5-ČLÁNKOVÉ

AROMATICKÉ

HETEROCYKLY

(II.)
1
1,2- & 1,3-Azoles – Nomenclature
1,2-Azoles Monocyclic: 1,3-Azoles

Bicyclic:

2
 1,3-Azoles – Bioactive molecules
• Histidine (His) is an essential amino acid in humans and acts as a common coordinating ligand in metalloproteins.
• Histamine is produced by basophils and mast cells, triggers the inflammation and local immune responses.
• Thiamine is a water-soluble B1-vitamin synthesized only in bacteria, fungi, and plants, thus essential for mammals.

NATURAL
PRODUCTS

• Cimetidine (Tagamet®) is a histamine H2-receptor antagonist used for the treatment of heartburn and peptic ulcers.
• Metronidazole (Flagyl®) is an antibiotic, amebicide, and antiprotozoal drug used for anaerobic bacteria and protozoa.
• Rosiglitazone (Avandia®) binds to the PPAR receptor, acts as an insulin sensitizer and is used as an antidiabetic drug.

SYNTHETIC
DRUGS

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 1,3-Azoles – Comparison of aromaticity
• Aromaticity and bonding in oxazole, imidazole, and thiazole were investigated through the behavior
of the isotropic shielding σiso(r) within the regions of space surrounding these molecules.

• Aromaticity decreases in the order thiazole > imidazole > oxazole suggesting the detrimental effect of
second heteroatom with O exerting the strongest effect probably due to its highest electronegativity.

LEAST
AROMATIC

MOST
AROMATIC

K. E. Horner, P. B. Karadakov: Shielding in and around Oxazole, Imidazole, and Thiazole: How Does the Second Heteroatom
Affect Aromaticity and Bonding? (J. Org. Chem. 2015, 80, 7150−7157). 4
 1,3-Azoles – Imidazole – Structure and properties
• Imidazole is a planar, 5-membered aromatic heterocycle (6pe) with the sp2-nitrogen lone pair lying in the ring plane.
• Imidazole, like water, is both a good donor and acceptor of H-bonds. The imine nitrogen donates an electron pair
and the N-hydrogen, being appreciably acidic, is an acceptor – this is the mode of action of several human enzymes.

p-electron
densities

• Imidazole (pKHA 7.0) is more basic than pyrrole (pKHA 0.4) and/or pyridine (pKHA 5.2) due to the amidine-like resonance.
• Imidazole is also more acidic (pKA 14.5) than pyrrole (pKA 17.5) as both N-atoms share the charges between each other.

• N-unsubstituted imidazoles are subject to tautomerism, and the rapid equilibrium hampers the isolation of isomers.
• In some pairs, one tautomer predominates, for example 4(5)-nitroimidazole favours the 4-nitro-tautomer by 400:1.

5
 1,3-Azoles – Imidazole – Reactivity – SEAr (Nitration)
• C2-substituted imidazoles easily undergo SEAr (e.g. nitration) producing the equilibrating mixture of tautomers.

SE of imidazole: 5 4

1 3 3 1

Mechanism:

The tautomerism can be

stopped by alkylation at
one of the nitrogen atoms.

Application:

6
Metronidazole
 1,3-Azoles – Imidazole – Reactivity –
SEAr (Halogenation, Sulfonation)
• (1-Alkyl-)-Imidazoles are brominated („SE“) with remarkable ease at all free nuclear positions including C-2.
• Substitution generally occurs first at C-2, but SE proceeds further yielding 2,4,5-tribromoimidazole as end-product.
• The first step involves an AdE of Br2 to imine nitrogen, then addition of Br- at C-2, and finally elimination of HBr.

• Imidazole can be sulfonated (SE) with concentrated sulphuric acid at elevated temperature at C-5 position.
• Thiazole is much less reactive, generally requiring higher temperatures and HgSO4 as catalyst for any
reaction to take place. On the other hand, electrophilic oxazole sulfonations are unknown up to date.

7
1,3-Azoles – Imidazole – Reactivity – N-Alkylation/Acylation
• Imidazole is easily quaternised (N-alkylated) at the imine nitrogen with alkyl halides (RX). The intermediate
is a protonated N-alkyl-imidazole, which looses its N-hydrogen to unreacted imidazole (acting as a base).
• The subsequent reaction produces the mixture of imidazolium, 1-alkyl- and 1,3-dialkyl-imidazolium salts.

• Due to interaction between the basic nitrogen and Lewis acid, Friedel-Crafts acylations of azoles are unknown.
• However, the aroylation of imidazole with benzoyl chloride in the presence of base (Et3N, NaOH) is feasible.
• N-acylation of imidazole yields N-acyl-imidazoles via deprotonation of initially formed N-3-acyl-imidazolium salts.
• The N-acyl-imidazoles are hydrolytically unstable and are rapidly deacylated even by standing on moist air.

• This property of N-acyl-imidazoles has found a useful synthetic application:

• Commercially available 1,1´-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI), made from imidazole
and phosgene (COCl2), can be used as a safe, phosgene synthon, and also
in the activation of carboxylic acids for the formation of amides and/or esters.
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 1,3-Azoles – Imidazole – Reactivity –
Deprotonation / Metalation
• Imidazole (pKA 14.5) is appreciably stronger acid than pyrrole (pKA 17.5), thus the former is easily deprotonated.
• One convenient method is to use the dry Na/K- salt obtained by evaporation of an aq. alkaline solution or NaH/DMF.
• The stable, delocalised imidazolyl anion can be subsequently alkylated, acylated or sulfonylated on nitrogen atom.

• Metal-halogen exchange of 4(5)-bromo/iodoimidazoles can be done by BuLi or MeMgCl/LiCl without N-protection.

• Such formed dilithium salt can be trapped with an electrophile to furnish the corresponding addition product.

9
 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Triazoles – Structure and Properties
• There are two groups of triazoles – 1,2,3- and 1,2,4- – according to the relative positions of N-atoms within the ring.
• Both 1,2,3- and 1,2,4-triazole contain one „pyrrole-like“ N-atom and two „pyridine-like“ N-atoms in their structure.
• Both tautomerise (with 1,2,3-triazole the tautomers are identical) and both are deprotonated to the delocalised anion.

3
2
1

2 1

• Fluconazole (Diflucan®) is a 1,2,4-triazole antifungal drug used in the treatment and prevention of fungal infections.

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 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Synthesis of 1,2,3-triazoles via cycloaddition
The disconnection of 1,2,3-triazoles via cycloaddition requires an alkyne and an azide which can be combined in 2 ways:

R R
R R
+ vs. +
N N N N
R´ R´
R´ N N N N N R´ N N N

1,4-disubstituted 1,5-disubstituted
1,2,3-triazole 1,2,3-triazole

• The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (1,3-DCA) is highly exothermic, but the high activation barrier is responsible for a very low
reaction rate, even at elevated temperature. Another drawback is the formation of two regioisomers, as the two possible
HOMO-LUMO interactions of the substrates are closely related in terms of energy. The thermal reaction therefore often
gives approximately 1:1 mixtures of both the 1,4- and the 1,5-disubstituted regioisomers of desired 1,2,3-triazoles.

Rolf Huisgen
(1920)
Inventor of 1,3-DCA
Münich University

„Click Chemistry“
((

• The copper-catalysed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (Cu-AAC) features an enormous rate acceleration of 107 to 108 compared
to the uncatalysed 1,3-DCA. It succeeds over a broad temperature range, is insensitive to aqueous conditions and a pH
range over 4 to 12, and tolerates a broad range of functional groups. Pure 1,4-disubstituted triazoles can be isolated by 11
simple filtration or extraction without the need for tedious chromatography or time-consuming recrystallisation.
 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
„Click Chemistry“
The term „Click Chemistry“ was coined by K. Barry Sharpless and describes chemistry tailored to generate molecules
quickly and reliably by joining small units together in a biomimetic manner (Ref.: Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 2004).

➢ A desirable Click chemistry reaction would:

• be modular,
• be wide in scope,
• give very high chemical yields,
• generate only inoffensive by-products,
• be stereospecific,
• be physiologically stable,
• exhibit a large thermodynamic driving force (> 84 kJ/mol)
to favor a reaction with a single reaction product. A distinct
exothermic reaction makes a reactant "spring-loaded".
• have high atom economy.
Karl Barry Sharpless
(1941)
➢ The process would preferably: The Scripps Research Institute
• have simple reaction conditions, Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2001
(with W.S. Knowles and R. Noyori)
• use readily available starting materials and reagents,
• use no solvent or use a solvent that is benign or easily removed (preferably water),
• provide simple product isolation by non-chromatographic methods
(preferably crystallisation or distillation). 12
 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Tetrazoles – Structure and Properties
• There exists only single isomer of tetrazole and it has two tautomers.
4 3
2 • Tetrazole (pKA ~ 5) is as acidic as carboxylic acids making it an ideal
1
structural replacement (an isostere) for -CO2H group in medicinal drugs.
• Tetrazoles are generally surprisingly stable, although tetrazole itself
(m.p. 158°C, decomposes > 180°C) is strictly classified as an explosive.

• The isosteric replacement of -CO2H group for a tetrazole reduced the gastric irritation while retaining the NSAID activity.

13
 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Synthesis of tetrazoles via 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition
• The disconnection of tetrazoles with 1,3-DCA requires nitrile (RCN) as a common component. The other one would
be either hydrazoic acid (HN3) for the neutral compound or the azide (N3-), thus leading to an anion of the tetrazole.

Toxic & explosive!

Retrosynthesis of tetrazoles via 1,3-DCA

• The reaction works well if an ammonium chloride buffered mixture of sodium azide and the nitrile is heated in DMF.
• The reagent is ammonium azide (NH4+N3-) and the reaction occurs faster with electron-withdrawing substituents.
• First, the anion of the tetrazole is formed but subsequent neutralisation with acid finally gives the free tetrazole.

Synthesis of tetrazoles via 1,3-DCA 14

 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Green synthesis of tetrazoles via 1,3-DCA
• Convenient, rapid and metal free synthesis of 5-substituted-1H-tetrazoles is described by [3+2] cycloaddition reaction
of nitriles with sodium azide. The reaction was catalyzed by mesoporous cuttlebone in DMSO at 110 °C.

• Mechanism involves the “electrophilic activation” of RCN through H-bond formation between the cuttlebone and nitrile.

• Cuttlebone as a natural low cost heterogeneous catalyst with high porosity, high flexural stiffness, high compressive
strength and high thermal stability affords 5-substituted-1H-tetrazoles rapidly with high efficiency.

(85-98%)

(S. S. E. Ghodsiniaa, B. Akhlaghinia: RSC Adv., 2015,5, 49849-49860)

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 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Tetrazole-based explosives

(Org. Lett. 2008, 10(20), 4665–4667.)

• 5-Aminotetrazole is used as a high-speed inflator in car airbags via a controlled explosive liberation of nitrogen.

16
 5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Tetrazole-based explosives – 1,1´-Azobis(tetrazole)

Synthesis of 1,1´-azobis(tetrazole) from 1-aminotetrazole

The result of an attempt to isolate pure and dry 1,1´-azobis(tetrazole)...

(T. M. Klapö tke , D. G. Piercey: Inorg. Chem. 2011, 50 (7), 2732–2734)

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5-Membered azoles with multiple N-atoms –
Synthetic approaches to aminotetrazoles

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Zhrnutie: Syntéza aromatických heterocyklov

• Vytvorenie heterocyklu iónovými reakciami

▪ Paal-Knorr (pyrol, furán, tiofén...)

▪ Hantzsch (pyridín...)

• Vytvorenie heterocyklu pericyklickými reakciami

▪ Cykloadície (tetrazol...)
▪ Fischer (indol...)

• Modifikácia už existujúceho heterocyklu

▪ SE (pyrol, furán, tiofén, indol...)

▪ SN (pyridín, chinolín...)
▪ Lítiácie (pyrol, furán, tiofén...)

19
Zhrnutie: Syntéza aromatických heterocyklov
Vytvorenie heterocyklu iónovými reakciami

20
Zhrnutie: Syntéza aromatických heterocyklov
Vytvorenie heterocyklu pericyklickými reakciami

21
Zhrnutie: Syntéza aromatických heterocyklov
Modifikácia už existujúceho heterocyklu - SE

22
Zhrnutie: Syntéza aromatických heterocyklov
Modifikácia už existujúceho heterocyklu – SN a lítiácia

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SYNTÉZA HERBICÍDU

PACLOBUTRAZOLU

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 Efektívny a účinný herbicíd

OH

N
N Cl
N

Paclobutrazol (Pestanal, Cultar, Bonzi)

• Triazolový fungicíd, herbicíd a regulátor rastu neželanej vegetácie.

• Funguje ako účinný inhibítor biosyntézy fytohormónov giberelínov.

• Extrémne nízke efektívne dávky, selektívna likvidácia „širokolistých“

rastlín - efekt lokálnej koncentrácie v závislosti od plochy olistenia.
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 Rastové fytohormóny – Giberelíny

Ryža siata (Oryza sativa)

1926 - Eiichi Kurosawa

バカナエ (bakanae)

CO2H
HO2C H
H3C OH
HO
H

Fusarium moniliforme giberelín 452D 26

 Príprava Paclobutrazolu – (Retro)Syntéza

OH O
O H
N
+ N
N N N
N Cl N X
N N

O Br2, AlCl3 O 1,2,4-triazol O N

Br N
N
dietyléter K2CO3, acetón

Br O OH
Cl
NaBH4
N N
N Cl MeOH N Cl
NaH, THF
N N

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SYNTÉZA VÝBUŠNINY

ANTA

28
 Vysokoúčinné explozívum

O2N
N
N
N NH2
H

ANTA (5-amino-3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol)

• Energetická výbušnina, vypočítaná VoD ~ 8460 m/s.

• Vykazuje značnú termálnu stabilitu (b.t. = 238°C).

• Má extrémne nízku senzitivitu na mechanický náraz.

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 Príprava ANTA – Syntézy
•Starting from commercially available 5-amino-1,2,4-triazole, the originally developed three-step synthesis is the most
direct route to ANTA. However, this sequence suffers from variable and very poor yields (~ 20%) in the nitration step.

O2N O2N
N Ac2O, H+ N HNO3/AcOH N 10% HCl N
N N NHAc N N NH2
N NH2 N 0-25°C N NHAc reflux N
reflux H 5h H
H H 5h
1h
5-amino- (~ 20%) ANTA
1,2,4-triazole

•The alternative two-step synthesis of ANTA, starting from commercially available 3,5-diaminotriazole, employs
the problematic nitration first. However, its scale-up poses a challenge due to the presence of diazonium salts.

H2N O2N O2N O2N

N H2SO4, NaNO2 N NH3 N NH2NH2.H2O N
N N NO2 N N NH2
N NH2 60°C, 1 h N N - NO2 N
H 80°C, 1.5 h H
H
NH4+ (90%)
3,5-diamino- (70%) (80%) ANTA
1,2,4-triazole (overall 50%)

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