> truth VAIN: <folam> empty, vain
TUATACH: <Ciccul, Cic(h)ul mac Guil VALLEY: <Mac Con Glinne> Son of the
meic Gairb meic Túathaigh meic Gúmóir> Hound of the Valley
Cichol son of Goll of the son of Garb of the VALUE: <bríg> strength, value
son of Tuatach of the son of Gumor VASSAL: <déis> vassal
TUMULUS: <Fertae Loíg> Laeg's VAST: <anba> vast quantity
tumulus
VEGETABLE: <luss, lus> herb, plant,
TUNIC: <fúan> tunic vegetable
TURNS: <in°soí> turns, returns VENERATED: <bile> (ancient and
TURNS: <soith> turns venerated) tree
TWENTY: <fiche> twenty VERY: <adamrae> very wonderful
TWO: <dias> two people, pair, couple VEXATION: <tochomracht> distress,
TWO: <dáL, díL, dáN> two weariness, vexation
TWO: <Áth da Ḟerta> Ford of the Two VEXES: <cráidid> torments, vexes,
Mounds afflicts
ULIDIANS: <Ulaid> Ulidians, Ulstermen VICTORY: <boid, búaid> victory;
ULSTERMEN: <Ulaid> Ulidians,
Ulstermen VIOLATES: <con°boing> breaks; defeats;
violates
UNDER: <foL> under
VIOLENCE: <forrán> violence
UNDER: <fo°reith> runs under
VISION: <aislinge> vision, dream
UNDERTAKES: <in°lá> undertakes,
arranges, adjusts WAGON: <carpat> war-chariot, wagon
UNEQUAL: <éccomlonn> unequal WAKES: <do°fíuch(t)ra> wakes up
combat, unfair odds WALL: <caisel> stone wall, rampart
UNFAIR: <éccomlonn> unequal combat, WANDERING: <immáin> driving;
unfair odds roaming, wandering about
UNFREE: <dóer> unfree person WAR-CHARIOT: <carpat> war-chariot,
UNION: <oentu> unity, alliance, sexual wagon
WARRIOR: <eirr, err> chariot-fighter, WHY: <cidL, cedL> what; why
champion, warrior WIFE: <ben> woman, wife
WARRIOR: <ánrad> hero, warrior, WING : <scíath> shield, wing
champion
WISDOM: <suíthe> wisdom, knowledge
WATTLE: <scolb> splinter, wattle
WISE: <ecne, ecnae> wise
WAY: <amae, amin, amne> thus, in that
way, so, then WITH: <comL, coN> with
WAY: <samlaid, amlaid> thus, so, in this WITHOUT: <cenL> without
way WITNESS: <for-t-gella> affirms, calls to
WE: <ni> we witness, invokes
WEAPON: <arm, armm> armour, weapon WOLF-BITCH: <sod, sad> bitch, wolf-
bitch
WEAPONS: <gaisced> weapons, armour;
prowess WOMAN: <ben> woman, wife
WEARINESS: <tochomracht> distress, WOMB: <brú> belly, womb
weariness, vexation WONDERFUL: <adamrae> very
WEDGE: <genn, geinn> wedge, block wonderful
WEEPING: <caí> weeping WOOD: <caill> wood, forest
WELL: <trá, tra> then, well, so, indeed, WOODEN: <Slíab Fúait> Wooden Hill
moreover WORK: <gním> action, work
WHAT: <(s)aN> that which, what WORLD: <bith> world; life; age, period
N N
WHAT: <-a , -sa > that which, what WOUNDS: <benaid> beats, strikes, slays,
L
WHAT: <an > what, that what wounds
WHAT: <cidL, cedL> what; why WOUNDS: <gonaid> slays, kills, wounds
WHEEL-RIM: <fonnat> wheel-rim WRONG: <olc> evil, wrong; misfortune
WHEN: <aN> as, when YARD: <les> yard
WHEN: <diaN> when; if YEAR: <blíadain> year
WHEN: <in, iN> when YIELDS: <do°léici> yields
WHICH: <(s)aN> that which, what YOKE: <cuing> yoke, chain
WHICH: <-aN, -saN> that which, what YOKED: <inneltae> yoked, harnessed
WHICH: <-e> who, which YONDER: <ucut> yonder
WHITE: <Findarcat> White Silver YOU: <datL> you
WHITE: <bán> white, shiny YOU: <siu, so, su> you
WHITE: <find, finn> white, bright YOU: <totL, tatL, tL> you
WHITE: <gabor> (white) horse, mare YOU: <tú> you
WHITE: <gel> fair, white, bright YOUNG: <oac, óc> young
WHO: <-e> who, which YOUR: <doL, tL> your
WHOLE: <uile> all, whole

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Reading and Textual Analysis

1. Spelling and Pronunciation

1.1. The Phonological System and its Orthographical Representations

The Old Irish phonological system is made up of the following phonemes:

Vowels and Diphthongs

Diphthongs áu, ái (áe) éu (éo) íu, ía oí (óe) úa, uí

Labial Dental Palato-velar

2.1. The Basic Word Order of Old Irish

2.2. Word Order in Nominal Syntagms and Compounds

2.3. Residues of the Older SOV Structure

3.1. Sentences without Verb

3.2. Nominal Forms of the Verb

3.3. Inflected Verbal Forms

3.4. Impersonal Constructions

"CiḋL dotLucai?" ol Cú Chulainn friH Lóeg.

"Géiṁ roLchúala issinL ṁaiġ," ol Lóeg.

"CiḋL leth?" ol Cú Chulainn.

"Aníarthúaiḋ amne," ol Lóeg.

"InaN ndiaiḋ," ol Cú Chulainn.

"Ní fóeliḋ inL ḃó liḃ ocaH himmáin," ol Cú Chulainn.

"Is dír daṁsa éim baí UlaḋN nuile," ol Cú Chulainn.

"Etercertaisu anba, aL Chú," ol inL ḃen.

6.3. Spirant Mutation

8. Verbal Nouns and Their Use

8.1. Morphology of the Verbal Noun

8.2. Constructions Involving Verbal Nouns

9. General Synopsis of the Case Endings in Relation to the Noun-Stem Classes

Ending Singular Plural

Case Stem Case Stem

Ca# Nom. O Gen. O

Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. S Gen. Cons.

Acc. O Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. O

Voc. Ntr. O Nom/Acc. Ntr. Cons.

Nom. I Nom. Cons.

a# Gen. I Nom/Acc/Voc.2 Ntr. O

Nom/Acc.2 Ntr. Cons.

Nom. YĀ Gen. YĀ/Ī

Gen. YĀ/Ī Gen. (Cae) U

Acc. YO Nom/Acc. Ntr. YO

Voc. YĀ Nom/Acc/Voc. Ntr. I

Dat. YĀ/Ī Nom. YĀ/Ī

Acc. YĀ/Ī Nom. I

Voc. YO Acc. YĀ/Ī

(i)u# Dat. YO Acc. YO

ib# Dat. YO,

10. The Pronoun

Old Irish Online

"DoltachL ḃen atatLchoṁnaic," ol Cú Chulainn.

Grellach Dolluiḋ íaruṁ aH hainm óL ṡin ille.

"Acht rofeisind beḋ tú ní saṁlaiḋ noscarfamais," ol Cú Chulainn.

"Ciḋ dorrignis," olsí, "bieith olc de."

"Ni cuṁgai olc daṁ," ol Cú Chulainn.

"Biaṁ airḋirciusa de dinL Táin í sin," ol Cú Chulainn. "Géna aN nánradu. Brisfea aN

11. Syntax: Coordination

11.1. The Conjunction ocus

11.3. Disjunctive Conjunctions

11.4. Adversative Conjunctions

12. The Two Paradigms of the Verb 'to be'

12.1. The Copula

3 Sg. is °t, °did (°id)

1 Pl. ammi °dan (arch. °dem)

2 Pl. adib °dad