Received February 7, 2018, accepted April 19, 2018, date of publication May 21, 2018, date of current version

August 15, 2018.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2838563

Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich

Power Grids: A Review of Grid-Codes, Renewable
Generators, Support Devices, Control Strategies
and Optimization Algorithms
MOHAMMAD NAZMUL ISLAM SARKAR , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE),
LASANTHA GUNARUWAN MEEGAHAPOLA , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND MANOJ DATTA, (Member, IEEE)
School of Engineering, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia
Corresponding author: Lasantha Gunaruwan Meegahapola (lasantha.meegahapola@rmit.edu.au)

ABSTRACT Power electronic converter (PEC)-interfaced renewable energy generators (REGs) are
increasingly being integrated to the power grid. With the high renewable power penetration levels, one
of the key power system parameters, namely reactive power, is affected, provoking steady-state voltage
and dynamic/transient stability issues. Therefore, it is imperative to maintain and manage adequate reactive
power reserve to ensure a stable and reliable power grid. This paper presents a comprehensive literature
review on the reactive power management in renewable rich power grids. Reactive power requirements
stipulated in different grid codes for REGs are summarized to assess their adequacy for future network
requirements. The PEC-interfaced REGs are discussed with a special emphasis on their reactive power
compensation capability and control schemes. Along with REGs, conventional reactive power support
devices (e.g., capacitor banks) and PEC-interfaced reactive power support devices (e.g., static synchronous
compensators) play an indispensable role in the reactive power management of renewable rich power
grids, and thus their reactive power control capabilities and limitations are thoroughly reviewed in this
paper. Then, various reactive power control strategies are reviewed with a special emphasis on their
advantages/disadvantages. Reactive power coordination between support devices and their optimal capacity
are vital for an efficient and stable management of the power grid. Accordingly, the prominent reactive
power coordination and optimization algorithms are critically examined and discussed in this paper. Finally,
the key issues pertinent to the reactive power management in renewable rich power grids are enlisted with
some important technical recommendations for the power industry, policymakers, and academic researchers.

INDEX TERMS Control strategies, grid codes, optimization algorithms, renewable energy genera-
tors (REGs), reactive power, solar photovoltaic (PV), wind generation.

NOMENCLATURE DFIG: Doubly-fed induction generator

DPC: Direct power control
Acronyms: DSO: Distribution system operator
ADP: Approximate dynamic programming DSPWM: Digital sinusoidal pulse-width modulation
AEMO: Australian energy market operator DVR: Dynamic voltage restorer
AG: Asynchronous generator EA: Evolutionary algorithm
ANN: Artificial neural network EMTDC: Electro-magnetic transient design and control
CASDM: Current-mode asynchronous sigma-delta ESS: Energy storage system
modulation FACTS: Flexible AC transmission system
CMC: Current mode control FCWG: Full-converter wind generator
CSC: Current source converter FRT: Fault ride-through
CVP: Control vector parameterization FSWG: Fixed-speed wind generator
2169-3536
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids

GA: Genetic algorithm X: Reactance

GDA: Gradient descent algorithm δ: Angle between stator voltage and internal emf
GSC: Grid-side converter φ: Angle between voltage and current
HVRT: High voltage ride-through
Subscripts:
LVRT: Low voltage ride-through
MIMO: Multiple-input and multiple-output PV: photovoltaic
MRAS: Model reference adaptive system R: rotor
MPC: Model predictive control S: stator
MAPSO: Multi-agent based particle T: total
swarm optimization g: grid
MINLP: Mixed-integer non-linear programming c: converter
MSC: Machine side converter o: output
NER: National electricity rules pcc: point of common coupling
NLP: Non-linear programming
NSGA: Non-dominated sorting GA
OLTC: On-load tap changer I. INTRODUCTION
OPF: Optimal power-flow Due to the global drive towards renewable and sustainable
OSLC: Online supplementary learning control energy systems, power electronic converter (PEC) interfaced
PAC: Pitch-angle control renewable energy generators (REGs), such as wind gener-
PCC: Point of common coupling ators and solar-PV systems have widely been adopted in
PEC: Power electronic converter power networks around the world. The Kyoto Protocol was
PIR: Proportional integral resonant one of the major catalyst for the global drive towards renew-
POC: Point of connection able energy generation [1]. In addition, due to the technical
POI: Point of interconnection advances in the PECs and the electronic materials, manu-
PMSG: Permanent magnet synchronous generator facturing cost of REGs have significantly reduced during
PMU: Phasor measurement unit the past decade while encouraging wide-scale adoption of
PSO: Particle swarm optimization PEC interfaced REGs in power networks [2]. In 2016, REGs
PSS: Power system stabilizer were accounted for the two thirds of the new generation
PSCAD: Power system computer aided design added to power networks, and approximately 165 GW of
PWM: Pulse-width modulation renewable power generation capacity was added to power net-
REG: Renewable energy generator works around the world. Among renewable energy sources,
RPO: Reactive power optimization the solar-PV capacity was grew by 50%, while exceeding
RSC: Rotor-side converter the total installed capacity beyond 74 GW, which is higher
SCIG Squirrel-cage induction generator than the net annual growth in coal power generation [3].
SMES: Superconducting magnetic energy storage Figure 1 illustrates the electricity capacity additions by fuel
SMC: Sliding mode control type for 2016.
STATCOM: Static synchronous compensator Majority of the developed countries have set renew-
SVC: Static VAR compensator able energy targets in power generation, and also mak-
SVM: Space-vector modulation ing policy directives to achieve these targets. For example,
TCR: Thyristor-controlled reactor Australian government has set a renewable energy gener-
TCSC: Thyristor controlled series compensator ation target of 33,000 GWh by 2020, which constitutes
TSO: Transmission system operator approximately 23.5% of total power generation [4]. During
ULTC: Under-load tap changing the last 10 years there was an average annual renewable
UPFC: Unified power-flow controller energy growth of 5.3% in Australia [5]. Among the major
VSWG: Variable-speed wind generator renewable energy sources, solar-PV and wind generation had
VSC: Voltage source converter tremendous average annual growth rates of 59.3% and 23.5%
WRIG: Wound rotor induction generator respectively [5]. The Australian electricity generation share,
by fuel-type is shown in Table 1.
Variables: At the early stage of renewable energy integration, REGs
S: Apparent power could be either connected or disconnected from the power
P: Real power grid without significant impact on grid stability, due to their
Q: Reactive power low penetration level. However, with the increased renew-
V: Voltage able power generation, it is no longer possible to con-
I: Current nect or disconnect REGs at operators’ discretion, since it
E: Electromotive force would adversely affect the power system stability and reli-
s: Slip ability. Therefore, requirements for grid integration of REGs

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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
FIGURE 1. Electricity capacity additions by fuel type for 2016 [3].
TABLE 1. Australian electricity generation by fuel type.
are now being strictly stipulated in grid codes [6]–[11].
Reactive power compensation and voltage stability have
become major concerns for utility grid operators with sig-
nificant renewable power penetration. Consequently, reac-
tive power requirements are now becoming mandatory for
REGs (e.g. wind farms [12]). Major blackouts were also
caused due to voltage instability as a consequence of insuffi-
cient reactive power reserve in power networks [13].
With the large-scale integration of renewable energy
sources to the power grid, reactive power reserve would
decrease as they displace the conventional synchronous gen-
erators, and hence power grids are becoming more vulnerable
for instability. Moreover, because of the intermittent and
variable nature of some renewable energy sources (e.g. vari-
able solar irradiation and wind speed), power system likely
to become unstable during system contingencies. In tran-
sient fault conditions, without proper reactive power sup-
port mechanisms, the low inertial wind turbines, and the
inertia-less solar-PV systems are unable to provide suffi-
cient voltage support to the grid [14]. Furthermore, due to
41460
long distance between the load centers and large-scale REGs
(e.g. MW-scale wind farms) transmission corridors likely to
become unstable during system contingencies due to lack of
reactive power support to stabilize the voltage [15]. There-
fore, it is imperative to review reactive power management
strategies reported in the literature for power grids with high
renewable power penetration.
This paper presents a critical review of reactive power man-
agement in renewable rich power grids, with special empha-
sis on grid-codes, renewable generator capabilities, reactive
power support devices, control strategies, and coordination &
optimization algorithms. This paper is structured as follows:
Section II explains the link between the power grid steady-
state/ transient performance and reactive power, Section III
delineates the reactive power grid-code compliance require-
ments set by the grid operators for REGs, Section IV analyses
the reactive power capability and control schemes for various
wind generator types, reactive power capability of solar-PV
systems and other REGs are discussed in Section V, reactive
power support devices and their capabilities are discussed
in Section VI, the control strategies developed for reactive
power management with REGs are discussed in Section VII,
reactive power coordination and optimization strategies are
summarized in Section VIII, in Section IX a case study is
presented on reactive power management in a distribution
feeder with solar-PV systems, in Section X, the key findings
of the review are enlisted with some important technical
recommendations for the power industry and policymak-
ers, and finally, conclusions of the review are summarized
in Section XI.
II. REACTIVE POWER AND POWER GRID PERFORMANCE
Reactive power plays an important role in power grid, par-
ticularly power grid voltage management and stability. This
section presents the active and reactive power relationships
with network voltage, and also delineates influence of reac-
tive power on network stability.
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids

Equation (5a) indicates a strong relationship between real

power, Pk and phase angle δk , and equation (5b) shows a
strong coupling between reactive power, Qk and voltage, Vk .
The X/R ratio of the transmission system is always high due
to high reactance (X), and hence, reactive power injection
is necessary to boost the voltage at the end of the line.
However, in distribution systems, the X/R ratio is usually low,
approximately closer to 1 for overhead lines, and therefore,
FIGURE 2. Thevenin equivalent circuit of a node-k power system.
reactive power injection does not necessarily boost the volt-
age, and hence active power injection becomes more feasible
for voltage management.
A. REACTIVE POWER VS GRID VOLTAGE
To find the relationship of active and reactive power with the
grid voltage, lets assume a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a
node-k power system (see Figure 2). The apparent power can
be calculated from the relationship, S = Vk Ik∗ , where Ik =
Vk 6 δk −ETh 6 0
and real and reactive power can be derived as:
ZTh θ6
    FIGURE 3. LV distribution feeder model.
Vk Vk Vk ETh
Sk = Vk Ik∗ = 6 θ− 6 (θ + δk ) (1)
ZTh ZTh
Real power: B. MV-LV DISTRIBUTION FEEDER VOLTAGE MANAGEMENT
    Due to large-scale integration of REGs in power distribution
Vk Vk Vk ETh
Pk = cos (θ ) − cos (θ + δk ) (2a) networks, steady-state voltage management has become a
ZTh ZTh major planning and operation issue in modern power net-
Reactive power: works. REGs (e.g. wind generators and solar-PV systems)
    rated less than 50 MW are connected to the MV network,
Vk Vk Vk ETh
Qk = sin (θ ) − sin (θ + δk ) (2b) while the REGs rated less than 10 kW (mostly solar-PV
ZTh ZTh systems) are connected to the LV distribution feeders. As the
Now, for small excursions from the nominal voltage, ∂Vk , distribution feeder voltage might increase beyond the max-
change in real and reactive power can be found as: imum stipulated limit in certain time periods of the day
(e.g. during 12 - 1 pm for distribution feeders with high solar-
∂Pk
   
2Vk ETh PV penetration), conventional voltage regulation approaches
= cos (θ ) − cos (θ + δk ) (3a)
∂Vk Z Z are infeasible for regulating distribution feeder voltage with
 Th   Th 
∂Qk 2Vk ETh high renewable penetration. In conventional distribution feed-
= sin (θ ) − sin (θ + δk ) (3b)
∂Vk ZTh ZTh ers (i.e. without REGs), the voltage decreases from the
LV side of the distribution transformer towards the end
For small change in phase angle δk , active and reactive
of the feeder [16]. Consider the distribution feeder shown
power relationships would become:
in Figure 3, where a load (P + jQ) is attached at the receiving
∂Pk
 
Vk ETh end, and the sending-end voltage can be approximated as:
= sin (θ + δk ) (4a)
∂δk Z P − jQ
 Th Vs = Vr + I (R + jX ); where I =
∂Qk

Vk ETh Vr∗
=− cos (θ + δk ) (4b)
∂δk ZTh
   
RP + XQ XP − PQ
= Vr + +j (6)
In transmission systems, the reactance XTh is much greater Vr Vr
than RTh projecting θ close to 90◦ . That is, cos (θ ) ≈ 0, For distribution networks, the phase-angle deviation is very
sin (θ ) ≈ 1, cos (θ + δk ) ≈ − sin (δk ), and sin (θ + δk ) ≈ small due to low reactance, and therefore the imaginary part
cos (δk ) and for small changes of nominal voltage, Vk ≈ ETh , of the equation (6) can be neglected and sending-end voltage
cos (δk ) ≈ 1, and sin (δk ) ≈ δk ≈ 0. Based on these can be approximated as:
approximations:
RP + XQ
∂Pk ∂Pk

Vk ETH
 Vs = Vr +
≈ 0; and ≈ (5a) Vr
∂Vk ∂δ Z RP + XQ
  k   Th  Vs − Vr =
∂Qk ∂Qk

2Vk ETh ETh Vr
= − ≈ ; and ≈0
∂Vk ZTh ZTh ZTh ∂δk 1V =
RP + XQ
(7)
(5b) Vr

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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
Therefore, it is evident from equation (7) that voltage drop,
1V , of the distribution feeder depends on the power factor
of the connected load and the impedance of the distribu-
tion feeder. Contrarily, by injecting reactive power in the
opposite direction to the active power, voltage drop could
be mitigated [17]. The active power losses in the line can be
determined as:
 2
P + Q2
 leading to low-voltage profile in a large portion of the power
ActivePowerLosses = I 2 R = R (8)
Vr2
According to equation (8) both active and reactive power
of the load contribute to active power losses. By improving
the lagging power factor of the load, the voltage drop will
decrease, contrarily by improving the leading power factor of
the load, the voltage drop will increase. However, irrespective
of the load operating as either lagging or leading power
factor, system losses decrease with the improved load power
factor, and hence, reactive power-flow in the distribution
feeder must be minimized to reduce the line losses. Reactive
power management and voltage regulation for MV-LV distri-
bution feeders with REGs have been extensively researched
in [17]–[20]. However, with increasing REG integration into
distribution feeders, the MV-LV feeder voltage management
is still a vibrant field of research.
C. REACTIVE POWER INFLUENCE ON VOLTAGE AND
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Power grid stability is defined as the ability of the power
grid to regain equilibrium after occurrence of disturbances or
faults in the power system [21]. Power grid stability issues
can be classified into three types: 1) Rotor-angle stability,
2) Voltage stability, and 3) Frequency stability. Rotor-angle
stability can be further subdivided into transient stability,
and small-signal stability. Transient stability is defined as
the ability of the power system to remain in synchronism
after severe transient disturbances or faults, and electro-
mechanical oscillations should be damped within a reason-
able time-frame [21]. Therefore, transient stability mainly
deals with the rotor-angle stability of synchronous generators
in the network. Voltage stability is defined as the ability of
power grid to restore the nominal voltage levels in all net-
work nodes after any disturbance or transient condition [22].
During fault conditions or disturbances, both active and
reactive power interact very closely, and their relationship
becomes very complex [23].
When REGs are integrated to the power grid, significant
portion of the synchronous generation is displaced without
adequately compensating for the reactive power provided by
the synchronous generators. Consequently, voltage control
capability of the power grid reduces significantly. Moreover,
during transient disturbances the inertia-less solar-PV sys-
tems, and very low inertial wind generators can not provide
reactive power support to the same extent as synchronous
generators, which destabilizes the grid leading to serious volt-
age control stability issues [14]. If adequate reactive power
41462
is not provided during the post-fault period, then the grid
enters into an unstable state, and subsequently grid voltage
will collapse leading to a blackout [21]. Generally, if the
injected reactive power couldn’t able to increase the voltage
magnitude, then the system is considered to be voltage unsta-
ble. Aforementioned, voltage instability may lead to voltage
collapse, which is a sequence of unstable voltage conditions
network [12]. Ultimately, voltage instability would lead to
transient instability, since it would create electro-mechanical
power imbalance at the synchronous generator. Therefore,
adequate dynamic reactive power reserve must be maintained
in order to improve both voltage and transient stability of the
power network [24].
D. GRID STABILITY IMPROVEMENT BY REACTIVE POWER
Several measures can be taken to improve static and dynamic
reactive power reserves in the power grid. Usually it is
achieved by deploying reactive power support devices, such
as on-load tap changing (OLTC) transformers, excitation
control, switchable and non-switchable shunt capacitors/
reactors, synchronous condensers, and flexible AC trans-
mission system (FACTS) devices (e.g. static synchronous
compensators (STATCOMs)) [14], [21]. Various techniques
have been employed by researchers using these elements to
stabilize the power grid, and provide adequate reactive power
support to network [25]–[29].
Some wind generators based on asynchronous machines
(e.g. squirrel-cage induction machines (SCIMs) in fixed-
speed wind generators (FSWGs)) can not contribute to
the voltage regulation as they absorb reactive power dur-
ing steady-state operation [30]. However, variable-speed
wind generators (VSWGs) with PEC interface, such as the
doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) can provide reac-
tive power [31]. Unfortunately, rotor converter rating of the
DFIG is limited to only steady-state requirements to keep
this technology within a reasonable cost margin. Therefore,
the reactive power capability of the DFIG is not adequate
as the primary safeguard during transient conditions. Similar
limitations could be experienced with the full-converter wind
generators (FCWGs). Hence, FACTS devices are used in
wind farms to improve voltage stability using their dynamic
reactive power capability.
Excitation controllers also play an important role in reac-
tive power compensation in power systems [32]. Yet this
type of controllers lack accuracy as they are designed con-
sidering static load models [33], [34]. Although VSWG
technologies, such as DFIGs are more widely used due
to their superior control capabilities, they have very lim-
ited dynamic reactive power reserve in comparison to the
synchronous generators [24]. Nevertheless, PEC interfaced
STATCOM devices could be used to improve the dynamic
reactive power capability of wind farms to comply with
grid-codes [28].
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
TABLE 2. Reactive power requirements specified in different grid codes for wind generators.
III. GRID CODE REACTIVE POWER COMPLIANCE
REQUIREMENTS FOR REGS
With the increasing renewable power penetration levels in
power networks, the grid operators (e.g. transmission system
operators (TSOs) and distribution system operators (DSOs))
have started to stipulate strict grid-codes for REGs on fault
ride-through (FRT), reactive power management and voltage
control. Aforementioned, reactive power strongly influence
on network steady-state voltage, and voltage recovery during
system contingencies, hence grid-codes specify both steady-
state and dynamic reactive power capabilities for REGs. The
grid-code specifications for FRT and voltage control are also
closely related with the static and dynamic reactive power
requirements for REGs. Therefore, reactive power grid-code
requirements set for the wind generators and PEC inter-
faced generators (e.g. solar PV) are discussed in following
subsections.
A. REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR
WIND GENERATORS
Almost all the grid codes reviewed in this paper spec-
ify steady-state reactive power requirements for wind gen-
erators. However, these requirements vary w.r.t. point of
common coupling (PCC), voltage level at the connection
point, specification of the actual capability of the system,
and whether the reactive power requirement is expressed in
terms of the power factor, or fraction of the rated power
output etc.
In Danish grid code, for generators rated greater than
25 MW must have a reactive power capability of +/−0.3 p.u.
VOLUME 6, 2018
for active power range between 0.2 to 0.8 p.u., and that
has been progressively decreased from +/−0.3 p.u. to
+/−0.2 p.u. when the active power level increases from
0.8 p.u. to 1 p.u. [35]. This indicates a reduced reactive
power requirement at high active power levels, which is a
reasonable reactive power specification in terms of the cost
and technical limits of wind generators. A similar reactive
power specification is stipulated in other grid codes for
wind generators. The reactive power requirement specified
in different grid codes for wind generators is summarized
in Table 2. These reactive power requirements are usually
expressed as P-Q diagrams (i.e. available active power versus
available reactive power). Figure 4 illustrates reactive power
requirements stipulated in grid codes for some European
countries in a P-Q diagram [36].
The Australian energy market operator (AEMO) is the
responsible authority to operate Australia’s electricity market
and power network. The National Electricity Rules (NER)
require wind generators to have reactive power control capa-
bility of +/−0.93 power factor at full output at the point
of connection (POC), throughout the full operating range of
active power, and +/−10% of nominal voltage. However,
the minimum access standard specifies no or zero reactive
power capability for either reactive power supply or absorp-
tion. In case of South Australia, wind farms should have
a +/−0.93 power factor capability at their full output, and
50% dynamic reactive power capability (as a fraction of rated
power) should also be available at wind farms [37]. More
information on grid code requirements for wind generation
are given in [36] and [38]–[43].
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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
FIGURE 4. Grid code reactive power requirements specified for wind
generators in some European countries.
B. GRID CODE SPECIFICATIONS FOR PEC
INTERFACED ENERGY SYSTEMS
The grid operators are yet to implement strict grid code spec-
ifications for different types of PEC interfaced energy sys-
tems (wind generation is excluded here), such as small-scale
solar-PV systems, fuel cells, battery energy storage systems
etc. According to AS/NZS 4777.2:2015 standard for four
possible voltage ranges, namely V1 , V2 , V3 , and V4 having
Australian default voltage values of 207, 220, 244, and 255 V
respectively, should have 30% leading power factor capability
for V1 , 30% lagging power factor capability for V4 , and no
regulation (i.e. 0%) is required for V2 and V3 [10].
In German grid-code, the generating plant should able to
provide reactive power at the POC with 0.95 lagging power
factor to 0.95 leading power factor. The reactive power gen-
eration can either be fixed or adjustable over different values
of active power [46]. For low voltage (LV) generation unit,
such as solar-PV, the operation range can be divided into three
levels [47]:
• SPV < 3.68 kVA: the system should operate in between
cos φ = 0.95 (under-excited/ lagging power factor) to
cos φ = 0.95 (over-excited/leading power factor)
• 3.68 kVA < SPV < 13.8 kVA: the system should
accept any set point from DSO in between cos φ = 0.95
(under-excited/ lagging power factor) to cos φ = 0.95 (over-
excited/leading power factor)
• SPV > 13.8 kVA: the system should accept any set point
from DSO in between cos φ = 0.90 (under-excited/lagging
41464
power factor) to cos φ = 0.90 (overexcited/leading power
factor)
Contrary to the German grid-code, the French grid-code
distinctly mentions that the low voltage solar-PV systems
should not absorb any reactive power at its entire operating
range [48].
C. DYNAMIC REACTIVE POWER REQUIREMENT FOR FRT
Aforementioned, small and medium-scale REGs (rated
less than 50 MW) are connected to distribution networks
(i.e. LV or MV), which is not typically designed to transfer
power into the transmission grid [14], [49]. Therefore, voltage
will increase during periods of high active power production
from REGs. This eventually increases the need for dynamic
reactive power support and fault ride-through (FRT) capa-
bility, due to weak dynamic voltage regulation capability of
distribution networks. In some grid codes, the FRT require-
ments are specified as low voltage ride-through (LVRT) and
high voltage ride-through (HVRT) for smooth operation of
the power grid during symmetrical or asymmetrical fault
conditions [35], [37], [45].
When a grid fault occurs, voltage decreases significantly
around the fault node, and subsequently voltage depression
propagates across a wide-area of the network until the fault
is cleared [12]. During the fault, asynchronous wind gener-
ators demand more reactive power (e.g. squirrel-cage induc-
tion generator (SCIG) based FSWGs and crowbar activated
DFIGs) while worsening the voltage levels across the net-
work [50]. If the wind penetration level is high, and it is not
supported by adequate dynamic reactive power reserve, then
wind generators will start to disconnect from the grid due to
decrease of their terminal voltage below the LVRT voltage
specification, while leading to a catastrophic voltage stability
issue in the power network [51]. A similar kind of issue could
happen for solar-PV systems under fault conditions [46], [47],
[52]–[54]. Therefore, dynamic reactive power specifications
are given in grid codes to improve LVRT capability of REGs.
For example, German grid code requires REGs to provide
100% reactive current (w.r.t. nominal current), when there is
a ≥50% voltage drop at their terminal [9].
On the other hand, voltage swell could occur when a large
amount of load disconnect from the grid within a very short
time-span or during significantly intermittent active power
production from REGs (e.g. solar-PV systems or wind gener-
ators) [55]. Inefficient switching of capacitor banks or reac-
tive power sources can also lead to voltage swell. To solve
this issue, REGs are usually switched off during voltage
swells. However, with increased penetration of renewable
power generation in power networks, by switching off large
amount of wind generators or solar-PV systems would
lead to frequency stability issues. Therefore, nowadays in
most grid codes, the HVRT requirements are specified for
REGs [6]–[10], [35], [37], [39], [45]. To met these HVRT
requirements, REGs should essentially have reactive power
absorb capability.
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
FIGURE 5. Typical wind generator configurations: i) Fixed-speed wind
generator (FSWG); ii) Limited variable-speed wind generator;
iii) Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG); iv) PEC interfaced fully-fed AG
based FCWG; v) Electrically excited synchronous generator based FCWG;
and vi) Permanent Magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) based FCWG.
IV. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF
WIND GENERATORS
Wind generators are typically categorized into four (4) types:
1) Type-1: Fixed-speed wind generator (FSWG) (based on
SCIG), 2) Type-2: Limited variable-speed wind genera-
tor (based on wound rotor induction generator (WRIG)),
3) Type-3: Doubly-fed induction generator (based on WRIG),
and 4)Type-4: Full-converter wind generator (FCWG). The
FCWGs can be further subdivided depending on the generator
type (e.g. permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG)
and electrically excited synchronous generator). Figure 5
shows typical wind generator configurations. It must be noted
that both the SCIG and the WRIG machines are also known
as the asynchronous generator (AG).
The first and most simple configuration is the FSWG,
which directly connects the SCIG to the grid, and a gear
VOLUME 6, 2018
FIGURE 6. FSWG reactive power characteristics.
box is used in the drive-train to maintain the constant rota-
tional speed. This type of wind generators produce real
power when the shaft rotational speed is greater than the
electrical frequency of the grid (i.e. when producing a nega-
tive slip), however these generators consume reactive power.
For a given wind speed, the operating speed of the turbine
varies linearly with the torque. The mechanical inertia of
the drive-train limits the rate-of-change-of electrical power
output under varying wind conditions. This configuration is
depicted in Figure 5 (i). There is no active or reactive power
control scheme, except the pitch angle control (PAC) scheme
maintains the maximum power point (MPP) and curtails the
wind power extraction at high wind speeds. To avoid high
transient starting current, a soft-start device (e.g. back-to-
back thyristors) is used in FSWGs.
Figure 5(ii) shows a limited variable-speed wind genera-
tor (Type-2), which is almost similar to the FSWGs. However,
variable resistors are connected to the rotor circuit of this type
of wind generators to provide limited variability in rotational
speed. The variable resistors can control the rotor current
depending on the wind gust conditions, and can also improve
the dynamic response during grid disturbances.
The Type-3 wind generators are commonly known as the
doubly-fed induction generators (DFIGs), and the configura-
tion of the DFIG is illustrated in Figure 5(iii). In this type
of wind generators, the stator circuit is connected to the grid
directly, and the rotor is connected via a back-to-back PEC
interface, by making it a doubly-fed machine. Because of
the superior active and reactive power controllability of the
DFIG, this wind generator type is heavily being used in the
wind power industry, and hence substantial research has been
conducted on DFIGs during last 15 years to improve their
performance [56]–[62].
The Type-4 wind generators (also known as the FCWG)
use a fully-rated PEC interface to connect with the grid, and
three different configurations are shown in Figure 5(iv)-(vi).
The Figure 5(iv) shows a FCWG based on the AG, and the
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FIGURE 7. A typical configuration of a DFIG.

WRIG is mostly used as the AG. The FCWG configurations grid while the rotor circuit absorbs power from the grid
based on synchronous generators can either be excited electri- depending on the operating slip of the generator. In case of
cally via slip rings as shown in Figure 5(v), or they can be self- super-synchronous mode, both the stator and the rotor supply
excited permanent magnet synchronous generators (PMSGs) power to the grid. The typical configuration of a DFIG is
as shown in Figure 5(vi). illustrated in Figure 7.
The reactive power output of the DFIG (QW ) is the sum
A. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF TYPE-1: FSWG of reactive power from the stator (Qs ), and reactive power
During 1990s, FSWG was the dominant wind generation from the GSC (Qg ). Both Qg and Qs are controlled at their
technology, which is comprised of a SCIG directly coupled reference values (QW ,g and QW ,s ) by the GSC and the RSC
to the grid [63]. A FSWG wind farm usually has multiple controllers respectively. Usually, the GSC controller controls
induction generators, hence each has its own reactive power the active power transfer either from the grid or to the grid
compensation device (e.g. capacitor bank), and its reactive to maintain the DC-link voltage constant. The RSC controls
power demand depends on the wind speed and the local the active and reactive power output from the stator side of
voltage. This type of wind generators usually consume a large the DFIG. The equivalent circuit of the DFIG is illustrated
amount of reactive power during the initial magnetization of in Figure 8.
the machine. During low voltage conditions, FSWGs con-
sume more reactive power to keep them magnetized while
making the situation more worse [12]. The capacitor bank
placed at each FSWG busbar supplies fixed no-load reactive
power compensation for the FSWG (Qcap ) to comply with the
grid code. Figure 6 depicts how the reactive power require-
ment of a FSWG depends on active power generation [64].
There is no possible control mechanism for FSWGs to control
reactive power absorption or supply, without having an addi-
FIGURE 8. Equivalent circuit diagram of the DFIG [12].
tional reactive power compensation device. However, capac-
itor banks, static VAr compensators (SVCs), or STATCOMs
can be installed at FSWG for reactive power support. There- From the equivalent circuit of the DFIG, the stator active
fore, the reactive power capability of the FSWG depends on and reactive power can be derived as:
the capability of the externally added device. 1
PS = 3 EVS sin δ (9a)
XS
B. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF TYPE-3: DFIG
1 V2
Aforementioned, in DFIGs the stator is directly connected to QS = 3 EVS cos δ − 3 S (9b)
the grid, while the rotor is connected to the grid via a back- XS XS
to-back PEC interface. Both the grid-side converter (GSC) Similarly, the rotor active and reactive power can also be
and the rotor-side converter (RSC) have independent obtained as:
controllers, which can control active and reactive power inde-
1
pendently. Therefore, this generator operates either in sub- PR = −3s EVS sin δ (10a)
synchronous or super-synchronous modes, and hence could XS
E2
 
operate in a wider speed range (e.g. 0.7 - 1.2 p.u.). In sub- 1
QR = −s 3XR IR2 + 3 EVS cos δ − 3 (10b)
synchronous mode, the stator winding supplies power to the XS XS

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The relationship between the stator and the rotor active

power can be derived as:
PR = −sPS (11)
The above equations indicate that, when the machine is
operating in super-synchronous mode (PS > 0), the rotor
power becomes positive when the slip (s) is negative. This
means that the rotor power is fed into the grid when the
generator is working at super-synchronous mode. However,
the rotor power becomes negative when the slip is posi-
tive, and power is fed into the rotor from the grid at the
sub-synchronous mode.
Now, total active power can be calculated by summing the
total stator power and rotor power as follows:
PT = PS + PR (12a)
PT = (1 − s)PS (12b)
The total reactive power can not be calculated by sum-
ming up the stator and rotor reactive power. This is because
there is no reactive power flow from the rotor (via RSC)
to the DC-link. However, the GSC can control the reactive
power, and in typical commercial DFIGs, the reactive power
reference for the GSC, QW ,g is kept at zero. Therefore,
the total reactive power output from the DFIG is given by
equation (9b). However, the GSC can be used to provide
reactive power to improve the reactive power capability of the
DFIG by some other methods proposed by researchers [50].
Some of these emerging control techniques employed in
DFIGs for reactive power support are summarized in Table 3.
The proposed methodologies can make the GSC act like
a dynamically controlled reactive power source. Therefore,
the total reactive power supplied to the grid by a DFIG can be FIGURE 9. Reactive power capability curves of the DFIG (a) DFIG-RSC
capability, and (b) GSC capability.
obtained as:
QT = QS + QGSC (13) followed by a DC link capacitor, and an inverter (DC/AC
The reactive power capability curve of a typical 1.5 MW converter or GSC). The configuration of a typical PMSG is
DFIG-RSC and GSC are obtained from [65], and are illus- shown in Figure 10. This wind generator completely decou-
trated in Figure 9. It can be seen from the figure that, ples the generator from the grid, which helps conceal the
the DFIG-RSC can operate between +/−0.95 power factor generator and the turbine during fault conditions. When the
without additional reactive power support from the GSC. grid voltage decreases in a fault condition, the power balance
However, +0.90 power factor operation is constrained to at the GSC and the MSC is disturbed, and the excess power
0.90 pu active power output. Therefore, additional reac- is accumulated at the DC-link, and subsequently increases
tive power must be provided by the GSC. Besides, the reactive the DC link capacitor voltage. Usually, energy storage sys-
power capability reduces with an increase in DFIG active tems (ESSs) are incorporated in the DC link and activated
power output. The reactive power capability chart of the GSC during fault conditions to absorb or supply the power imbal-
indicates that, ±0.48 pu average reactive power capability ance. Under normal operating conditions, the PMSG can
for a 50% converter rating across its operating range. Hence, either absorb or supply reactive power depending on con-
a 50% converter rating means a combined reactive power trol techniques applied to the power converters. The reactive
capability of 1.28 pu during zero active power production. power capability of the PMSG is not constrained by either the
During full active power production this value reduces upto machine properties or characteristics.
0.83 pu, thus, substantial reactive power capability is avail- The real and reactive power of the PMSG can be
able at the DFIG to support the grid during contingencies. derived as:
Vg Vc
C. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF THE TYPE-4: PMSG P= cos(2π − φ) (14a)
The PMSG wind generators have a fully rated back-to-back X
converter system. This converter system consists of a rec- Vg Vc sin(2π − φ) − Vg2
Q= (14b)
tifier (AC/DC converter or machine-side converter (MSC)), X

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TABLE 3. Reactive power control objectives for the DFIG.
From the equation (14b) it is evident that, the reactive
power capability of the PMSG depends on the grid voltage,
Vg , grid reactance, X , and converter voltage, Vc , and power
factor, cos φ. With the decrease of grid voltage, the reactive
power capability will also decrease. In case of grid reactance,
the lower the reactance, the higher the reactive power support
from the PMSG. Also, reactive power capability depends on
the available GSC capacity after transferring active power
to the grid. However, PMSG based FCWGs can still pro-
vide reactive power support at rated active power, since
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GSC is usually rated at 110% of the active power rating of
the FCWG.
Various reactive power control/management techniques
have been developed by the researchers for the PMSG and
they are summarized in Table 4.
V. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF
SOLAR-PV GENERATORS
Having no rotating magnetic field or coil arrangements,
the solar-PV systems supply power through an inverter.
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FIGURE 10. A typical PMSG system.

TABLE 4. Reactive power control techniques of PMSG systems.

Solar-PV panel itself does not have any reactive power sup- significant amount of reactive power support during normal
port as it produces electricity using photovoltaic effect. How- operating conditions or even in fault conditions. The solar-
ever, the inverter used for DC/AC conversion can provide PV inverter also provides other ancillary services, such as,

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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
FIGURE 11. A typical single-phase grid connected solar-PV system.
MPPT control, LVRT etc. Although, reactive power support
is not yet mandatory for solar-PV systems in most grid codes,
as the penetration level increases more controllability over
active and reactive power will become a necessity. A typical
single-phase grid connected solar-PV system is illustrated
in Figure 11.
There are several reactive power compensation techniques
implemented by researchers for solar-PV systems. Tradition-
ally, this is done by employing a control scheme in the inverter
control circuit. These techniques along with some others are
discussed in the following subsections.
A. VARIOUS CONTROLLERS USED IN
SOLAR-PV INVERTERS
Implementing a control scheme by means of a controller at
the solar-PV inverter for active and reactive power control
is one of the simplest way for reactive power compensation.
The control schemes are usually implemented either using
digital signal processors (DSPs), field programmable gate
arrays (FPGAs), or microcontrollers. FPGAs are renowned
for their low power consumption and ability to achieve
high level of parallelism [89]. Hassaine et al. [90] pro-
posed a reactive power compensation methodology for grid
tied solar-PV system using FPGAs. They have implemented
the control strategy based on digital sinusoidal pulse-width
modulation (DSPWM) and the phase-shift between inverter
and grid voltages. With this control technique the injected
reactive power can be dynamically modified and controlled.
A similar kind of implementation using FPGA can be found
in [91]. DSPs can also be employed to design reactive power
controller and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) unit
for solar-PV systems. Libo et al. [92] proposed a modified
incremental conductance MPPT controller and a reactive
current controller using a DSP. In [93] and [94], simplified
reactive power control schemes are proposed using a micro-
controller, where current-mode asynchronous sigma-delta
modulation (CASDM) is employed to improve the dynamic
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response. Besides these, a large number of researchers
have employed different techniques and controllers in the
inverter control circuit to implement reactive power sup-
port schemes [95]–[97], and few of them are summarized
in Table 5.
B. USING CASCADED MULTILEVEL CONVERTERS
Because of the modular structure, scalability, and enhanced
energy harvesting capability, cascaded multilevel convert-
ers are gaining popularity in solar-PV system applications.
Liu et al. [52], [107], [108] proposed cascaded multilevel
converters to enhance reactive power support for solar-PV
systems. They have developed a reactive power compensation
algorithm suitable for different types of cascaded solar-PV
systems. In this proposed strategy, they have first converted
the output voltages from each solar-PV module in d-q ref-
erence frame. Then, they obtained the active power of each
module from MPPT control. Consequently, the output voltage
from each converter module is also analyzed, and active
and reactive power is distributed in each converter module
accordingly. A block diagram of a typical cascaded multilevel
converter based solar-PV system is shown in Figure 12.
C. USING ESS
Coordinated use of ESS and solar-PV inverters are also being
proposed as a solution for the voltage and reactive power con-
trol of the distribution network. Droop-based ESS is used and
analyzed along with solar-PV inverters to mitigate the voltage
rise issue and reactive power support by Kabir et al. [109].
They have found that if the R/X ratio of the line is 4.5 to 5,
then reactive power compensation alone is not sufficient for
voltage regulation. Therefore, urban areas where the R/X
ratio is close to unity, the solar-PV inverters are sufficient
to provide reactive power support. However, in rural areas
where the R/X ratio is much higher, the ESS should be
added along with the solar-PV inverters for better reactive
power support and voltage control. The authors have also
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
TABLE 5. Control schemes in the inverter control circuit of the solar-PV system for reactive power support.
investigated both constant and variable droop based reactive
power control schemes for the ESS, and found that con-
stant droop based scheme requires a large battery, whereas,
variable-droop based scheme requires a smaller battery.
D. USING HIGH FREQUENCY LINK CONVERTER
Because of the low cost, high power density, and capability
to provide isolation between the solar-PV panels and the
grid, high frequency link converters are being used in grid-
tied solar-PV systems. This type of converters also have the
bidirectional power flow capability from the grid to the DC
source, which enable it to provide reactive power support and
voltage regulation. Robles et al. [110] implemented reactive
power compensation scheme in a grid tied solar-PV system
using a high frequency link converter. Using the push-pull
topology they have investigated the performance of the pro-
posed system and validated the results through simulation
studies.
E. USING TRANSFORMERLESS SOLAR-PV INVERTERS
Among transformerless solar-PV inverters H5, H6 and
HERIC inverters are most commonly used. Usually they do
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not have reactive power compensation capability because
of the absence of freewheeling path in the negative power
region. However, modulation techniques are proposed by
the researchers to provide bidirectional freewheeling current
path [111]–[113]. In [111] space-vector based PWM modu-
lation strategy is proposed, which is operated in two stages;
1) Inverter modulation, and 2) Reactive power modulation.
They also designed a proportion-integration-resonance (PIR)
current controller to subdue zero-crossing current distortion.
Freddy et al. [112] proposed a PWM technique to imple-
ment reactive power support capability in H5 and HERIC
inverters. This is similar to the sinusoidal PWM with the
exception that it requires additional duty-cycle generators
for each switch. The proposed PWM scheme is illustrated
in Figure 13.
F. REACTIVE POWER CAPABILITY OF OTHER REGS
Other than solar PV, and wind generators, the renewable
generators, such as hydro, wave energy, tidal power, bio
fuel, or fuel-cells can also be connected to the grid by
means of PECs or synchronous generators. Separate reactive
power compensation strategy is not required for renewable
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FIGURE 12. A typical cascaded multilevel converter based solar-PV system.
FIGURE 13. The PWM technique used to implement reactive power
support capability in H5 and HERIC inverters.
generators, which uses synchronous machines to produce
power. Besides, the renewable generators which are con-
nected to the grid through a PEC, can use reactive power
compensation techniques used in solar-PV converters.
VI. REACTIVE POWER SUPPORT DEVICES
Besides the internal reactive power control schemes imple-
mented in REGs (i.e. machine or converter level), there are
several reactive power control devices which can be con-
nected at the PCC or some other place for reactive power
support and voltage stability of the power grid. Usually,
FACTS devices, such as STATCOM, SVC, DVR etc. as well
as conventional devices, such as OLTC transformers, and
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capacitor banks are used for reactive power compensation.
However, FACTS devices provide better controllability and
flexibility compared to conventional reactive power compen-
sation devices. Reactive power support devices used in the
power grid are illustrated in Figure 14. Both the conven-
tional and contemporary reactive power control devices are
discussed with elaboration on their current research progress
in following subsections.
A. OLTC TRANSFORMERS
OLTC transformers are used to regulate system voltage by
changing the turns ratio of the transformer under loaded
condition [114], [115]. However, the mechanically switched
OLTCs are not fast enough to provide reactive power support
for dynamic loads connected to power system. Combination
of OLTCs with other reactive power control devices are
usually used to provide efficient voltage control. For instance,
in [116], a similar combined approach using the OLTC along
with the SVC is proposed for reactive power compensation.
A coordinated control of the OLTC transformer and local
wind turbine controllers is implemented in [117]. In [118],
the OLTC is modeled as a finite machine and coordinated
controller is designed for both the DFIG controller and the
OLTC transformer. Parallel operation of the OLTC trans-
former and solar-PV inverters is described in [119].
B. CAPACITOR BANKS
Parallel switched capacitor banks are usually installed at the
PCC of the REGs, to enhance the reactive power support
(mainly in Type-1 and Type-2 wind turbines). They behave as
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FIGURE 14. Reactive power support devices used in the power grid.
FIGURE 15. Schematic diagram of a STATCOM.
reactive power sources during transient conditions. However,
there are some major advantages and disadvantages of using
capacitor banks as a source of reactive power. Among the
advantages, the power quality enhancement by power fac-
tor improvement, and thus reduction in thermal losses and
increase in system capacity are the main. However, there
are some disadvantages, such as capacitor switching cre-
ates strong transients propagating throughout the network.
It also creates high-frequency harmonics. The inductive lines
and capacitor banks form RLC circuits which may create
resonance issues [120]. Because of these issues additional
harmonic filters are required, which leads to additional cost
and system complexity. A lot of research studies have been
conducted on the optimal positioning and switching mecha-
nisms of the capacitor banks for reactive power compensa-
tion [121]–[124]. In addition, the capacitive reactive power
is proportional to the square of the terminal voltage, hence
capacitor banks are not a very good dynamic reactive power
source.
C. ESS
ESS improves the reliability, and dynamic stability of the
power system by enhancing the power quality and transmis-
sion capacity of the grid. There are various types of energy
storage systems, such as battery energy storage systems,
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super-capacitors or ultra-capacitors, flywheel energy storage
systems, pumped hydro energy storage systems, compressed-
air energy storage, and electrochemical energy storage, such
as fuel cells etc. Battery energy storage is the most widely
used ESS, and usually used for active and reactive power
support for REGs in distribution networks [125]–[127].
Currently, ultra-capacitor/ super-capacitor is also becoming
very popular for active and reactive power support [128]. For
example, in [129], ultra-capacitor is added into the DC-link of
the converter of wind or solar-PV systems for better reactive
power support capability.
D. STATCOM
Hingorani et al. [130] first proposed the concept of
STATCOM in 1976. A STATCOM is a FACTS device
usually consisted of a VSC, a controller, and a step-up trans-
former or coupling reactor as shown in [51, Fig. 15]. It is typi-
cally used at the PCC of a wind farm or solar-PV generator for
reactive power compensation and voltage control. By turning
on/off the VSC switches (e.g. IGBTs) of the STATCOM,
the output voltage of the VSC is regulated, and hence the
output current can be controlled. The current and power equa-
tions of the STATCOM are given in equation (15) and (16).
Vo − Vpcc
I = (15)
Xs
Vo Vpcc
P= sin(α − θ ) (16a)
X
Vo (Vo − Vpcc cos(α − θ ))
Q= (16b)
X
It is evident from the above equations that, either capac-
itive or inductive current can be achieved by regulating the
VSC output voltage, Vo . For the values of Vo larger than Vpcc ,
the STATCOM will operate in the capacitive mode, whereas
for the values of Vo smaller than Vpcc it will operate in induc-
tive mode. The active and reactive current characteristics of
a STATCOM are illustrated in Figure 16. STATCOM has
been extensively used along with REGs for reactive power
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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
support [131]–[135]. The STATCOM is capable of providing
strong dynamic reactive power support in comparison to
capacitor banks and other conventional devices.
FIGURE 16. Active and reactive current characteristic curves of a
STATCOM.
FIGURE 17. Schematic diagram of a typical SVC.
E. SVC
SVC is a parallel connected static var absorber or generator
which can be controlled to stabilize the grid voltage. SVC
can be used to provide dynamic reactive power to the grid.
SVC contains a voltage measurement circuit, and a voltage
regulator, and their output is fed into a thyristor control
circuit. A schematic diagram of a typical SVC, employed
with a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR), a thyristor switched
capacitor (TSC), a harmonic filter, a mechanically switched
capacitor and a mechanically switched reactor, is shown
in Figure 17. The active and reactive current characteristic
curves are shown in Figure 18. SVCs are used with REGs in
41474
FIGURE 18. Active and reactive current characteristic curves of a SVC.
distribution networks for reactive power compensation and
voltage stability improvement [136]–[140].
F. DVR
The DVR is a FACTS device which contains a VSC having an
energy storage system (ESS) connected to the DC-link. It is
connected to the power network in series with a transformer
and coupling filters as shown in Figure 19. DVR is capable
of either generating or absorbing real and reactive power
independently. It is used along with REGs for voltage control
and LVRT improvement [141]–[144].
FIGURE 19. Schematic diagram of a DVR.
VII. CONTROL STRATEGIES DEVELOPED FOR REACTIVE
POWER MANAGEMENT IN REGs
For reactive power management in REGs, various control
strategies, such as sliding mode control (SMC), model pre-
dictive control (MPC), droop control, current mode con-
trol (CMC), synchrophasor based control, and soft computing
based control strategies are used. Figure 20 illustrates these
control techniques. In the following subsections application
of these control strategies for reactive power control are
discussed.
A. SLIDING MODE CONTROL
Sliding mode control (SMC) was first introduced in 1962
based on B. Hamel’s idea of nonlinear compensators [145].
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FIGURE 20. Various control techniques used for reactive power management in REG integrated power grid.
Now, it is the most widely used nonlinear control strategy for
reactive power compensation in REGs. In SMC, usually three
steps are defined to design the control scheme: 1) A sliding
surface is identified; 2) The existence of such a surface is
tested, and 3) Stability analysis is done inside that defined
surface [146]. There are some variants of SMC applied in
literature for reactive power support in REGs. For example,
Yang et al. [147] proposed perturbation and observe (P&O)
based SMC for maximum active power extraction and reac-
tive power control in DFIG based wind generators. A fuzzy
SMC is used by Wang et al. [148] for reactive power com-
pensators, such as SVCs. In [149], a fuzzy SMC is also
implemented for transient stability improvement and reac-
tive power compensation of the system. Discrete SMC was
adopted by Pande et al. for real and reactive power control,
and used discrete representation for system dynamics [150].
Second or higher order SMC is deployed for reactive power
compensation in a DFIG [151]–[154]. Besides these, SMC is
also adopted by researchers extensively for active and reactive
power support for converter based REGs [74], [155]–[159].
B. MODEL PREDICTIVE CONTROL
As the name suggests, the model predictive control(MPC)
uses a model explicitly to predict the output of the process
in future time instants, and then the objective function is
minimized by calculating a control sequence [160]. However,
finding an appropriate model of the process is the most daunt-
ing task in this type of control scheme. Yaramasu et al. [161]
proposed a MPC algorithm using the discrete time model of
an inverter for a wind energy conversion system. A MPC
controller is proposed for modular multilevel converters,
and other converter types in [162]–[165]. A MPC con-
troller is implemented for a DFIG in [166], for a PMSG
in [167] and [168] , and for a solar-PV system in [169].
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C. DROOP CONTROL
Among linear control strategies, droop control is the most
commonly used control technique for reactive power com-
pensation in REGs. As the output of REGs are variable and
intermittent in nature, the controller has to respond accord-
ingly to compensate this variation in active power. A variable
droop gain control to enhance reactive power support for wind
farms is described in [170]. Virtual flux based droop control is
deployed for reactive power control in [171]. Besides these,
droop control method is largely used in literature for active
and reactive power control of REGs [172], [173]. A review
of droop control techniques can be found in [174].
D. CURRENT MODE CONTROL
Current mode control uses sensed inductor-current ramp in
the PWM modulator and has a two loop structure compared to
its counterpart, voltage mode control, which has a single loop
structure [175]. This control scheme is incorporated mostly
in converters of REGs for active and reactive power control.
For instance, peak current mode control is used for a solar-PV
converter in [176] and [177]. Both voltage mode control and
current mode control were deployed and compared for a dual
active bridge converter in [178].
E. SYNCHROPHASORS BASED CONTROL
In synchrophasor based control, phasor measurement
units (PMUs) perform digital signal processing to esti-
mate phasor components from measured analog waveforms,
which is then used in control algorithms for various control
purposes [179]. Jiang et al. [180], [181] proposed an auxiliary
coordinated control, and multiple-input and multiple-
output (MIMO) model-predictive control (MPC) using syn-
chrophasor measurement data for a distribution system with
high penetration of renewable generation. Synchrophasor
based secondary voltage control scheme is described in [182].
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A PMU based wind farm monitoring application can be found
in [183]. Current trends on synchrophasor based control
applications are summarized in [184] and [185].
F. SOFT COMPUTING METHODS
Soft computing methods are the emerging group of prob-
lem solving methods, which strive to imitate the intelligence
found in nature [186]. Actually, these methods exploit toler-
ance for imprecision, uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve
tractability, low cost, and robustness. Among the notable soft
computing methods, fuzzy logic, neural networks, genetic
algorithm, particle swarm optimization, and wavelet theory
are more widely being used in control applications. The use
of various soft computing methods for reactive power control
are discussed in the following subsections.
1) FUZZY LOGIC
Fuzzy logic controllers are being used extensively in recent
control applications because of their robustness, ability to
handle imprecise inputs, non-linearity and their ability to
work without an accurate mathematical model [187], [188].
A fuzzy logic controller was developed for a fixed-speed
wind energy conversion system by Krichen et al. [189]
for active and reactive power control. Medjber et al. [190]
proposed a fuzzy logic controller to control active and
reactive power of a DFIG. A fuzzy logic supervisor is
deployed to control a flywheel energy storage system of
a DFIG based wind energy conversion system in [191].
Fuzzy logic is also used to tune the parameters of a unified
power-flow controller (UPFC) for reactive power compensa-
tion of a stand-alone wind-diesel-tidal hybrid system [192].
Rezaei and Esmaeili [193] employed a decentralized voltage
control method based on fuzzy logic, and optimized it by gra-
dient descent algorithm (GDA) to control reactive power of
distributed solar-PV and wind based power system. Besides
these, fuzzy logic controllers are also used for reactive power
control of REGs [194]–[197].
2) ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
The biologically inspired computational model, artificial neu-
ral network (ANN), consists of elements (called neurons)
processing and identifying connections between the elements
along with their coefficients. These element connections
make neuronal structure, and training and recall algorithms
attached to them [198]. Bansal et al. [199] tuned the param-
eters of an SVC controller using ANN for an autonomous
wind-diesel hybrid power system. An ANN based thyristor
controlled series compensator (TCSC) controller is devel-
oped for reactive power compensation in wind-diesel-PV
hybrid system in [200]. ANN is also used to tune the PI gains
of a STATCOM controller of an autonomous wind-diesel
hybrid system in [201]. Saxena and Kumar [202] used ANN
to control reactive power of a STATCOM in a decentralized
hybrid power system. A similar kind of work with ANN based
STATCOM controller is proposed by Mauboy et al. [203] for
power system stability enhancement.
41476
3) GENETIC ALGORITHM
Genetic Algorithms (GA) are evolved from biological con-
cepts, and are being used in various control applica-
tions [204]. Vrionis et al. [205] tuned the GSC and the RSC
controller of a DFIG for reactive power compensation and
LVRT operation using GA. In [206] GA is employed to
optimize reactive power in wind generators. For solar-PV
systems, a multi objective GA is used for volt-var control
in [207]. More on GA’s application for reactive power com-
pensation in wind, solar PV, and wind-solar hybrid systems
can be found in [208]–[210].
4) PARTICLE-SWARM OPTIMIZATION
Kennedy [211] first proposed the particle swarm optimiza-
tion (PSO) algorithm in 1995. It is a population based stochas-
tic search, and this optimization technique can avoid local
optimum like other evolutionary algorithms (EAs), such as
GA [212]. Sayadi et al. [213] performed the optimal schedul-
ing of an OLTC transformer, and shunt capacitors of a solar-
PV system for reactive power control using PSO method.
Similar kind of research studies using adaptive PSO have
been conducted for reactive power management in offshore
wind farms [214], [215]. In [216] wind and solar DGs are
placed optimally based on the reactive power loadability
using the PSO algorithm. Further research studies on reactive
power compensation for REGs in distribution network using
PSO can be found in [217]–[219].
G. CONVENTIONAL METHODS
A comparison of all control techniques (based on the com-
plexity and the response time) discussed above are enlisted
in Table 6.
TABLE 6. Comparison of control techniques used in reactive power
control of REGs.
VIII. REACTIVE POWER COORDINATION &
OPTIMIZATION STRATEGIES
Reactive power compensation for REGs can be implemented
at three different levels: a) At the machine level, i.e. inside the
REGs, such as in GSC of the DFIG, b) At the PCC level, i.e.
connecting FACTS devices or energy storage systems (ESSs)
at the PCC and controlling them using various control
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids

FIGURE 21. The reactive power optimization types.

methods, and c) At the overall distribution network level, i.e.

connecting the reactive power compensation devices away
form the PCC or at the load connecting point and control-
ling & optimizing them efficiently. Reactive power can also
be controlled centrally in the distribution network, or can
be managed at local generation and load. The objective of
reactive power optimization in an AC power system is to
determine the best values for control variables(e.g. generator
voltages, transformer tap positions, and reactive power com-
pensator’s output) within given constraints(e.g. active and
reactive power flow limits, and voltage deviation range). This
problem can be divided into two distinct parts; 1) the opti-
mal placement of reactive power compensators, 2) the opti- FIGURE 22. System loss variation for various DFIG reactive power
mal operation of the existing reactive power compensators, capability [220].
as shown in Figure 21. The reactive power optimization of
distribution networks with REGs is usually performed with
the well-known optimal power flow (OPF) method. It com- linear constraints and linear objects. They are usually robust
bines an objective function with the power flow equations techniques applicable to electric power systems, but some-
to form an optimization problem [221]. Usually, the system times they provide with incorrect evaluation of the system
losses decrease with the increase in reactive power capability losses and get trapped in a local optimal solution [12].
up to a certain point, and after that minimum point further Guggilam et al. [226] constructed a quadratic constrained
increase in reactive power will increase the system losses quadratic program by leveraging on linear approximation of
as shown in Figure 22 [220]. Therefore, an optimization the power flow problem to develop an OPF problem with
problem is solved to find that optimal point at which the solar-PV systems in distribution networks. However, a large
system losses become minimum. More information on the amount of literature can be found on reactive power manage-
OPF problem formulation for voltage control and reactive ment using linear programming method [227]–[229].
power optimization with REGs can be found in [222]–[225].
Reactive power coordination and optimization approaches 2) USING NONLINEAR PROGRAMMING
(both conventional and advanced methods) reported in the
As constraints of the reactive power planning are nonlin-
literature are discussed in following subsections.
ear, the nonlinear programming would be the most practi-
cal method for solving the optimization problem. Sequential
1) USING LINEAR PROGRAMMING quadratic programming, extended Lagrangian method, gener-
Linear programming methods are reliable techniques to alized gradient method, and interior-point method are mostly
obtain solution for optimization problems characterized by used non-linear programming methods in electric power

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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
systems [12]. Meegahapola et al. [220], [230] solved OPF
and voltage constrained OPF problems for a DFIG based
wind power system using the Newton Lagrangian method.
According to their study the wind farms should dispatch
optimal reactive power to improve active power losses.
Chen et al. [231] used nonlinear programming to find an
optimal size of the centralized capacitor banks, and to con-
trol them for reactive power management in distribution
networks.
3) USING MIXED-INTEGER NONLINEAR PROGRAMMING
Mixed-integer nonlinear programming methods are used to
solve optimization problems containing nonlinear functions
in the objective function. They combine the difficulty of
optimizing discrete variable sets with nonlinear functions,
which means that they include both nonlinear programming
and mixed-integer linear programming as subproblems [232].
Kulmala et al. [233] used mixed-integer nonlinear program-
ming to optimize distribution network voltage control. They
assumed all the optimization variables to be continuous, and
solved the problem using MATLAB optimization toolbox.
Genetic algorithm was used in [234] to solve the mixed-
integer nonlinear programming problem to optimize the reac-
tive power requirements. Branch flow model based relaxed
OPF is used to formulate a mixed-integer second order conic
programming problem for active and reactive power opti-
mization in [235] and [236]. Tiwari et al. [237] first formu-
lated the reactive power optimization problem as a mixed
integer dynamic optimization, which is then converted into
mixed integer nonlinear problem by means of simultane-
ous discretization. In [238] reactive power elements, such
as capacitor banks, voltage regulators, and under-load tap
changing (ULTC) transformers are considered as control vari-
ables, and reactive power optimization is achieved through
mixed-integer nonlinear programming. Nick et al. [239] pre-
sented a control technique for optimal sizing and placement
of the ESS for reactive power control in distribution networks
using Benders decomposition method. They have also con-
sidered the stochastic nature of the renewable energy sources
and the load demand.
4) USING NONLINEAR DYNAMIC OPTIMIZATION
In nonlinear dynamic optimization, linear optimization is first
achieved, and then linear optimization values are used as
initial guesses for nonlinear optimization. In [241], a dynamic
optimization approach called control vector parameteriza-
tion (CVP) is used to find the optimal location and amount
of reactive power support required for a distribution net-
work. The CVP approach was also upgraded by trajectory
sensitivity analysis, singular value decomposition, and lin-
ear optimization programming. Jwo et al. [244] proposed
a constrained dynamic optimization model using quadratic
objective function for reactive power and voltage control
problem in a distribution network. Their work has explicitly
taken into account the time-varying projection operation of
constrained dynamic optimization.
41478
A. ADVANCED METHODS
1) USING SIMULATED ANNEALING METHODS
Simulated Annealing method is inspired by the physical
process of heating a material and then cooling it slowly to
decrease defects, thus minimizing the system energy. It is
a local search algorithm having the ability to escape from
local minimum by making probabilistic moves [245]. In this
method, a new point is randomly generated after each iter-
ation having a proportional probability distribution scale of
temperature. This algorithm accepts all new points that either
lower the objective or raise the objective. By doing this,
the algorithm can escape local minima in early iterations,
and can explore globally for better solutions. Liu et al. [246]
used simulated annealing to solve reactive power planning
problem using the IEEE-30 test bus system. They have also
improved the simulated annealing method using a modified
definition of neighborhood selection. More applications of
simulated annealing algorithm in reactive power management
of power grids can be found in [247]–[254].
2) USING TABU SEARCH METHOD
The Tabu search method was first developed by Rueda-
Medina et al. [255] and Golshan and Arefifar [256] to
solve combinatorial optimization problems. This method
works similarly to human memory, which is flexible and
able to eliminate the local minima, and can search beyond
a local minimum [257]. Tabu search algorithm was used
in [258] for reactive power support in distribution networks
with capacitor banks and distributed generators. They min-
imized the power losses subjected to various network con-
straints. In [259], distributed generation, reactive sources
and network-configuration are optimized using Tabu search
method for power and energy-loss reduction. Tabu search
method was also implemented broadly in reactive power
optimization & planning in [260]–[265].
3) USING EVOLUTIONARY ALGORITHMS
Evolutionary algorithms are inspired by the paradigm of
biological evolution, for example, mutation, reproduction,
recombination, and selection [266]. Evolutionary algorithms
are developed as a combination of several techniques, such as,
genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming, evolutionary
strategies, and genetic programming [267]. A comprehensive
study on optimal reactive power planning using evolutionary
algorithms is presented in [268]. They implemented evo-
lutionary programming, evolutionary strategy, and genetic
algorithm to solve the optimal reactive power planning prob-
lem. Malachi and Singer used genetic algorithm for active
and reactive power optimization using linear approximation
of load flow equations, and heuristic selection of partici-
pating controls [269]. Among the evolutionary algorithms,
genetic algorithms are the most widely used algorithm for
reactive power optimization in power grids [242], [243],
[250], [270]–[280]. However, other evolutionary algorithms
are also used for reactive power optimization in power grids,
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
TABLE 7. Summary of recent researches on RPO and use of REGs.
such as, evolutionary programming in [281]–[291], evolu-
tionary strategy in [268], [292], [293], and genetic program-
ming in [294].
4) USING SWARM ALGORITHMS
‘Collective intelligence’ is the basis of swarm algorithms
which emerges through the cooperation of large number of
homogeneous agents in the environment. For example, flocks
of bird, colonies of ants, and schools of fishes. Among the
swarm algorithms, particle swarm optimization (PSO) is the
baseline algorithm for many variant swarm algorithms, such
as ant colony algorithm, bees algorithm, and bacterial for-
aging optimization algorithm etc [245]. Zhao et al. [295]
deployed a PSO algorithm for reactive power and voltage
control to handle a mixed integer nonlinear optimization
problem consisting of continuous and discrete control vari-
ables, such as OLTC tap positions, number of reactive power
compensation equipment, automatic voltage regulator oper-
ating values of generators etc. A multi-agent based PSO is
presented in [240] as a solution to the reactive power dis-
patch problem. Besides these, particle swarm optimization
algorithms was used extensively in the literature for reactive
power optimization [296]–[300].
A summary of recent researches on reactive power opti-
mization and the use of REGs are tabulated in Table 7.
Reactive power optimization algorithms discussed above are
enlisted along with their references in Table 8.
IX. A CASE STUDY - REACTIVE POWER MANAGEMENT IN
A DISTRIBUTION FEEDER WITH SOLAR-PV SYSTEMS
Performance of various reactive power control strategies
used for distribution feeder voltage control is demonstrated
in this case study. The investigated strategies include tap-
changing transformers, capacitor banks, voltage controlled
single-phase solar-PV systems and energy storage systems.
The simulation was carried out in DIgSILENT Power Fac-
tory for a three-phase LV distribution feeder, and each
phase consisted of eight domestic household loads and each
household is separated by 43.05 m as shown in Figure 23.
VOLUME 6, 2018
TABLE 8. Reactive power optimization algorithms.
It is assumed that every household has a 3 kW (3.3 kVA)
solar-PV system. The distribution line has an impedance
of 0.315 + j0.259/km.
The investigated operation scenarios are listed in Table 9.
For each operation scenario, a load-flow calculation is per-
formed using DIgSILENT Power Factory software tool.
According to Australian standard AS60038 distribution
grid voltage should be maintained between +10% to −6%
of the nominal voltage, which is 230 V. The node voltages
for each operation scenario are illustrated in Figure 24.
As illustrated in Figure 24, for the first scenario (scenario
1) voltage limits are not violated. This represents the conven-
tional scenario without any solar-PV connection to the LV
network. However, in scenario 2, where the load demand is
increased from 2.4 kW to 12 kW, representing peak evening
load, the lower voltage limit has been violated, and the voltage
has decreased below the stipulated minimum limit in the stan-
dard. In this situation, distribution transformer’s tap position
can be increased to improve the voltage. This scenario with
optimized tap position of the OLTC transformer is shown
in scenario 3, and from Figure 24, it is evident that voltage
profile is well within the standard voltage limit once the tap
position is optimized for the distribution transformer. It has
to be noted that, the optimized tap positions for all scenarios
are given in Table 9, and the additional voltage available per
tap is 2.5.
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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
FIGURE 23. Distribution feeder model for the case study.
TABLE 9. Solar PV operation scenarios for each household.
A much better voltage profile can be achieved, once a
switched capacitor bank is installed in the feeder. Capacitor
banks along with OLTC transformers can provide an even
better voltage regulation, and also can reduce the burden
on tap changers while increasing their lifetime. The node
voltages after adding a capacitor bank at each phase are
depicted in scenario 4. A 60 kVAr capacitor bank is used in
this case study, which has six 10 kVAr steps. With the reduced
41480
tap position (i.e. Tap position - 2), the optimum value for
capacitor bank is 50 kVAr. It can be seen from Figure 24 that
the node voltages in scenario 4 are within standard voltage
limits.
Now, in scenario 5, assume that all single-phase solar PV
systems are connected, and generating 3 kW. It can be seen
from Figure 24 that node voltages have increased beyond the
stipulated maximum limit due to the bidirectional power-flow
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M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
FIGURE 24. Distribution feeder model for the case study.
in the feeder. However, in practical situations during the mid-
day, the load demand will be lower, hence the majority of the
power generated from the solar-PV units will be dispatched
to the network. Therefore, in scenario 6, the load demand
is set at 2.4 kW, and in order to control the voltage rise
issue, the capacitor banks are also disconnected from the
feeder. However, if the OLTC tap position remained in the
previous optimized value (i.e. Tap position - 4), the voltage
profile will not be within the voltage range stipulated in the
standard, as shown in Figure 24. The inverter of the solar-PV
generator can act as a reactive power support device; however,
the inverter should have a high apparent power rating than
the active power rating to provide reactive power support
across its entire operating range. In scenario 7, a typical
load scenario with reactive power support from the solar-PV
inverter is illustrated. It is apparent that, the reactive power
support provided by the solar-PV systems has reduced the
voltage rise by a small amount, however could not able to
lower the voltage significantly due to inverter apparent power
limit. This manifest the fact that PEC interfaced REGs can
provide reactive power support through their converter, but
this support is not sufficient enough to achieve a perfect
voltage profile for the feeder. However, in this situation an
ESS can provide active or reactive power support, and keep
the voltage inside the standard voltage limit. This is demon-
strated in scenario 8. A three-phase 50 kVA ESS is attached
with the system, and it is clearly visible from Figure 24 that
the distribution feeder voltage profile is maintained within
stipulated limits.
X. KEY FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
• Grid operators should adhere to grid-code standards to
maintain stable voltage levels (i.e. upper and lower voltage
limits) in their networks. These limits have been breached
during high renewable power penetration levels, particularly
in distribution networks. Therefore, rigorous technical assess-
ments should be conducted prior integrating REGs in dis-
tribution networks to develop strategies to maintain network
voltage within stipulated limits.
VOLUME 6, 2018
• Large-scale integration of REGs may lead to voltage and
transient stability issues in the power grid, which can be either
compensated by the REGs, or by using additional reactive
power support devices. Therefore, rigorous technical studies
must be conducted by grid operators to accurately quantify
the additional reactive power requirements for the network.
• Although, there are variations in reactive power require-
ments, almost every grid code now requires reactive power
capability from REGs. The current reactive power require-
ments can be achieved by REGs, however in future these
requirements must made more stringent to par with the con-
ventional synchronous generator capabilities.
• Among wind generators, PMSGs can provide better
reactive power support than DFIGs (assuming only RSC
reactive power capability), but a large converter is used in
PMSGs, which make it more expensive than the DFIG. DFIG
converter ratings are smaller, and thus cost effective, and can
provide additional reactive power support by the GSC. Thus,
GSC has to be controlled effectively to improve reactive
power capability of the DFIG.
• Reactive power support can be enabled in solar-PV
inverters by implementing various control schemes. However,
their reactive power capability is limited in comparison to
synchronous generators. Thus, an ESS can be used at the
DC-link of the solar-PV inverter for extra active and reac-
tive power support. Such enhanced capabilities should be
encouraged for solar-PV systems through financial intensive
schemes.
• FACTs devices (e.g. STATCOM, and DVR etc.) can
provide superior reactive power support compared to con-
ventional devices, such as OLTC transformers, and capacitor
banks, but utility grid operators should make substantially
high investment to acquire such devices in power networks.
Thus, it is essential to conduct in-depth techno-economic
studies prior deploying FACTs devices in the network.
• Various control schemes have been developed for reac-
tive power management in REGs, such as sliding mode con-
trol, model predictive control, current mode control, and soft
computing methods. All these control schemes have their own
complexity issues and response speed limits. The selection
of an appropriate control scheme depends on the controller
device (i.e. DSP, FPGA), complexity of the system, and ease
of implementation.
• There are various reactive power coordination schemes
reported in the literature, such as centralized or distributed
coordination. Implementation of centralized schemes are
expensive, and hence distributed schemes should be used for
better coordination of various reactive power support devices
in the power network.
• Reactive power planning issues can be solved using
either linear programming, or nonlinear programming. More
advanced heuristic methods, such as simulated annealing,
tabu search, and evolutionary algorithms can also be used
with the increased computational complexity and time.
• Reactive power optimization is necessary for efficient
management of the power grid, since more reactive power
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 M. N. I. Sarkar et al.: Reactive Power Management in Renewable Rich Power Grids
devices are likely to be installed in the power grid with the
increased penetration of renewable power generation. Such
optimization schemes would determine the optimal sizes
(i.e. device ratings) for reactive power support devices, and
optimal reactive power dispatch level for power dispatch
intervals.
XI. CONCLUSION
A comprehensive review of recent literature reported on reac-
tive power management in power grids with high penetra-
tion of REGs was presented in this paper. According to the
review, many grid codes specify steady-state reactive power
requirements for REGs, however only few grid-codes specify
dynamic reactive power requirements. Nonetheless, with the
increasing renewable power penetration levels, it is becoming
a necessity for all grid operators to specify dynamic reactive
power requirements for REGs in their grid codes to maintain
a stable and a reliable power grid. The Type-3 (DFIG) and
Type-4 (FCWG) wind generators can provide both steady-
state and dynamic reactive power to the grid, however this
capability is substantially limited at high active power levels.
Therefore, additional reactive power compensation devices
should be installed at wind farms to provide reactive power
capability comparable to synchronous generators. The large-
scale solar-PV generation should also provide with similar
reactive power support. In addition, reactive power can be
controlled in PEC interfaced REGs to achieve various con-
trol objectives, such as LVRT, stability and power quality
improvement. Selection of a specific reactive power control
objective depends on the requirements at the installed loca-
tion of the REG, and these requirements should be carefully
determined by the grid operator.
Various reactive power support devices are also used in
power grids, and PEC interfaced devices (e.g. STATCOMs)
offer much better dynamic reactive power compensation
capability in comparison to conventional devices, such as
capacitor banks etc. However, selection of suitable reactive
power support device also depends on the economic consid-
erations, since PEC interfaced reactive power support devices
are substantially expensive than the conventional devices.
Two major factors should be considered when selecting a
reactive power control technique; 1) response speed, and
2) control complexity. Although complex algorithms provide
better accuracy, they substantially reduce the response speed.
Hence, a suitable reactive power control technique should
be selected based on requirements of the primary control
objective. As power grids require many reactive power sup-
port devices under high renewable power penetration levels,
coordinated operation of these devices is vital for efficient
power network operation, hence power grid operators should
implement coordinated control schemes for reactive power
devices for optimal operation of the power grid.
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MOHAMMAD NAZMUL ISLAM SARKAR
(S’16–GS’17) received the B.Sc. degree (Hons.)
in electrical engineering from the University of
Engineering and Technology, Taxila, Pakistan, in
2012, and the M.Sc. degree in renewable energy
technology from the Institute of Energy, Univer-
sity of Dhaka, Bangladesh, in 2017. He is cur-
rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the Royal
Melbourne Institute of Technology University,
Melbourne, VIC, Australia. His current research
interests include reactive power management, coordination, and optimization
in renewable rich power grids. He is a member of the IEEE Power and Energy
Society.
LASANTHA GUNARUWAN MEEGAHAPOLA
(S’06–GS’07–M’11–SM’17) received the B.Sc.
Eng. degree (Hons.) in electrical engineering from
the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka, in 2006,
and the Ph.D. degree from the Queen’s University
of Belfast, U.K., in 2010. His Ph.D. was based on
the investigation of power system stability issues
with high wind penetration, and research was
conducted in collaboration with EirGrid (Ireland-
TSO). He has over 10 years research experience in
power system dynamics and stability with renewable power generation and
has published over 80 journal and conference articles. He has also conducted
research studies on microgrid dynamics and stability, and coordinated reac-
tive power dispatch during steady-state and dynamic/transient conditions for
networks with high wind penetration. He was a Visiting Researcher with the
Electricity Research Centre, University College Dublin, Ireland, from 2009
to 2010. From 2011 to 2014, he was employed as a Lecturer at the University
of Wollongong, where he continues as an Honorary Fellow. He is currently a
Senior Lecturer at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University.
He is a member of the IEEE Power and Energy Society (PES). He is an Active
Member of the IEEE PES PSDP Task Force on Microgrid Stability Analysis
and Modeling and the IEEE PES PSDP Working Group on Voltage Stability.
MANOJ DATTA (S’06–M’11) received the Doctor
of Engineering degree in interdisciplinary intel-
ligent systems engineering from Japan in 2011.
From 2011 to 2012, he was a JSPS Post-Doctoral
Research Fellow with the Faculty of Engineer-
ing, University of the Ryukyus, Japan. From 2012
to 2013, he was an Assistant Professor with the
Department of Human and Information Systems,
Gifu University, Japan. Since 2013, he has been
with the School of Electrical and Computer Engi-
neering, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia. His research interests include motor drives, distributed
generation forecasting, microgrid modelling, grid integration of DGs, and
intelligent ancillary services in the smart grid. He is a member of the Institute
of Electrical Engineers, Japan. He was a recipient of the University of the
Ryukyus President’s Honorary Award for an outstanding Ph.D. thesis.
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