Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
58
Diabetes Spectrum
Volume 11 Number 4, 1998, Pages 241-247
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In Brief
Urinary incontinence, a common and costly symptom, is a
problem many health care providers will encounter among
their caseload of people with diabetes.
Although less than 1% of all neuropathies are related to the neurogenic bladder,1 due
to the prevalence of diabetes, the prevalence of obesity (a risk factor for urinary
incontinence) among patients with type 2 diabetes, and the overall prevalence of
urinary incontinence (especially among women), most health care practitioners are
likely to encounter patients with urinary incontinence.
Anatomy
The lower urinary tract of importance to urinary continence and micturition includes
the detrusor muscle and the urethral sphincter, which act together as a coordinated
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unit to control the storage and expulsion of urine.2-4 Relaxation of the detrusor
muscle, together with closing of the urethral sphincter, allows for the storage of
urine, whereas detrusor contraction and sphincter relaxation result in voiding.
The storage and periodic elimination of urine depends on a complex neural control
system that coordinates autonomic and somatic nerve activity to various distal sites,
including the detrusor muscle, regions of the bladder, the urethra and urethral
sphincter, and the striated muscles of the pelvic floor. The detrusor muscle is
innervated primarily by the parasympathetic nervous system,5 which increases the
contractility of the muscle and responses to cholinergic activity. The bladder and the
urethra are innervated by the sympathetic nervous system, which causes the local
receptors to stimulate contractions at the bladder base and proximal urethra.5,6 The
urethral sphincter is controlled by the somatic nervous system.
There are four nervous-system loops for control of micturition, including the cerebral
hemispheres, the spinal cord, and the local nervous system.5 Disruption at any of the
loops can cause urinary dysfunction.
Physiology
The act of micturition can be both a reflex and a voluntary activity.5 As the bladder
fills with urine and distends, signals of fullness are sent to the brain, which in turn
sends a message of urgency to the urethral sphincter, telling it to relax and allow the
flow of urine. In infants, micturition is a reflex only, but as the central nervous
system matures and by the age of 4–5 years, children learn to control the reflex by
contracting the appropriate muscles. In adults, the muscles of the abdomen and
pelvic floor can be made to contract and relax voluntarily.
If one wishes to urinate, one relaxes these muscles. This learned behavior allows an
increase in intra-abdominal pressure and voluntary relaxation of the pelvic floor and
perineal muscles. The result is a decrease in the urethral closure pressure, descent of
the pelvic floor and bladder base, and initiation of a reflex detrusor muscle
contraction, which allow the urine to flow through the urethral outlet.
URINARY INCONTINENCE
Definition
In simple terms, urinary incontinence is defined as urinating at the wrong time and in
the wrong place. It is not a disease, but rather is a symptom of underlying
dysfunction of the urinary bladder or urethra. Urinary incontinence can be transient
or chronic.
Impact
Urinary incontinence is a common and costly problem in the U.S. population. More
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Source: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research: Urinary Incontinence in
Adults: Acute and Chronic Management. Clinical Practice Guideline. Washington,
D.C., U.S. Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services,
AHCPR, 7:19–71, 1996
Risk Factors
Obesity and diabetes are included among the risk factors associated with urinary
incontinence.11 Other risk factors are presented in Table 1.
Types
There are four basic types of chronic urinary incontinence. Classification depends on
whether the bladder empties completely and is of normal size, or whether it retains
urine and becomes over-distended. When the bladder empties completely and is of
normal size, the cause is detrusor muscle overactivity and/or sphincter outlet
incompetence.3,11 When the bladder retains urine and becomes over-distended, the
cause is detrusor muscle inactivity or outlet obstruction.
The primary symptom associated with urge incontinence is involuntary loss of urine
associated with a strong desire to void (i.e., urgency).11 Although urge incontinence
may be associated with neurological disorders, it is also found in individuals with
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bladder paralysis. Due to decreased recognition of the need to void, the interval
between micturitions gradually increases, such that voiding only occurs once or
twice a day. Frequently, the person must strain to void, has a weak stream, dribbles,
and usually feels a sensation of incomplete bladder emptying.13,14 Table 2 presents
other symptoms of the neurogenic bladder.
Prevalence
Only a small number of people with diabetes experience preferential autonomic
nervous system involvement, the cause of the neurogenic bladder.1,15,16 Of all the
neuropathies, <1% are related to the neurogenic bladder.1 Neurogenic bladder is seen
as a comorbidity with gastroparesis, abnormal sweating, or orthostatic
hypertension.13 (Several large, community-based studies have demonstrated that
diabetes and some form of urinary incontinence co-exist in 6.5% of all women with
urinary incontinence.17)
Diagnosis
Due to the fact that individuals often do not report urinary incontinence and delay
seeking help for the condition, it is imperative that physicians question their patients
about the condition. To stimulate conversation related to the problem, questions on
the health history form can cue the physician to problems.18
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involvement)
Health history. To aid in the diagnosis of urinary incontinence, the health history
should contain questions to identify risk factors and symptoms.11 For patients with
known urinary incontinence, the health history should contain a 7-day voiding
schedule that identifies time of voidings, time of incontinent accidents, changing of
pads/barrier protection, and activity at time of accident.
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electromyography of the striated muscle of the urethral sphincter, this test measures
the integrity and function of the nerves and evaluates the detrusor muscle
innervation. For people with diabetes and cystopathy, the tests generally reflect
impaired sensation of the nerves that innervate the bladder and may show
hyperreflexia of the detrusor muscle.
The goals of management are to lessen the episodes of incontinence, use the least
invasive treatment with the fewest adverse effects, and meet the goals and
expectations of the person with the condition.11 Behavioral techniques will be
discussed first, followed by pharmacological approaches and then surgical
techniques. First, however, educational strategies for health care professionals will be
addressed.
People with urinary incontinence will often urinate every 15–30 minutes to
compensate for and manage incontinence during the waking hours. This frequent
urination lessens bladder capacity and detrusor tone. By using a toileting schedule,
health care professionals can assist patients with timing of voids, better design their
medication regimens, and help them to increase fluid intake.
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Instruction in the use of a voiding/fluid diary. Another strategy to teach patients with
urinary incontinence is the use of a voiding/fluid diary. In this tool, the patient
records (by time of day) how much fluid was drunk, when urine was passed, whether
it was passed purposefully or by accident, what caused any accidents, and when
bladder training exercises were performed. This should be kept for 1–8 weeks,
depending on the other treatment modalities. The diary can increase a person’s
knowledge about urinary incontinence and the causes and frequency of incontinent
episodes.11,21,23
The diary is a learning tool for both people with urinary incontinence and for the
health care professionals who coach them. Health care professionals and people with
urinary incontinence can identify critical points in behavioral management, such as
timing of medications, fluid intake, and anticipated continence and incontinence.
With the diary, anticipatory guidance can be given to reinforce positive behaviors.
The diary can graphically show people with incontinence their personal progress
over time. Individuals must keep the diary for at least 6 weeks to show some type of
sustained progress.
Discuss the benefits of drinking water, the amount of water our bodies need in the
day, and the stimulating effects of caffeine and artificial sweeteners. Caffeine and
artificial sweeteners act as natural stimulants and cause fluid flushes within 15–20
minutes after consumption. For some people, acidic beverages or foods will have the
same stimulating effect. Counsel individuals to decrease their intake of caffeine
products and increase water consumption.
People with urge incontinence have trained themselves to urinate at the height of the
urge. Assisting people with understanding the urge wave, focal point relaxation, or
breathing relaxation techniques can promote conscious activity used to deter
urination at the most urgent moment.
Behavioral Techniques
Behavioral techniques lessen the number of episodes of urinary incontinence in most
individuals. There are no potential side effects if the techniques are taught and
monitored by a knowledgeable professional. Behavioral techniques do not limit other
treatment options.11,21
The behavioral techniques discussed in this paper require active participation and
education of patients with the problem. Successful management rests with well-
taught, motivated patients. Unfortunately, there are usually other physical or
functional impairments that make compliance and self-care management difficult.
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The educational aspect of bladder training combines written, visual, and verbal
coaching. Individuals are taught about the physiology and pathophysiology related to
the lower urinary tract and the urge wave. Using simple drawings of the body, pelvic
sling, and urinary system can help individuals visualize what occurs with the bladder,
detrusor muscle, and the urethral sphincter. Graphic display of the urge wave is also
helpful.24-26
The initial goal for delayed voiding is a time interval of 15 minutes. The delay time
should be gradually increased so that intervals between voiding reach 2–3 hours.
Starting with only a few minutes of delay gives individuals control. Positive
reinforcement comes from being able to delay or postpone voiding.
Establish with patients the times during the day when they can manage the voiding
schedule and delay voiding. The literature reflects that 75% of cognitive participants
will decrease incontinence episodes by 50% and that this behavior can be sustained
for 6 months or more.27
Pelvic muscle exercises are also called Kegel exercises.11,24-26,28 Individuals are
taught to "draw in" or "lift up" the perivaginal muscles and the anal sphincter as if to
control urination or defecation with minimal contraction of abdominal, buttock, or
inner thigh muscles. Individuals should attempt to hold the "draw in" for at least 5
seconds (preferably 10 seconds) with an equal time of relaxation.
Individuals should be taught to perform the procedure utilizing a clean (not sterile)
technique while seated on the toilet. Sitting on the toilet allows the lowering of the
pelvic floor, a normal process that precedes voiding. This position is better than lying
down, but patients may first have to learn the technique while lying down so that
they can view the procedure through a mirror.
With the introduction of a catheter, the sphincter may undergo spasms that may only
allow small amounts of urine to be expelled, or urine may be discharged as dribbles
or spurts. In this case, use of an anticholinergic drug may be necessary.
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Pharmacological Approach
When using a pharmacological approach, the risk-to-benefit ratio must be a part of
management decisions.
In the pharmacological treatment of urge incontinence, the best candidates are those
patients with demonstrated detrusor overactivity who do not have reduced bladder
capacity and impaired emptying.11,32
Surgical Treatment
Surgical treatment should be performed after other treatments are unsuccessful or in
the presence of outlet obstruction.
SUMMARY
Of the neuropathies, the neurogenic bladder, or cystopathy, is one of the least
common. The outcome of the neurogenic bladder is urinary incontinence, overflow
type.
Urinary incontinence overall is a very common and costly problem. As society ages,
the prevalence of both diabetes and urinary incontinence increase. As medical
technology provides for the extension of life for people with diabetes, co-morbidities
increase.
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Careful and thorough health histories and physical examinations should be conducted
periodically to assess for urinary incontinence and the neurogenic bladder. If a person
is diagnosed with urinary incontinence, an individualized management program
should be developed to decrease incontinent episodes.
References
1Frimodt-Mæller CA: Diabetic cystopathy: epidemiology and related disorders. Ann
Intern Med 92:318-21, 1980.
5DeGroat W, Booth A: Physiology of the urinary bladder and urethra. Ann Intern
Med 92:312-15, 1980.
8Diokno AS, Brock BM, Brown HB, Herzog AG: Prevalence of urinary incontinence
and other urologic symptoms in the non-institutionalized elderly. J Urol 136:1022-
24, 1986.
9FantlJA, Wyman JF, McClish DK, Bump RC: Urinary incontinence in community
dwelling women: clinical, urodynamic and severity characteristics. Am J Obstet
Gynecol 162:1017-24, 1990.
10Brown JS, Seeley DG, Fong J, Black DM, Ensrud KE, Grady D for the Study of
Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group: Urinary incontinence in older women: who
is at risk? Obstet Gynecol 87:715-21, 1996.
11Agency for Health Care Policy and Research: Urinary Incontinence in Adults:
Acute and Chronic Management. Clinical Practice Guideline. Washington, D.C.,
U.S. Public Health Service, Department of Health and Human Services, AHCPR
7:19-71, 1996.
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12Staskin DR, Zimmern PE, Hadley HR, Raz S: The pathophysiology of stress
incontinence. Urol Clin North Am 12:271-78, 1985.
22FantlJA, Wyman JF, McClish DK, Harkins SW, Elswick RK, Taylor JR, Hadley
EC: Efficacy of bladder training in older women with urinary incontinence. JAMA
265:609-13, 1991.
23Wyman JF, Choi SC, Harkins SW, Wilson MS, Fantl JA: The urinary diary in
evaluation of urinary incontinence in women: a test retest analysis. Obstet Gynecol
71:812-17, 1988.
24Burgio KL, Pearce KL, Lucco AD: Taking control. In Staying Dry: A Practical
Guide to Bladder Control. Baltimore, Md., Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, p.
67-100.
25Jeter K: Treating and managing incontinence. In Nursing for Continence. Jeter K,
Faller N, Norton C, Eds. Philadelphia, Pa., WB Saunders, 1990, p. 77-90.
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27Fantl JA, Wyman JF, Harkins SW, Hadley EC: Bladder training in the management
of urinary tract dysfunction in women: a review. JAGS 38:329-32, 1990.
31Ferguson K, McKey PL, Bishop KR, Kloen P, Verheul JB, Dougherty M: Stress
urinary incontinence: effect of pelvic muscle exercise. Obstet Gynecol 73:671-75,
1990.
32Lose G: Medical treatment of female urge incontinence. Ann Med 22:449-54, 1990.
Adeline M. Yerkes, BSN, MPH, is chief of the Chronic Disease Service and Women’s
Health coordinator at the Oklahoma State Health Department in Oklahoma City.
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