Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218

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Ecological Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ecoleng

Estimation of carbon sequestration by pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)

ecosystems developed on reforested post-mining sites in Poland on
differing mine soil substrates
Marcin Pietrzykowski a, *, W.Lee Daniels b,1
a
Department of Forest Ecology and Reclamation, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Faculty of Forestry, Al.29 Listopada 46, Krakow, 31-425, Poland
b
Department of Crop & Soil Environmental Sciences, 0404, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: This paper presents an estimation of C-sequestration and relationships between vegetation biomass and
Received 23 May 2014 reclaimed mine soils in pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) ecosystems in Poland. The study sites were arranged on
Received in revised form 31 August 2014 8 different geologic/mine soil substrates on waste dumps and surface mine spoils associated with
Accepted 17 September 2014
open-cast lignite, sulfur, sand, and hard coal mine spoils. We combined soil and plant biomass data for C
Available online 3 October 2014
and other parameters via a range of site-specific measurements and lab analyses of soil and plant
materials for these sites and coupled them with previously derived empirical formulae for biomass
Keywords:
estimation. Based on this, we estimated the potential for C-sequestration in post-mining ecosystems and
Mine reclamation
Mine spoil
associated internal relationships between soil and plant C-sequestration. Our results indicate significant
Overburden potentials for development of total ecosystem C stocks (taken as total aboveground biomass + soil + roots)
Soil organic matter of approximately 50 Mg C ha
1 for even the most oligotrophic habitats in Quaternary sand mine spoils
Biomass and over 102 Mg C ha
1 for spoil heaps on a sulfur mine in mixed Quaternary sands and Tertiary
Soil succession formation clays, both of which were similar to C stocks in adjacent natural forest pine ecosystems. Litter
layer C stocks ranged from 5.9 to 12.7 Mg C ha
1 and total soil C stocks (litter + soil organic carbon (SOC)
ranged from 16.8 to 65.0 Mg C ha
1. However, on coal refuse wastes, total soil C stocks were above
2900 Mg C ha
1, which was derived primarily from fossil C. The estimated annual soil C-sequestration
rate (in litter + SOC) ranged from 0.7 Mg C ha
1 yr
1 to 5.2 Mg C ha
1 yr
1 for the 8 sites in this study.
Associated C-sequestration rates in organic horizon (litter Oi + Oe) were estimated between 0.2 and
0.8 Mg C ha
1 yr
1. The estimated range of total annual C-sequestration in post-mine ecosystems (taken
as SOC + vegetation biomass across all four mine sites) of this region is 1.6–5.6 Mg C ha
1 yr
1.
ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Surface mining is an anthropogenic activity which causes
drastic surface disturbance, particularly to native soils, which
are the support matrix of terrestrial ecosystems. Recreating a
functional soil profile is one of the most important tasks
intrinsic to surface mine site reclamation success (Bradshaw
and Hüttl, 2001; Johnston and Crossley, 2002). When originally
deposited in the form of geologic overburden (or spoils), the
developing mine soils have generally low or no content of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 012 6625302; fax.: +48124119715.
E-mail addresses: rlpietrz@cyf-kr.edu.pl (M. Pietrzykowski), wdaniels@vt.edu
(W.L. Daniels).
1
Tel.: +1 540 231 7175.
recent (or active) soil organic carbon (SOC) (Bradshaw, 1983,
2000; Vindušková and Frouz, 2013). The extent of development
of organic-rich surface horizons and the net rate of SOC
accumulation are frequently used as criteria for reclamation
success assessment (Prosser and Roseby, 1995; Rumpel et al.,
1999; West and Wali, 2002; Pietrzykowski and Krzaklewski,
2007a). Soil organic matter (SOM) plays a key role in early soil
forming processes and reestablishment of ecosystem functions
on reclaimed post-mining sites. The quantity and quality of
SOM have strong influences on other essential soil character-
istic such as cation exchange capacity (CEC), aggregation and
water holding, nutrient accumulation and the soil's biochemi-
cal and microbial properties (Insam and Domsch, 1988; Leirós
et al., 1996; Rumpel et al., 1999; Chodak et al., 2009; Wick
et al., 2013).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.09.058
0925-8574/ ã 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
210 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218
Forest ecosystems play an important role in global C
recycling by accumulating C in plants, SOM, and litter. Thus,
understanding C pools under different soil types and vegetation
types is an important step to develop management practices to
enhance ecosystem functions that might mitigate global climate
change (Prescott et al., 2000; Schoenholtz et al., 2000; Chung
et al., 2012). New post-mining ecosystems (PME) that develop
on disturbed mining areas have been widely reported as having
significant potential for net C-sequestration (Shrestha and Lal,
2006; Jacinthe and Lal, 2008). Mine reclamation through rapid
reforestation is particularly promising (Amichev et al., 2008)
and forested ecosystems developing on reclaimed lands could
potentially play a significant role in regional soil C-sequestra-
tion (defined as the incorporation atmospheric carbon in
dioxide into biomass and SOC) (Rezlaff et al., 2001Rezlaff
et al., 2001 Brown, 2002; Mund et al., 2002; Davis et al., 2003;
Ritson and Sochacki, 2003). In Poland, lands disturbed by
mining (excavations, spoils, processing wastes and tailings) and
the power industry (e.g., fly ash landfills) since 1945 are
estimated at 45,000 ha, and of that total, approximately
25,000 ha have been reclaimed via reforestation (Pietrzykowski,
2014).
The C-sequestration potential of forested PME is presumed to
increase as community structure and associated mine soils
develop via appropriate stand establishment and management
practices and by increasing standing woody biomass. This can be
achieved by enhancing biological processes that assimilate carbon
dioxide via increased plant biomass production and the develop-
ment of SOM pools. However, the persistence of and total
accumulation potential for SOM is primarily an ecosystem
property and there are varying opinions about the relative
resistance to decomposition and overall stability of various SOM
pools (Paustian et al., 1998; Schmidt et al., 2011). Although a key
objective in C management research is to enhance the capacity and
ability of plants and soils to sequester C in terrestrial PMEs, the
actual potentials are poorly understood. For example,
meta-analysis and other statistical methods were applied to data
from 93 temperate post-mining sites in the northern hemisphere
that had been revegetated by forest or grassland by prescribed
reclamation or natural succession by Vindušková and Frouz (2013)
and they described the rate of SOC accumulation in relation to site
age and vegetation type. Based on data from sites younger than
30 years, these authors concluded that sites reclaimed as grass-
lands and deciduous forests accumulated SOC faster than sites
with coniferous forests. In addition, C-sequestration was favored
by cold climates in coniferous forests, but by warm climates in
grasslands. Deciduous forests were intermediate. A large propor-
tion of post-mining sites appeared to reach their pre-mining SOC
stock within 20 years or less after reclamation. While this study
was the first to give a general estimate of SOC accumulation rates in
post-mining soils of the northern temperate zone, there remains a
significant data gap for the different mine soil substrates that
dominate in central and east Europe. Pietrzykowski and Krza-
klewski (2010) reported data for the overall C-stocks in mine soils
of the region, but there remains need for analysis of plant/soil
relationships and estimation of C-sequestration in new developing
mine soil–plant systems.
The work presented here deals with the distribution of C in
various developing forest ecosystem elements (soil horizons,
litter, understory vegetation, wood, foliage, and root biomass) and
the inter-relationships between soil and plant C-sequestration.
Therefore, the overall objective of this study was to determine
C-sequestration rates in a range of PMEs, including SOM, litter
(organic horizons), aboveground vegetative biomass and root
biomass growing on different mine spoil substrates. We then
developed overall estimates of total C-sequestration for these
ecosystems under Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stands. This
species is commonly used for reforestation of post-mining sites in
central and eastern Europe (Baumann et al., 2006; Pietrzykowski,
2014).
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Site selection and sample analyses
The study sites were arranged on 8 different geologic/mine soil
substrates on Scots pine PMEs (Table 1) on four reforested
post-mining sites in Poland: (1) spoil heaps following open cast
lignite mining at KWB Belchatow (B); (2) on carboniferous coal
refuse spoil heaps at the Smolnica (Sm) coal mine; (3) on sand
mining pits at the Szczakowa (Sz) mine; and (4) on spoil heaps of
rock overburden at the Piaseczno (P) sulfur mine (Fig. 1).
The opencast lignite mine spoil heap Belchatow (B) is located in
central Poland (N 51 13.196; E 19 25.569). The spoil heap ranges in
height from 120 to 180 m and covers an area of 1480 ha. Climate
in the area is transitional and variable due to frequent interactions
between polar maritime and continental air masses. The average
annual temperature is 7.6  C and total precipitation is 580 mm. The
site is located mostly on a mixture of Quaternary loamy and
gravelly sands which occasionally contains loam, boulder clay and
clay (B-Ql). There are also areas of Tertiary sandy strata with
inclusions of loam and clay, which commonly contain carbonates
and sulfides in varying amounts (B-Ts). These sands oxidize to be
extremely acidic (pH < 4.5), frequently displaying phytotoxic
properties. The initial reclamation treatment on the flat summit
of the spoil heap consisted of neutralization with bog lime (marl:
35% CaO at 12.5 Mg ha
1) incorporated into the surface horizon to a
depth of 40 cm, fertilization (N-60, P-70 and K-60 kg ha
1), and
sowing a mixture of grasses and leguminous plants. After initial
2 years of initial herbaceous reclamation, the area of studies was
reforested with Scots pine.
The Smolnica (Sm) primary coal overburden spoil heap is located
in southern Poland’s Upper Silesia Region (Fig. 1; N 50 15.095; E 18
31.284). The site consists of a 60 ha spoil heap, with a flat hilltop and
gradual slopes. The average annual temperature is 7.7  C with an
annual range of 21  C; the length of the growing period is 220 days
and the average precipitation is 702 mm. In these carboniferous
dumps, primarily waste rock from coal processing and cleaning is
disposed of, i.e., mostly carbonaceous shales (85–95% of waste rocks)
with additional (5–15% waste rocks) mudstones and sandstones.
Study plots (Sm-CF) were set up in pine stands on one part of the spoil
with mineral fertilization (applied at N-100, P-20, and K-20 kg ha
1).
The remaining areas were not fertilized (Sm-CNF).
The Szczakowa open cast sand mine (Sz) is also located in the
Upper Silesia Region (Fig. 1; N 50 14.394; E 19 25.140). The deposits
are fluvioglacial Quaternary sediments deposited into a pre-
Quaternary landscape depression. The study sites were located on
returned overburden sands with loam inclusions (Sz-Qls) and also
on much coarser textured nutrient poor sands (Sz-Qs). The area has
an average annual air temperature of 8  C and 700 mm precipita-
tion. A disturbed area of over 2700 ha with an excavated depth of
5–25 m has resulted from mining over time. The reclamation
treatments included re-grading the surface and adding organic
amendments (approx. 300 m3 ha). The organic amendment used
was a mixture of local forest litter and mineral A horizons with an
average organic C content from 0.3 to 1.0%, selectively collected
from the overlying forest soils before mining (Strzyszcz, 2004).
Subsequent treatments included a 2-year cycle of fertilization
(total amount of N-140, P-130 and K-150 kg ha
1) and a 2-year
cycle of lupine (Lupinus luteus L.) cultivation followed by
incorporating the lupine as green manure. Next, the site was
Table 1
Basic soil characteristics at different geologic/mine substrates for four study sites.

Horizon and substrate (parent rock variant) Silt (0.05–0.002 mm) Clay (<0.002 mm) pH (H2O) Organic C Exchangeable acidity (Hh) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

% g kg
1 cmolc kg
1

M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218

A C A C Oi + Oe A C Oi + Oe A A C A C
B-Ql2 341 301 3 4 4.51 7.6 8.21 479 6.1 0.6 0.4 26.21 27.11
(16–43)3 (8–41) (0–6) (1–9) (4.34–4.59) (7.5–7.9) (8.1–8.8) (471–485) (3.4–8.6) (0.5–0.6) (0.3–0.6) (23.3–36.1) (21.7–35.4)

B-Ts 81 101 3.5 6 4.21 5.5 5.51 419 2.7 1.5 1.8 6.11 4.11
(5–9) (3–45) (0–4) (1–8) (4.5–4.2) (4.1–7.7) (3.0–6.8) (340–453) (2.3–3.3) (0.6–2.8) (0.9–6.7) (3.8–6.7) (3.3–9.1)

Sm-CF 36 33 23 24 4.41 4.2 4.0 4391 164.2 11.7 8.7 16.6 22.3
(34–39) (30–35) (22–26) (17–27) (4.0–4.7) (4.0–4.5) (3.2–6.4) (399–467) (153.9–182.0) (9.1–24.3) (1.5–13.5) (15.3–29.0) (9.3–38.4)

Sm-CNF 38 33 20 23 4.7 4.3 3.5 3781 129.7 12.0 12.8 18.2 16.7
(29–44) (27–36) (19–25) (19–28) (4.2–4.9) (3.8–4.9) (3.0–4.4) (378–409) (117.5–184.1) (9.3–13.8) (3.0–15.1) (9.5–25.4) (9.0–20.9)

Sz-Qls 8 10 41 61 4.2 5.3 6.5 317 4.51 0.7 0.7 2.0 3.5
(6–11) (3–22) (3–4) (2–9) (4.2–4.5) (5.3–5.3) (6.3–6.8) (202.8–429.4) (3.2–0.5) (0.4–2.1) (0.3–2.2) (1.4–3.2) (2.2–5.6)

Sz-Qs 5 1 21 11 4.5 6.5 7.1 331.6 1.81 1.1 0.6 3.2 1.1
(3–6) (1–3) (0–2) (1–3) (4.1–4.8) (5.0–8.0) (6.1–8.6) (268.6–401.5) (1.5–4.1) (0.7–1.3) (0.4–2.2) (1.6–6.6) (0.9–2.8)

P-QsTc 9 7 91 81 5.21 6.2 7.1 284 13.61 2.8 0.9 10.3 9.0
(6–18) (2–17) (6–11) (3–10) (5.0–5.3) (4.9–7.4) (6.6–8.1) (268–357) (10.6–15.1) (0.9–4.6) (0.4–1.2) (9.1–26.5) (4.0–22.6)

P-Qs 4 2 41 31 4.71 5.9 7.3 325 4.81 1.6 0.7 4.1 2.9
(2–6) (1–4) (2–5) (1–5) (4.3–5.0) (5.0–7.2) (5.6–8.3) (235–432) (4.2–5.2) (1.2–2.1) (0.4–1.2) (2.8–10.5) (1.7–4.5)
1
Substrate variant pairs by site differ significant at p < 0.05.
2
B-Ql – belchatow pine post-mine ecosystems on Quaternary loam substrate; Sm – Smolnica; Sz – Szczakowa; P – Piaseczno; see explanation in the site description chapter.
3
4.7 (4.3–4.6) – sample mean and range.

211
212 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218

Fig. 1. Study site locations: (B – Belchatow pine post-mining ecosystem on Belchatow external spoil heap; Sm – Smolnica spoil heap; Sz – Szczakowa sand quarry; P –
Piaseczno spoil heap); for each post-mine site one control plot in adjacent managed pine forests on natural sites (N-F) were located (total control plot n = 4): see description in
methodology chapter.

reforested with Scots pine (Pietrzykowski and Krzaklewski,
2007b).
The spoil heap at the Piaseczno (P) open cast sulfur mine is
located in southern Poland (Fig. 1; N 50 33.622; E 21 34.185). The
site is conical in shape with an area of 120 ha and a height of up to
40 m. The average annual temperature is 7.0  C; the annual range is
21  C; the length of the growing season is 212 days; and average
precipitation is 650 mm. The spoil heap mainly consists of Tertiary
Krakowiec formation clays, Quaternary sands and loamy sands and
is primarily a mixture of these sediments. Two research plots were
located on soils reforested with Scots pine. One on a mixture of
Quaternary sands and the other on Tertiary clays (P-QsTc) mixed
with Quaternary sands (P-Qs). The 2 year initial reclamation
treatment consisted of a leguminous and grass crop with mineral
fertilization (total application of N-80, P-50, K-60 kg ha
1).
2.2. Field studies and laboratory analyses
A total of 32 research plots (10 m 10 m) were established on
the four post-mining sites in pine stands (ranging from 12 to
30 years of age) with 4 replications for each geologic/mine soil
substrates, and on two trophic level at each site: (i) on potentially
more productive soils with the best textures at each site (i.e., B-Ql,
Sz-Qls, P-QsTc, Sm-CF); (ii), and in contrast, a second variant was
located on potentially less fertile sediments (e.g, where textures
were loose sands, acidic strata following liming, or in coal refuse
without fertilization at Sz-Qs, P-Qs, B-Ts, Sm-CNF, respectively)
(Table 1). The sampled forest stand blocks were chosen based on
stand age and spoil type and then the replicate sampling locations
were randomly assigned within each forest block. Soils in post-
mining areas (B, Sm, Sz and P) were classified as Urbic Anthrosols
(FAO and ISRIC, 2006 FAO-Unesco ISSS-ISRIC, 2006 ) and had
poorly developed organic enriched surface mineral horizons (A)
and incipient organic surface horizons of forest litter (Oi) and
partially decomposed organic materials (Oe). According to USA Soil
Taxonomy (USDA-NRCS, 2010) the soils were all Typic Udorthents
with O–A–C horizon sequences.
Four control plots were set up in managed pine forests on
natural sites (N-F) adjacent to post-mine sites (one control
plots nearby to each post-mine facility in Scots pine stands of
19 and 30 to 40 years in age, respectively) and developed on
Albic Arenosols and Haplic Podzols (FAO 1988; Typic Udispam-
ments or Typic Haplorthods by Soil Taxonomy). Habitats
 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218
developed on these soils type are appropriate for Scots pine
(Obmin ski, 1983).
2.3. Tree stands biomass and root system biomass study
Dendrometric measurements of trees on sample plots were
conducted via measuring tree diameter at the root collar (D0) and
1.3 m (Dbh) and then measuring height (h). On the basis of the tree
measurements and empirical equation, and using a previously
developed allometric function (Pietrzykowski and Socha, 2011) for
pine trees growing on these sites, the total dry biomass of trees in
each stand (Eq. (1)) and the associated biomass of the foliage
(Eq. (2)) were estimated as follow:
BT ¼ 0:102080  ðD21:3 HÞ0:793199
where: BT – total aboveground tree biomass (dry mass) (kg); D1.3 –
diameter at a height of 1.3 m (Dbh).
BF ¼ 0:0533  ðD21:3 HÞ0:5306
where: BF – foliage biomass (dry mass) (kg); D1.3 – diameter at
breast height (Dbh) (cm).
To estimate the biomass of associated root systems a formula
(Eq. (3)) developed for post-mine sites by Pietrzykowski et al.
(2010) was used.
Br ¼ 0:02298  D1:7295
0
where: Br – root biomass (dry mass) (kg) (roots approximately at
diameter >8 mm); D0– diameter at the root collar (cm).
The aboveground understory vegetation (herbaceous + shrubs)
biomass was quantified by sampling from quadrats on 1 m2
sub-plots (3  1.0 m2 sub-plots distributed along the diagonal of
each 10 m 10 m main study plot; the number of replications for
understory vegetation biomass study for each site  spoil variant
was n = 12). Composite samples for each plot of tree woody and
needle tissues and forest floor vegetation were taken for lab
determination of moisture content by drying (65  C) followed by C
determination on a LecoTM CNS analyzer.
2.4. Soil study
As part of reclaimed mine soil (RMS) studies, 36 soil profiles
(32 on PME and 4 on control plots in adjacent natural managed
forests) were exposed in pits to a depth of 110 cm to parent spoil C
horizons and/or the approximate maximum rooting depth on post-
mining soils). The detailed morphology was described for one
profile (typical pedon) from every substrate variant on each site
and in all cases from soils in the adjacent natural ecosystems.
Typical pedons were selected based on local surface topography
and represented average tree growth for a given stand. At each site,
5 additional borings were made on each plot with a soil augers
(diameter 5 cm Eijkelkamp), and composite samples were taken
separately for each horizon; four sampling points were located at
the corners of the experimental site and one in the center of each
study plot. Samples of the disturbed soils for determination of
basic soil chemical and physical properties and C content were
taken at depths of 0–8 cm (A – organic-mineral horizons exhibiting
some features of parent material); 8–50 cm and 50–110 cm
(C horizons – parent materials/rocky spoils). Sampling for bulk
density was done by the core method using standard sharpened
steel cylinders (250 cm3; De Vos et al., 2005) with 3 replications for
each layer (0–8; 8–50 and 50–110 cm deep) in the post-mine soil
pits (one soil pit for each soil-substrate variant).
Samples of organic horizons (Oi + Oe; annotated with both
USDA-NRCS O horizon subscripts and FAO syntax OLf, where
213
L = leaf; f = fermentation/fragmentation layer) were collected in the
end of October after litter fall from 1 m 1 m sub-plot quadrats
with 3 replications distributed along on each research plot
(10 m 10 m). Next, the mass of fresh organic horizons was
determined and composite samples were taken for laboratory
testing (moisture and C content).
In the lab, soil samples from mineral horizons (A and C) were
dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve and samples from organic
horizons (Oi + Oe) were ground. The following parameters were
determined on the soil samples using the laboratory procedures of
Ostrowska et al. (1991). Particle size distribution was determined
by hydrometer analysis and sand fractions by sieving. Soil pH was
determined in H2O at a 1:2.5 soil:solution ratio for mineral
horizons and 1:5 ratio for organic horizons. Cation exchange
(1) capacity (CEC) was calculated by the sum of alkaline cations
(SH = Ca+2 + Mg+2 + K+ + Na+) plus exchangeable acidity (see below)
extractable in 1N NH4OAc and determined by atomic absorption
spectroscopy (AAS) with a VarianTM Spectrophotometer. Ex-
(2) changeable acidity (Hh) of the soil was measured using 1M Ca
(OAc)2 extraction, followed by potentiometric titration to pH
8.2 with 0.1 m NaOH. Soil organic C (SOC) was determined using a
LecoTM CNS 2000 analyzer with infrared detection; samples
containing CaCO3 were washed (after initial test with HCl) in
10% HCl to remove carbonates before SOC was determined. Total
organic C stocks in soil (SOC) were calculated based on the
(3) thickness, SOC-content and bulk density of each layer.
2.5. Statistical analyses
The results were statistically analysed using the Statistica 10
software (StatSoft Inc., 1984–2011). Data for ecosystem C
accumulation in ecosystem elements were contrasted by a
one-way ANOVA procedure (at p = 0.05). Dstributions were tested
for normality using the Shapiro–Wilks test, and variance
homogeneity was tested by Leven’s test. In cases of non-normal
distributions, a Kruskall–Wallis nonparametric test with the
multiple comparisons procedure was used to separate treatment
effects. In cases of normal distributions, treatments were
contrasted by Tukey’s HSD multiple comparison procedure. The
differences between contrasted variants for basic soil character-
istics and vegetation data sets, such as aboveground community
biomass were tested across variant pairs (e.g., substrate variants:
B-Ql and B-Ts) by F-protected independent t-tests (p = 0.05).
Correlations between C accumulation in soil and aboveground
biomass were determined by the Pearson procedure.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Reclaimed mine soil characteristics
In the higher (presumably better) trophic variants, the mine soils
were substantially (p = 0.05) higher in silt content at the B site and in
clay on the Sz and P sites (Table 1). Mine soils on the Sm coal mine
spoils had a relatively high proportion of silt + clay, but also a high
percentage (80%) of rock fragments (>2 mm) derived from
sandstones and carboniferous shale. From the reclamation point
of view, the high proportion of large rock fragments (20 cm
diameter) is important since it negatively affects plant growth
conditions, particularly via low bulk water holding and CEC.
However, some of the rocks are susceptible to weathering (shales
and claystones) and slake quickly, providing a finer textured mine
soil with good potential productivity once limed. Generally, low
content of Ca, P and N, and relatively high content of Na, Mg, K and
sulfide materials are characteristic of these spoils (Pietrzykowski,
2014).
214 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218

Table 2
Tree stand biomass on reforested mine lands in comparison to control plots under managed forests on natural sites.

Mine site and Tree stand age Aboveground biomass Foliage Total (understory Root Aboveground biomass/
substrate variant (years) vegetation + trees) biomass7 tree stand age
Understory vegetation Trees5 Wood6
(herbaceous and shrubs)3 (wood + foliage)
Mg ha
1 Mg ha
1 yr
1

B-Ql2 17 0.1351 44.26 38.45 5.81 44.41 4.57 2.61

(0.091) (8.34) (8.57) (1.08) (1.02)

B-Ts 12 0.0331 8.12 6.43 1.69 8.21 1.14 0.68

(0.021) (2.60) (2.61) (0.40) (0.29)

Sm-CF 30 0.3451 96.34 90.54 5.80 96.7 13.13 3.22

(0.241) (16.63) (18.13) (1.08) (2.84)

Sm-CNF 30 0.1531 83.45 77.88 5.57 83.6 12.56 2.79

(0.102) (13.21) (14.76) (0.53) (3.83)

Sz-Qls 21 0.0154 76.75 70.74 6.01 76.8 5.39 3.66

(0.010) (6.15) (6.61) (0.52) (0.73)

Sz-Qs 23 0.013 80.93 73.76 7.18 80.9 5.17 3.52

(0.011) (7.36) (7.94) (0.58) (1.04)

P-QsTc 30 0.1701 102.12 96.75 5.37 102.3 14.38 3.41

(0.245) (2.80) (30.69) (1.67) (4.46)

P-Qs 30 0.0731 129.98 122.29 7.69 130.1 16.13 4.34

(0.062) (15.63) (16.69) (1.48) (1.25)

Control N-F 30 0.942 128.99 121.67 7.32 129.9 13.21 4.33

(0.707) (38.53) (38.12) (1.00) (11.05)
1
Substrate variant pairs by site differ significant at p < 0.05.
2
B-Ql – Belchatow pine post-mine ecosystems on Quaternary loam substrate; Sm – Smolnica; Sz – Szczakowa; P – Piaseczno; N-F – natural forest pine ecosystem, see
explanation in the site description chapter.
3
For understory vegetation harvest method for biomass determination. Number of experimental sub-plots (1 1 m2) was n = 12.
4
35.18 (7.65) – sample mean (SD).
5
For tree stand biomass. Number of measured experimental plots (10 10 m2) n = 4, total wood and foliage biomass of trees with Dbh >7 cm based on equation by
Pietrzykowski and Socha (2011).
6
Wood biomass – only large timber without branches and foliage.
7
Root biomass estimated according to literature equation – see Section 2.

In most instances, soil pH was similar between soils for both
substrate variants at each site. The H2O:soil pH differed only for the
substrate variants in the forest litter horizons at the B and P sites
and in rocky parent material horizons at B. Sandy soils developing
on the former Szczakowa sand mine (Scz) had the lowest CEC
(Table 1) as would be expected
3.2. Estimation of vegetation biomass and carbon storage
The distribution of biomass in soil horizons vs. tree stands,
which are the main components of regional forest plant
communities, is important for describing their associated C
storage processes (Cairns et al., 1997). Total aboveground vegeta-
tion biomass (trees wood + foliage + understory vegetation from
herbaceous + shrub layers) differed substantially across the sites
and ranged from 8.2 Mg ha
1 at B-Ts up to 130.1 Mg ha
1 in the
P-Qs variant at P (Table 2). By comparison, the total aboveground
vegetative biomass of the control sites (N) averaged 129.9 Mg ha
1
(Table 2). The typical aboveground biomass in forests of the
temperate zone ranges from a low of 21 Mg ha
1 (approx. 30-year-
old stands) up to 170 Mg ha
1 (50-year-old stands; Krebs, 1994). In
natural conditions on the Polish lowlands, reported average
aboveground pine stand biomass (wood + foliage and shrubs) of
age group 1 (up to 20 years of age) has been estimated to be
50 Mg ha
1 (Orzeł et al., 2005). By comparison, four 17-year-old
stands of pines on a reclaimed sand pit in southern Poland
contained 25 Mg ha
1(Pietrzykowski, 2008) of total above
ground biomass. In the sites studied here, the presumed substrate
variations (differences in parent material within these post-mining
sites) did not produce substantial differences in aboveground
biomass, with the exception of the B spoil heap which was
produced by lignite mining (Table 2). It is obvious that the
differences at site B were primarily due to the age and the
development stage of pine stands. In the B-Ql variant on
quaternary loamy sands, the pine trees were 17-year-old while
on the Tertiary limed sands they were 12-year-old. On all other
sites, differences in the age of the stands were 2 years, and
differences between community biomass between variants were
not significant.
The calculated average annual growth rate (total vegetation
aboveground biomass/tree stand age; Mg ha
1 yr
1; Table 2) was
originally presumed to offer a better option for comparing sites and
internal substrate variants as far as ecosystem productivity was
concerned (Pan et al., 2011). However, even by this metric, no
significant differences between the substrate variants within sites
(for post-mining soils) were noted (Table 2). However, our analysis
did indicate that the P-Qs vegetation on the Piaseczno spoil heap
site had the highest measured aboveground annual biomass
accumulation rate at 4.34 Mg ha
1 yr
1 (Table 2). These values
were also comparable to the natural forest pine ecosystems on
natural sites (control plots NF) where the average annual
productivity was 4.33 Mg ha
1 yr
1 (Table 2). The B-Ts site on
limed Tertiary sands generated the lowest average annual
aboveground biomass accumulation rate. For the other sites, the
average aboveground biomass accumulation ranged from 2.8 to
3.7 Mg
1 ha
1 yr
1 (Table 2).
 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218 215

Table 3
Ecosystem components (soil and biomass) C stocks and estimated sequestration rates on reforested mined lands in comparison to control plots on managed forests on natural
sites.

Mine site and Tree C stocks Biomass R Litter layer Total soil Ecosystem
substrate stand age C/total (Oi + Oe) C/ C/stand carbon stock/
variant (years) soil C6 stand age age stand age
SOC3 Litter Total soil C Trees and Root C Ecosystem
layer (litter + SOC) understory C5
(Oi + Oe) vegetation C
Mg ha
1 Mg ha
1 yr
1
2 1
B-Ql 17 35.2 a 10.7ab 45.9ab 21.6ab 2.2ab 69.7ab 0.47ab
0.29 0.63 2.70 4.1abc
B-Ts 12 53.54 a 9.6ab 63.1ab 4.0a 0.6a 67.6a 0.06ab 0.78 5.20 5.64bc
Sm-CF 30 2969.3b 5.9a 2975.2b 43.2bcd 6.3cde 55.4ab 0.02a 0.63 0.20 –7 1.85ab
Sm-CNF 30 1952.1b 7.0ab 1959.1b 37.5bc 6.0bcd 50.6ab 0.02a 0.24 – 1.69a
Sz-Qls 21 12.8a 9.8ab 22.6a 34.1bc 2.8bc 59.5ab 1.51ab
0.37 0.47 1.08 1.62abc
Sz-Qs 23 8.6a 8.1ab 16.8a 36.0bc 2.5bc 55.3ab 2.15b 0.35 0.73 2.40abc
P-QsTc 30 54.0a 11.1ab 65.0ab 47.6cd 6.9cde 102.3ab 0.73ab
0.53 0.37 2.17 3.98abc
P-Qs 30 21.6a 12.8ab 34.4ab 60.1d 7.7de 94.5ab 1.74b 0.42 1.15 3.15abc
Control (N-F) 30 40.4a 18.7b 59.1ab 60.0d 6.3e 125.4b 1.01ab 0.62 1.97 4.18c

R – coefficient of linear correlation between C accumulation in aboveground vegetation (trees + understory vegetation) biomass and total soil C (litter + SOC).
1
Within columns, means followed by the same letter are not significantly different (p = 0.05).
2
B-Ql – Belchatow pine post-mine ecosystems on Quaternary loam substrate; Sm – Smolnica; Sz – Szczakowa; P – Piaseczno; N-F – natural forest pine ecosystem, see
explanation in the site description chapter.
3
SOC – soil organic carbon accumulation in mineral horizons (Ai and C) up to 110 cm.
4
35.2 – sample mean.
5
Ecosystem C (total soil C (litter + SOC) + aboveground biomass of trees, understory vegetation and root C), for coal refuse wastes on Smolnica spoil heap ecosystem C
calculated as litter layer + aboveground biomass of trees, forest floor and root C.
6
Trees and understory vegetation aboveground biomass C/total soil C stocks.
7
For coal refuse wastes on Smolnica spoil heap annual total soil C accumulation was not estimated because geogenic C.

Although the foliage comprised only a small portion of standing
tree biomass, it makes up a considerable part of annual
incremental biomass production; frequently up to half of woody
tissue production (Waring and Schlesinger, 1985; Miletic et al.,
2010) and plays a significant role in C fluxes in temperate forest
ecosystems (Pan et al., 2011). The foliage biomass in younger pine
tree stands varied between 13.1% of total tree aboveground
biomass for 17-year-old stands on the B-Ql variant (5.81 Mg ha
1
foliage to 44.26 Mg ha
1 total tree biomass) to 20.7% in 12-year-old
tree stands in variant B-Ts (1.69 Mg ha
1 foliage to 8.12 Mg ha
1
total tree biomass; Table 2). In the remaining post-mining sites, in
older trees (20 and 30 years of age) and in natural forest pine
stands (N-F), foliage biomass was 5.3–8.9% (Table 2) of total
aboveground tree biomass.
Quantifying belowground plant biomass is also important for
accurate estimation of ecosystem C-sequestration (Waisel et al.,
1991; Vogt et al., 1998) since the rooting system may contain up
to 50% of total ecosystem C in forests (Lieth and Whittaker, 1975;
Krebs, 1994). In post-mining sites, the ratio of root system
biomass to the aboveground biomass is usually presumed to be
low, which is important for understanding nutrient flux
processes and stand stability (Hüttl and Weber, 2001). Frequent-
ly a value of 0.2  AWB (aboveground woody biomass) is used in
the literature for estimating tree root biomass, (Lieth and
Whittaker, 1975; Miller et al., 2006). In our study sites, the
>8 mm diameter pine root biomass was estimated according to
the equations that Pietrzykowski and Socha (2011) developed for
post-mining ecosystems from whole root excavations on 50 trees
on adjacent sites. Compared to the total aboveground standing
biomass, the root biomass in the PME was 6.4–7.0% (5.2–
5.4 Mg ha
1) in Sz, and 15% (12.56 Mg ha
1) in the Sm-CNF
variant. Root biomass determined in this manner was much
lower than recently quoted by Bijak and Zasada (2007) in the
literature for pine-stands (<40 years of age) in coniferous forests
in western Poland. In these studies and others on spruce (Picea
abies) in central Europe (Mund et al., 2002), as well as on
different tree species in Australia (Snowdon et al., 2000), a
positive correlation was observed among root biomass, tree age
and habitat fertility. However, this was not observed on our
post-mining sites where the internal differences in fertility
variants did not substantially affect pine root biomass in 12–
30 year-old sites.
As expected, woody trees constituted the dominant share of
community biomass and the understory vegetation in PMEs never
exceeded 0.4 (Mg ha
1) or 0.2–0.3% of total community biomass
(Pietrzykowski and Socha, 2011). On the other hand, the
understory vegetation on the undisturbed control plots (N-F)
was much higher than on the mined study sites and exceeded
0.9 Mg ha
1 on average. In comparisons within the post-mining
sites, the aboveground understory vegetation biomass was
considerably higher in more fertile variants than potentially less
fertile sites in all cases, with the exception of Sz, (p < 0.05; Table 2).
Carbon stocks in total aboveground plant vegetation biomass on
the PMEs were lower than in the natural (N-F) ecosystems where it
was estimated to be 60.12 Mg ha
1 (Table 3). The lowest total C
stock of 3.97 Mg ha
1 was found in 12-year-old trees on the B-Ts
variant in Tertiary sands following liming. The highest value
(60.12 Mg ha
1), and the only one which was similar to natural
ecosystems (60 Mg ha
1), was found in 30-year-old tree stands in
the P-Qs variant on Quaternary sands (Table 3). In all remaining
cases, except for B-Ql, the amount of accumulated C in
aboveground vegetation biomass did not differ between PME
and N-F at a given site and ranged from 34.05 (Sz-Qls) to
47.62 Mg ha
1 (P-QsTc) (Table 3). The C stock density in mature
temperate forests is estimated on 155 Mg ha
1 (Pan et al., 2011),
thus the current C stock estimated in the PMEs studied here was
20–30% of potential storage.
3.3. Estimation of soil carbon storage and across-site variation
Total C stock in soil (litter + SOC up to 110 cm) for the sites
studied here ranged from 16.8 Mg ha
1 at Szczakowa on the
216 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218
poorest sandy soils (Sz-Qs) to over 65.0 Mg ha
1 at Piaseczno on
fertile finer textured deposits (P-QsTc). This latter value was higher
than the average total soil C (Oi + Oe + SOC up to 110 cm deep)
estimated for the control sites (N), which averaged 59.1 Mg ha
1
(Table 3). In comparison, soils undergoing natural succession
chronosequences on inland sand dunes in the Netherlands (De
Kovel et al., 2000) contained only 4.0 Mg ha
1C in SOM under
young (5-year-old) communities, but increased up to 104.0 Mg
ha
1 under 120-year-old mixed forest. In forest habitats of Central
Europe, in organic and organic-mineral Haplic Podzols
(FAO-Unesco ISSS-ISRIC (2006) Haplohumods & Haplorthods by
Soil Taxonomy) developing on fluvial sediments and glacial sands,
the amount of C-accumulation has been estimated at 76.0–
122.0 Mg ha
1 (Pietrzykowski and Krzaklewski, 2010). In this
study, however, SOC accumulation in young soils developing from
mixed carboniferous deposits from coal refuse at Smolnica was
very high (1959.1 and 2975.2 Mg ha
1 in Sm-CNF and Sm-CF,
respectively; Table 3), but these values are obviously inflated by
the geologic C content of the their parent hard rock and coal.
The determination of organic C content in initial soils and the
subsequent determination of SOC in the case of soils developing on
reclaimed mine sites is particularly difficult from the methodo-
logical perspective when rocks or sediments containing fossil
(geogenic) C constitutes a large amount of the original spoil banks
(Pietrzykowski and Krzaklewski, 2007a; Chabbi et al., 2008). The
amount of recent C sequestered in mine soils versus the fossil SOC
content in the deposited overburden can be approximated
byradiocarbon dating using 14C AMS (Rumpel et al., 2003) or by
using a site-specific coal-correction equation (Amichev et al.,
2008). In some studies, the authors estimated the content of
recently sequestrated SOC by subtracting the C content of a deeper
soil horizon from the total C content (Reintam, 2004; Frouz et al.,
2009). This method is applicable only in sites without topsoil
application and assumes that the soil profile of young post-mining
soils is homogeneous, because the overburden material is
presumably well mixed during mining, spoil placement and final
site grading (Vindušková and Frouz, 2013).
At several of our sites, particularly the carbonate rich Tertiary
sand strata in the lignite mine spoil heaps (B-Ts) and the
carboniferous shales and sandstones accompanying coal refuse
mining waste (Sm), fossil-C accounts for a large share in the total C
content in both the original and post-revegetation soils and the soil
substrates are not homogeneous with depth (as observed in pedon
descriptions). Therefore, the rate of SOC accumulation in these
soils is difficult to quantify, but some estimation was possible by
calculating net accumulation in the initial organic horizons
(Oi + Oe) developing under the establishing plant communities.
When comparing Sm to the other PME study sites, accumulated C
in organic horizons (Oi + Oe) was the lowest and ranged from 5.9 to
7.0 Mg ha
1 (Table 3). In organic horizons (Oi + Oe) at the other PME
study sites, the amount of accumulated C ranged from 8.1 Mg ha
1
(Sz-Qs) to 12.8 Mg ha
1 (P-Qs) (Table 3). However, the amount of C
stocks in organic horizons (Oi + Oe) did not statistically vary by
trophic levels within these sites (Tables 3).
Net SOC-sequestration rates in pine ecosystems studied here on
most deposits, (estimated as current mined site total soil C stock/
stand age), ranged between 0.7 (Sz-Qs) to 2.7 Mg ha
1 yr
1 (B-Ql)
and up to 5.2 Mg ha
1 yr
1 on Tertiary strata on the Belchatow spoil
heap (B-Ts) (Table 3). However, on Tertiary strata the SOC stock was
affected in similar fashion as at the Smolnica coal refuse wastes, by
fossil-C (from hard coal). Comparatively, Shrestha and Lal (2006)
reported similar estimated values for reclaimed forested midwest-
ern USA mine soils (excluding vegetation biomass). Vindušková
and Frouz (2013), based on meta-analysis and reference data from
93 temperate post-mining sites (forest and grassland) established
following open-cast and oil shale mining in the northern
hemisphere, estimated average rates of accumulation at 2.46 Mg
C ha
1 yr
1 after 10 years and 0.87 Mg C ha
1 yr
1 after 40 years. A
somewhat higher but comparable rate (1.17 Mg C ha
1 yr
1) was
reported by Anderson et al. (2008) for a chronosequence of
13 post-mining sites in Wyoming that ranged in age from 11 to
26 years. Higher rates were estimated in our study for the n B-Ql
and B-Ts and P-QsTc substrates (Table 3). However, as noted above,
the rates on Tertiary (B-Ts) materials may be inflated by fossil SOC.
Due to the analytical difficulties due to fossil C containing in the
Tertiary strata (B-Ts) and coal refuse wastes (Sm-Cf and Sm-CNF),
we estimated current potential C-sequestration in organic
horizons (Oi + Oe) as the litter layer C/stand age ratio. Using this
metric, our estimated range was 0.2 Mg ha
1 yr
1 (Sm-CF) to
0.8 Mg ha
1 yr
1 (B-Ts) (Table 3) for these two problematic sites.
For potential annual total C-sequestration in PME taken as the
combined ecosystem C stocks/stand age we estimated 1.62 Mg C
ha
1 yr
1 (on Sz-Qls) to 5.64 Mg C ha
1 yr
1 (B-Ts) (Table 3).
Amichev et al. (2008) reported total ecosystem C-sequestration
rates for reforested (primarily hardwoods, not conifers) in eastern
USA coal mine spoils, including soils, litter layers and biomass
based on a 60 year rotation age and projected a rate of 2.0 and
3.0 Mg ha
1 yr
1.
The vertical distribution of SOC in the soil profile can differ
strongly among forest types on reclaimed sites, including
deciduous, mixed forests and coniferous forests (Vinduškowá
and Foruz, 2013). In reclaimed mine soils (RMS) the distribution
of C accumulation in organic (Oi + Oe) and mineral horizons (A
and C up to 110 cm deep) as well can be quite diverse. In natural
Haplic Podzols in our control (N-F) plots, C accumulated in
organic horizons (Oi + Oe) constituted around 34% of the total C in
soil. At the PME post-mining sites, the largest ratio of C stored in
organic horizon (Oi + Oe) to total soil C (mineral horizon up to
110 cm deep) was on sandy spoils at Sz and significantly exceeded
40% in both substrate variants (data in Table 3). On the lignite
mine spoil heaps at Belchatow, C in organic horizons compared to
C in mineral horizon stocks ranged from around 15% (B-Ts) to 23%
(B-Ql), and for P sites from 17% (variant P-QsTc) to 37% (variant
P-Qs; data from Table 3). Related German research indicates that
most organic C in areas of up 17 years of age under pine stands
accumulates in the overlying organic horizons while in older
stands (32 years old), C accumulates mostly in incipient organic
enriched mineral horizons (Rumpel et al., 1999). A rapid initial
increase of C accumulation in overlying humus horizons is
presumably connected with the development of tree communi-
ties and a growing amount of annual litterfall. For temperate
forest ecosystems developed on post-mine sites in open-cast
mining (Vindušková and Frouz, 2013), that surface organic layer
contained 23% of sequestered SOC under deciduous and mixed
forests and 62% under conifers.
3.4. Carbon sequestration in vegetation in relation to across-site
variation in soils
Similarly, the amount of C in vegetation biomass in relation to C
accumulated in soil (biomass C/total soil C, Table 3) is a good
indicator of ecosystem development rates in primary successional
systems (Lieth and Whittaker, 1975). In the initial stages of soil
formation, the amount of organic matter, particularly in the litter
layers, increases rapidly before reaching an equilibrium condition,
while subsequent C-related pedogenic processes in deeper mineral
soil layers may take from several hundred to tens of thousands of
years (Kowda and Griszyna, 1984) to equilibrate. In so-called
mature ecosystems, the net soil C accumulation rate may fall to
practically zero or remain high, depending on climate, wetness
regime/drainage and other soil forming factors. Therefore, the
average retention or turnover time for organic C in soil systems
 M. Pietrzykowski, W.L. Daniels / Ecological Engineering 73 (2014) 209–218
varies widely, ranging from >300 years in the Taiga to <0.4 years in
equatorial rainforests (Weiner, 2004), and the amount of C
accumulated in the soil relative to C in standing biomass in most
upland terrestrial ecosystems is usually 2-fold higher. The primary
exceptions are temperate forests where the ratio (vegetation
biomass C/soil C) exceeds 1.0 (Krebs, 1994). In the control plots
(N-F) in this study, the ratio was actually similar to literature
estimates at 1.01 (Table 3).
In the PMEs studied here, the estimated vegetation biomass C/
soil C ratio varied widely from 0.06 at Belchatow in variant B-Ts and
0.47 in variant B-Ql, to over 2.0 in variant Sz-Qs at Szczakowa
(Table 3). Interestingly, this parameter was one of the few
measured variables in this study which substantially differentiated
Sz-Qls vs. Sz-Qs by trophic levels at Szczakowa and P-QsTc vs. P-Qs
at Piaseczno (Table 3). At these sites, the average ratio values were
higher on the more fertile deposits, although aboveground
biomass showed no differences and the less fertile sites (Sz-Qs
and P-Qs) produced a higher community biomass. This indicates
(a) a significant increase of biomass compared to the C accumula-
tion rate in soil, and (b) that this difference may be connected to
better growth conditions in these substrates for Scots pine due to
the species’ soil requirements and oligotrophic habitat preferences
(Obmin  ski, 1970; Orzeł et al., 2005). At B, differences between the
aboveground biomass C/total C soil ratio (biomass C/total soil C;
Table 3) were not significantly different (B-Ql vs. B-Ts), but higher
values (0.47) appeared at B-Ql, the potentially more fertile variant,
and much lower values were seen in the less fertile B-Ts (0.06;
Table 3). This was the result of low aboveground tree stand and
vegetation biomass in the 12-year-old stands and substantial C-
sequestration in soils developing from carbonate rich Tertiary
sands in variant B-Ts at Belchatow. However, C-sequestration in
soils at most sites (apart from Sm) showed no significant linear
correlation to C accumulation in biomass (R – linear regression
coefficient with p < 0.05 was from
0.29 to
0.53; Table 3). As
discussed above for the post-mining sites on carboniferous
substrates (e.g., Sm), the estimation of C-sequestration is greatly
complicated by geological C (Chabbi et al., 2008).
4. Summary and conclusion
Estimated C-sequestration in the new pine forest ecosystems
studied here was relatively high compared to reported data from
temperate zone for open-cast and oil shale mining in the northern
hemisphere and, as well, when compared with natural ecosystems
in managed forests sites in the vicinity of our study sites. By
comparison, most of the related data sets reported by other
authors for post-mine sites were collected in different types of tree
stands, mostly without specific tree species determination, and
their results were estimated generally for coniferous and decid-
uous forests, and in some cases for grasslands. By comparison, our
studies conducted in relatively pure pine stands confirm the large
potential of this species for reforestation of mine sites along with
significant parallel benefits for potential of carbon sequestration.
Similarly, our data also point out that valid comparisons with
global ranges of C-sequestration must also consider the influence
of specific local site conditions. For our study, the estimated range
of annual C accumulation in PMEs (the mine soils plus associated
vegetation biomass and roots across all four mine sites) was
1.6–5.6 Mg ha
1 yr
1. The potential for C-sequestration in just the
litter layers (Oi + Oe) was estimated at 0.2 Mg ha
1 yr
1 to
0.8 Mg ha
1 yr
1 and was similar to natural managed pine forests
on nearby control plots at 0.6 Mg ha
1 yr
1. The net SOC
sequestration rates estimated via the metric of total site SOC
stock/stand age ranged from 0.7 to 2.7 Mg ha
1 yr
1 on oligotrophic
Quaternary sands and loamy sands to as high as 5.2 Mg ha
1 yr
1
217
on Tertiary sands after liming. Higher apparent rates were
observed here for certain substrates, which were inflated by fossil
SOC, and on these strata (hard coal refuse wastes and lignite coal)
the estimation of SOC-sequestration is difficult and still unre-
solved.
Katzur and Haubold-Rosar, 1996Katzur and Haubold-Rosar
(1996).
Acknowledgements
The author Dr. Marcin Pietrzykowski was Fulbright Scholar in
academic year 2013–2014 (Polish-U.S. Fulbright Commission
Funds). This study was financially supported by the Polish Ministry
of Science and Higher Education (Grant No. 309 013 32/2076) and
partly by statutory financial support of Ministry of Science and
Higher Education RP (DS-3420 in 2014, Department of Forest
Ecology University of Agriculture in Krakow). We kindly thank
Patricia Donovan, the GIS lab manager in the Crop and Soil
Environmental Sciences Dept. Virginia Tech, for preparation of the
figure with study site locations.
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