EVALUATION

According to STRAIDE Handbook (2002) evaluation is a process wherein the parts, processes,
or outcomes of a programme are examined to see whether they are satisfactory, particularly with
reference to the stated objectives of the programme, our own expectations, or our own standards
of excellence. Tuchman, (1975) argued that evaluation means the systematic examination of
events occurring in and consequent on a contemporary programme. It is an examination
conducted to assist in improving this programme and other programmes having the same general
purpose.

For Nwana, (1981) evaluation is the collection analysis and interpretation of information about
training as part of a recognized process of judging its effectiveness, its efficiency and any other
outcomes it may have.

Therefore, evaluation is an important part of an aligned curriculum and an overall teaching and
learning strategy because it is part of the feedback and development cycle that should be a part of
any responsive and up-to-date teaching and learning strategy or plan. Evaluations give students
opportunities to speak to the teachers about their experiences and impressions of the course
content and the pedagogical approaches that have been used, and it therefore gives lecturers
valuable insights into how the knowledge being taught and the teaching styles and assessments
have been managed by the students. Where things have gone well, a well-deserved pat on the
back can be enjoyed, and where they have not, thinking and development for the next course can
begin from an informed place.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

For each of the item (i-v) choose the correct answer from among the given alternative and write
its letter beside the item number.
i. The place which are created for preserving historical information are called;
A. Archive B. Archaeology C. Oral traditions D. Museums E. Libraries. ( )

ii. Which of the following is NOT a historical site in Tanzania?

A. Ismila B. Olduvai George C. Kondoa Irangi D. Kilwa E. Kalenga ( )
 iii. The family from which man evolved is known as;
A. Zinjanthropus B. Homo habilis C. Primates D. Homo Sapiens E. Homo Eractus ( )

iv. What was the achievement of man during the late stone age;
A. Discovered of fire and ate cooked food
B. Started walking upright using fore-limbs
C. Made and used pebble and chopping tools ( )
D. Started walking on all four limbs
E. Established settled communities
v. Which one among the following places did people extract salt from salt beating rock?
A. Uvinza and Taghaza
B. Taghaza and Bilma ( )
C. Meroe and Egypt
D. Uvinza and Bilma

TYPES OF EVALUATION
Placement Evaluation
This is a type of evaluations carried out in order to fix the students in the appropriate group or
class. In some schools for instance, students are assigned to classes according to their subject
combinations, such as science, Technical, arts, Commercial etc. before this is done an
examination will be carried out. This is in form of pretest or aptitude test. It can also be a type of
evaluation made by the teacher to find out the entry behaviour of his students before he starts
teaching (Tuchman, 1985).

This may help the teacher to adjust his lesson plan. Tests like readiness tests, ability tests,
aptitude tests and achievement tests can be used. Placement evaluation is designed to place the
right person in the right place. It ensures the entry performance of the pupil. The future success
of the instructional process depends on the success of placement evaluation. Placement
evaluation aims at evaluating the pupil’s entry behaviour in a sequence of instruction. In other
words the main goal of such evaluation is to determine the level or position of the child in the
instructional sequence
Formative Evaluation
According to Tuchman, (1985) formative evaluation is used to monitor the learning progress of
students during the period of instruction. Its main objective is to provide continuous feedback to
both teacher and student concerning learning successes and failures while instruction is in
process. Feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful learning and identifies the
specific learning errors that need correction. Feedback to teacher provides information for
modifying instruction and for prescribing group and individual remedial work.

Formative evaluation helps a teacher to ascertain the pupil-progress from time to time. At the end
of a topic or unit or segment or a chapter the teacher can evaluate the learning outcomes basing
on which he can modify his methods, techniques and devices of teaching to provide better
learning experiences. The teacher can even modify the instructional objectives, if necessary. In
other words, formative evaluation provides feedback to the teacher. The teacher can know which
aspects of the learning task were mastered and which aspects were poorly or not at all mastered
by pupils. Formative evaluation helps the teacher to assess the relevance and appropriateness of
the learning experiences provided and to assess instantly how far the goals are being fulfilled.

Thus, it aims at improvement of instruction. Formative evaluation also provides feedback to

pupils. The pupil knows his learning progress from time to time. Thus, formative evaluation
motivates the pupils for better learning. As such, it helps the teacher to take appropriate remedial
measures. “The idea of generating information to be used for revising or improving educational
practices is the core concept of formative evaluation.” It is concerned with the process of
development of learning. In the sense, evaluation is concerned not only with the appraisal of the
achievement but also with its improvement. Education is a continuous process.

Diagnostic Evaluation
It is concerned with identifying the learning difficulties or weakness of pupils during instruction.
It tries to locate or discover the specific area of weakness of a pupil in a given course of
instruction and also tries to provide remedial measure. Nwana, (1981) argued that formative
evaluation provides first-aid treatment for simple learning problems whereas diagnostic
evaluation searches for the underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first-aid
treatment.”

When the teacher finds that inspire of the use of various alternative methods, techniques and
corrective prescriptions the child still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed
diagnosis through specifically designed tests called ‘diagnostic tests’. Diagnosis can be made by
employing observational techniques, too. In case of necessity the services of psychological and
medical specialists can be utilized for diagnosing serious learning handicaps.

Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of instruction to know to what extent the
objectives previously fixed have been accomplished. In other words, it is the evaluation of
pupils’ achievement at the end of a course. The main objective of the summative evaluation is to
assign grades to the pupils. It indicates the degree to which the students have mastered the course
content. It helps to judge the appropriateness of instructional objectives. Summative evaluation is
generally the work of standardised tests (Nwana, 1981).

It tries to compare one course with another. The approaches of summative evaluation imply
some sort of final comparison of one item or criteria against another. It has the danger of making
negative effects. This evaluation may brand a student as a failed candidate, and thus causes
frustration and setback in the learning process of the candidate, which is an example of the
negative effect. The traditional examinations are generally summative evaluation tools. Tests for
formative evaluation are given at regular and frequent intervals during a course; whereas tests for
summative evaluation are given at the end of a course or at the end of a fairly long period (say, a
semester).

TABLE OF SPECIFICATION (TOS)

According to Yunker, (2004) a table of specification (TOS) is the scientific expression specified
to the plan for writing Test items. A table of specification reveals what has been taught in the
teaching and learning process .In fact table of specification is a mirror of mode of two
dimensions instructional process like Content and Intellectual procedure. At the same time table
of specification Development and Usage are continuing theme to discussion.
Table of specification, sometimes referred to as test blue print, is a table that helps teachers align
objectives, instruction and assessment. Fives and DiDonato-Barnes, (2013) reiterated that this
strategy can be used for a variety of assessment methods but is not commonly associated with
constructing traditional summative tests. Gronlund, (2006) sees table of specification as an
activity which enumerates the information and cognitive tasks on which examinees are to be
assessed. It is clearly defined as possible scope which laid emphasis of the test and relates other
objectives to the content in order to ensure a balanced test items.

Gronlund and Linn (2000) assert that table of specification may be referred to as content of a
course or curriculum that can be broadly defined to include both subject matter content and
instructional objectives. This simply means the performance of students is expected to
demonstrate. Both of these aspects are concerned with content validation. Table of specification
as “test blue print” master chart; matrix of content and behavior” prescription; recipe; roadmap”
test.

IMPORTAANCE OF TABLE OF SPECIFICATION

Helps Teachers to Ensure That the Subject Matter Content Are Adequately Sampled
Table of specification to Denga, (2003) is to ensure that the subject matter content and the course
objectives are adequately sampled by the test items; We need to develop a table of specification
that will provide a guide to the item construction which takes into account the relative
importance of each component of the syllabus and each level of cognitive domain. TOs should
be prepared before testing. The teacher should develop the table of specification in order to have
content sampling and item validity. These specifications may help the teacher to be more
effective. In order words, it will help the teacher in organizing teaching and learning, assessment
and evaluation as well as all the resources he/she plans to achieve during the teaching and
learning.

Helps to Improve Validity of Teacher’s Evaluation Based on a Given Assessment

Table of specification helps to improve validity of teacher’s evaluation based on a given
assessment: Validity is seen here as the degree to which the evaluations or judgments we take as
teachers about our students can be trusted based on the quality of evidence we gathered (Agu,
2013). It is important to understand that validity is not a property of the test constructed, but of
the inference we make based on the information gathered from a test. When we consider whether
or not the grades we assign to students are accurate, we are questioning the validity of our
judgment. When we ask these questions we can look to the kind of evidence endorsed by
researchers and theorists in educational measurement to support the claim we make about our
students (Kastberg, 2003).

Help Teachers Map the Amount of Class Time Spent On Each Objective
Table of specification can help teachers map the amount of class time spent on each objective
with the cognitive level at which each objective was taught thereby helping teachers to identify
the type of items they used to include in their tests. However, TOS consider how you can adapt
the underlying strategy to your own instructional needs. Table of specification serves to clearly
define the scope and the focus of the test. It ensures that teachers include test items that tap
different levels of cognitive complexity when measuring students’ assessment (Agu, (2013).

Helps to Identify the Achievement Domains Being Measured

According to Anderson and Sosniak, (2004) the purpose of a Table of Specifications is to
identify the achievement domains being measured and to ensure that fair and representative
samples of questions appear on the test. Teachers cannot measure every topic or objective and
cannot ask every question they might wish to ask. A Table of Specifications allows the teacher to
construct a test which focuses on the key areas and weights those different areas based on their
importance. A Table of Specifications provides the teacher with evidence that a test has content
validity, that it covers what should be covered.

Help Students at All Ability Levels Learn Better

Tables of Specifications can help students at all ability levels learn better. By providing the table
to students during instruction, students can recognize the main ideas, key skills, and the
relationships among concepts more easily. The Table of Specifications can act in the same way
as a concept map to analyze content areas. Teachers can even collaborate with students on the
construction of the Table of Specifications- what are the main ideas and topics, what emphasis
should be placed on each topic, what should be on the test? Open discussion and negotiation of
these issues can encourage higher levels of understanding while also modeling good learning and
study skills (Kastberg, 2003).

Helps Teachers Carefully and Systematically Design the Test

Gareis and Grant, (2008) states that table of specifications will actually make the teachers’ job
easier. With the Table of Specifications as their guide, it will aid them to carefully and
systematically design the test; align test items with the course objectives, ensure that what will be
tested is aligned with what was taught; easily identify what topics to include in the test and the
corresponding number of items or points per topic; ensure that percentage of items in the test is
parallel to the emphasis given to it during instruction; properly distribute the questions across the
cognitive levels; and decide on the total number of test items considering the time.

Enable a Teacher to Develop a Test with Precision, Appropriateness of Language Use

Yunker, (2004) noted that test construction requires utilization of skills that can enable a teacher
to develop a test with precision, appropriateness of language use, objective communication,
items validation and good grading scales. Teachers must not be experts in measurement and
evaluation to construct valid and reliable instrument needed. They need to acquire the general
test construction skills to ensure that item are structured to elicit clear and bring responses
appropriate to the learner's age, abilities and other noticeable differences. That lack of test
construction may result in poor performance and false assessment of student achievement. Simon
(2002) still noted it is the poor test constructions that have warranted examination malpractices,
academic dishonesty inmost secondary school in Tanzania.

Enhances Effective Representation of Items in Content of a Subject

In outlining the relevance of test blue-print, Gareis and Grant, (2008) noted that it enhances
effective representation of items in content of a subject. Also they observed that the table serves
to clearly define the scope and focus of the test. It ensures that the teacher include items that tap
different kind of cognitive complexities when measuring student’s achievement.
CONCLUSION
Table of specification is a grid that empowers instructors to develop methodological test
instruments. It helps instructor to weigh the different aspects of learning according to blooms
taxonomy according to their difficulty level for each module. This grid may consist of numerous
heads on different axis as per requirement. The table must mirror what has been taught in
instructional sequence keeping in view the content and process. While developing a Table of
Specification proceed with a specific objective and develop the test items to examine the
intellectual level of student’s functioning.
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Nigerian secondary schools: need for a test construction skill inventory. Educational
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