Telecommunications Wiring Clyde N Herrick 3rd Edition Chapter 1 PDF

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C H A P T E R 1
Electrical Characteristics
of Wire
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It may not be necessary for the worker who installs wiring systems to understand the electrical
properties of electrical conductors and fiber optical cables to install a system correctly. However,
his or her understanding of these properties will give a better appreciation of the job to be done,
the tools that are to be used, and the results of troubleshooting the system.
It is necessary for the staff person responsible for communications and for the wiring sys-
tem designer to understand how wiring characteristics affect signal information. The purpose of
this text is to assist both the cable installer and the wiring system designer.
A wiring system is a form of an electrical circuit. An electrical circuit is comprised of an
energy source, an energy transfer media, and a load. An energy source could be a battery, a gen-
erator, an amplifier, a digital computer, or any of the other devices that output energy in the form
of a voltage, current, or light. Energy transfer media are any of the materials used to transport
energy from one place to another. Transfer media include copper wires (conductors), fiber-optic
cables, and air (in the case of radiated energy). A load in a circuit can be any of many compo-
nents or devices that receive the energy transferred, such as resistors, lightbulbs, speakers,
motors, computer terminals, printers, or personal computers (PCs). To understand better the con-
cept of energy transfer, circuits, sources, and loads, we must introduce the concepts of voltage,
current, resistance, power, and energy transfer.
1.2 VOLTAGE IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

An electromotive force (EMF) is a force that tends to move electrical energy. Electromotive
force or voltage is conveniently regarded as an attractive or repulsive force on charges. Voltage
can be compared to water pressure that causes water flow in a pipe, which is measured in pounds
1
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2 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire
Figure 1-1 A 9-V battery.
per square inch (psi). A voltage is a difference of potential or EMF that attracts and repels elec-
trons. Another way of thinking of voltage (V) or (E) is as a force or pressure that forces electrons
through a circuit. The movement of electrons transfers energy throughout the circuit.
DC voltage (direct current voltage) is the name given to voltage in a circuit in which the
current flows in one direction only. DC voltage is either positive or negative. This usually means
that it is a value above ground (positive) or below ground (negative).
Ground potential or reference is considered to be 0 V. Ground potential is the potential
of the earth (in England the term is earth). The term ground is also used to mean the metal case
or chassis of a piece of electronic equipment. We will discuss this in more detail later in this
chapter.
The polarity of a voltage is usually discussed in reference to ground. A value above
ground (for example, 10 V) is said to be +10 V, while a voltage of 10 V below ground is said to
be –10 V. A battery such as shown in Figure 1-1 has a positive and a negative terminal. The pos-
itive terminal is +9 V with respect to the negative terminal side. On the other hand, the negative
side is –9 V with respect to the positive side. When a battery or other dc voltage is connected in
a circuit, a dc current (electrons) flows from the negative terminal of the battery through the cir-
cuit and returns to the positive terminal. This theory of current flow is called electron flow. Most
engineers subscribe to positive current flow or conventional current flow simply because it is
conventional (that is, it was the first theory of current flow). Energy is transferred through the
circuit to a load; the results are the same regardless of the current theory used to analyze a cir-
cuit. The voltage drops have the same value, polarity, and power dissipation. In electrical circuits
a battery voltage or supply voltage is denoted as E while voltage drops in a circuit are symbol-
ized as V. Voltages can be developed from many sources, such as batteries, solar cells, thermo-
couples, or generators.
AC voltages (alternating current voltage) are those that vary above and below ground with
respect to time. An example of an ac voltage is common house, office, and factory voltage,
which changes at a rate of 60 cycles per second (Hertz). In many countries, such as Australia, the
frequency is 50 Hz. Figure 1-2 illustrates a cycle of voltage from a 60-Hz source. AC voltages
change with time and are also called analog voltages.
In this book we are interested in both analog and digital voltages. As just stated, analog
voltages are those that vary with time, such as voice signals (Figure 1-3a). Digital signals are in
Current in an Electrical Circuit 3
Figure 1-2 A 120-V, 60-Hz sinewave.
Figure 1-3 Voltages: (a) analog voltages, (b) digital voltages.
the form of pulses, called bits, that change quickly from one level of voltage to another, as
shown in Figure 1-3b.
1.3 CURRENT IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

As stated earlier, current or current flow is a movement or flow of electrons through a circuit
that is caused by the electromotive force or voltage applied to the circuit. When a voltage is
applied to a complete circuit, from a source, electrons move through the conductors of the circuit
(energy transfer) to the load at the receiving end of the conductors. The desire is to transport the
electrical signals along the conductors (wires) and have them arrive at the destination in the
same configuration and with the same voltage level as those at which they left the source. In
other words, the system should reproduce the input signals at the receiver and relay the input sig-
nals correctly, be they voice signals, other analog signals, dc voltages, or digital pulses.
Fiber-optic cables transport energy via photons of light energy. However, the devices that
produce the signals and the devices that receive the signals depend on electrical energy for oper-
ation. The signal from the source device must be converted to light energy to be transported by
the fiber cable and then converted back to electrical energy to be used by the destination device.
Fiber optics will be discussed in some detail in Chapter 4.
1.4 RESISTANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

Resistance is the property of an electrical circuit that limits the current. Resistance can be com-
pared to friction in a mechanical device, where the frictional drag on a body limits the speed of
Figure 1-4 A simple electrical circuit: (a) circuit, (b) schematic diagram of the circuit.
the body and produces heat. The resistance of a material limits the number of electrons that flow
in the material and the amount of energy that is transferred and causes heat in the circuit. Resis-
tance occurs in all electrical circuits—even the best of conductors have some resistance.
The unit of resistance is the ohm and is symbolized by the Greek capital letter omega, Ω .
The relationship among the voltage, current, and resistance in a circuit is called Ohm’s law and
is formulated as follows:
volts
amperes = --------------------------
resis tan ce
E
I = ---
R
Ohm’s law states that current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional
to resistance. That is, increased voltage causes increased current flow and increased resistance
decreases the amount of current.
Figure 1-4 depicts a simple circuit of a battery as a source and a lamp as a load. Figure
1-4a shows a pictorial of the circuit, and Figure 1-4b is a schematic diagram of the circuit. The
schematic diagram of the circuit assumes that the wires to and from the 50-Ω load have no
resistance.
The current is
I = E ⁄ R = 10 V ⁄ 50 Ω = 0.2 A, or 0.2 A
Power and Power Loss 5
Figure 1-5 An example of an electrical circuit

with wiring resistance.
The resistance is determined as follows:

R = E ⁄ I = 10 V ⁄ 2.0 A = 50 Ω
We noted earlier that conductors (wires) are not perfect energy transporters but have resis-
tance. In most cable runs wiring resistance can be ignored, but in long runs we might experience
situations as depicted in Figure 1-5. The 1-Ω resistors between the source and the load represent
the wiring resistance.
The current in this circuit is determined as follows. First find the total resistance:
R = R 1 + R 2 + R load = 1 + 1 + 50 = 52 Ω
Then the current is

I = E ⁄ R = 10 V ⁄ 52 Ω = 0.0192 A
The load voltage is
Load = I × R load = 0.192 × 50 = 9.6 V
There is a loss of 0.4 V along the line.

Signal loss = R wire × current
SL = 2 Ω × 0.0192 A = 0.4 V
This loss of signal voltage can also be related to a loss of signal power, as we will see in Section
1.5. If the length of the wires in the preceding example were doubled, the loss would double.
Obviously, very long lines would cause excessive signal loss.
The resistance of wires is determined by both length and cross-sectional area. The smaller
the cross-sectional area of the conductor, the greater the resistance for a given length, and the
longer the conductor, the greater the resistance for a given cross-sectional area. The properties of
wire will be discussed further in Chapter 2.
1.5 POWER AND POWER LOSS

The primary purpose of transmission lines, regardless of type, is to transfer energy (power) from
one device to another. Power is the time rate of doing work in electrical circuits. Power in watts
(W) is formulated as follows:
Figure 1-6 A summary of Ohm’s laws and power laws for the electrical proper-
ties of circuits.
Power (watts) = current in amperes × volts

2
or power = I R W
Power is the unit that we use most often when relating to the levels of signal in a circuit. We usu-
2
ally refer to the power loss in wires as I R losses.
Figure 1-6 presents a summary of the formulas for both Ohm’s law and the power laws.
1.6 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

Noise is the introduction of any unwanted signal into the system. Noise may be in the back-
ground of an audio signal as an audio signal other than the desired signal. In the case of digital
signals, noise may appear as analog signals or spikes that can mimic the digital pulses. Figure
1-7 illustrates the introduction of noise spikes into a digital pulse train. These noise spikes can
be interpreted by a microprocessor, printer, or routing device as digital pulses and may represent
a signal code other than the desired one. Although most systems contain a parity check (bit
count), the introduction of two noise spikes would not necessarily be detected. In either an audio
or digital system there is a threshold level below which noise can be tolerated without interfer-
Figure 1-7 An example of noise spikes introduced into

a digital pulse stream.
Inductance and Inductive Reactance in Wiring Circuits 7
ence or damage to the outcome of the system. The signal-to-noise ratio (SN) in any system is
formulated as
Signal power
SN = -------------------------------
Noise power
For example, if an audio system had a signal level of 100 milliwatts (mW) and the noise level
was 2 mW, the SN ratio would be 50 : 1.
1.7 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

Inductance (L) is the property of a circuit that causes an opposition to any change of current
within the circuit. As electrons (current) move through a conductor, a magnetic field is pro-
duced. This magnetic field induces a voltage in the inductor, called a counterelectromotive
force (CEMF), that opposes the current flow in the circuit. When a current tries to decrease in an
inductor, CEMF is produced that tries to keep the current flowing in the circuit. CEMF can be
thought of as inertia that tries to prevent change. In other words, the inductor reacts in response
to a current change. Therefore, we call this phenomenon reactance (X).
Reactance caused by the change produces a voltage that opposes the source voltage that is
producing the change. This induced voltage is formulated as
V induced = L ( di ⁄ dt ) V
This formula states that the induced voltage is equal to the inductance of the coil in henries times
the change in current (di) over the change in time (dt). The unit of inductance is the henry (H). If
a current change of one ampere in 1 second produces an induced voltage of 1 volt, an inductor
has an inductance of 1 henry.
Let us now put the inductive effect in context as to its effects on a digital circuit. When the
source voltage (say the output of a PC) increases, the inductive reactance causes a countervolt-
age that slows down the voltage change at the load terminals (say a printer). Conversely, induc-
tive reactance would slow down a decreasing voltage. The property of inductance can cause
severe distortion in digital signals, where the bits must change from zero to maximum voltage
and from maximum voltage to zero voltage in less than a millionth of a second. The inductive
reactance of an inductor is opposition that an inductor offers to an alternating current and is for-
mulated as
X L = 2ΠfL
where f represents frequency. Inspection of the formula reveals that higher frequencies result in
greater values of reactance, and therefore high-frequency circuits experience more signal loss
than low-frequency circuits. Wire has a small amount of inductance per meter of length; how-
ever, inductance increases as the wire length increases, much like wiring resistance. The symbol
for inductance is shown in Figure 1-8.
Cross talk, the introduction of signals between conductors in close proximity to each
other, is the result of the electromagnetic flux lines that are caused by the signal currents flowing
Figure 1-8 (a) Inductor, and (b) circuit symbol for

an inductor.
in a conductor. Flux lines are invisible magnetic lines of force that are produced by the current
(electron flow) in a circuit. The noise introduced from these flux lines, called cross talk, can
cause error signals to be introduced in a data line and unwanted conversation noise in audio
lines. We will discuss the methods utilized to reduce cross talk later in this chapter and in the
chapters on cabling.
1.8 CAPACITANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

When two metals are separated by an insulator, a capacitor is formed. The symbol for a capacitor
is shown in Figure 1-9. Capacitors have the ability to store energy in the form of an electrostatic
charge. When one plate of the capacitor has more electrons (negative charge) than the other
plate, a difference of potential exists between the plates through the insulation. The charge is the
results of the force from the electron on one plate acting on the electrons on the other plate. The
insulator between the plates is called a dielectric. The charge that is stored between the plates
tends to oppose any change in circuit voltage. This opposition to a change in voltage is called
capacitive reactance. Since a capacitor is formed by any two conductors separated by an insula-
tor, there is capacitance between a pair of conductors in a cable, a conductor and a ground, or a
conductor and a shield. The reactance of a fixed capacitor or wiring capacitance is formulated as
X C = ½πfC
where π = 3.14, f = frequency of the signal, and C = capacitance of the capacitor. A capacitor
has a capacitance of 1 farad (f) when a current of 1 A causes a voltage change, across the capac-
itor, of 1 volt in one second.
All wires have resistance, capacitance, and inductance in varying amounts. Any or all of
these factors can cause attenuation and deterioration of a pulse or an analog signal. Different
Figure 1-9 Capacitor and symbol for a capacitor.

Impedance in Wiring Circuits 9
types of copper transmission lines have different amounts of these three factors. However, it is
the resistance and capacitance that result in most of the losses in transmission lines and the
inductance that results in the pick-up of noise. The longer the lines, the greater the amounts of
resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Increased amounts of these three factors result in
increased deterioration of digital signals and increased analog signal loss.
The values of both resistance and capacitance can vary greatly based on the type of cable,
wire size, shielding, and insulation. For example, cabling may vary in capacitance from a low of
8 pF per foot (25 pF per meter) to a high of 70 pF per foot (250 pF per meter). The resistance
increases as the diameter of the wire decreases. The design engineer must consider these factors
against economy when selecting cabling for a network.
1.9 IMPEDANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

The current and voltage in a resistor are always in phase with each other. That is, a maximum
voltage results in a maximum current and a minimum voltage follows a minimum current. On
the other hand, the current and voltage in an inductor and a capacitor are 90 degrees out of phase
with each other. The current in a capacitor leads the voltage by 90 degrees and the current in an
inductor lags the voltage by 90 degrees. An example of this phenomenon is depicted in Figure
1-10.
Figure 1-11 depicts a circuit with resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The voltage
drops around a circuit with resistance, capacitance, and inductance are written
E = V + jV – jVC
The +j and –j mean +90 degrees and –90 degrees, respectively.
Impedance is the name given to the total opposition to the flow of electrical energy in a
circuit and is the result of a combination of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. The symbol
of impedance is Z and the unit of impedance is the ohm. Impedance is formulated as
Z = R + jX L
The jX L indicates that reactance must be treated different from resistance. Capacitive reactance
is denoted as –jXC and inductive reactance is denoted as +jXL. Again, the +j and the –j can be
considered to indicate +90 and –90 degrees, respectively. This means that Z must be calculated
as shown in Figure 1-12.
The Pythagorean theorem states that
2
Z = R + ( XL – XC )
2 2
Z = 100 + 100 = 141 Ω ⁄ 45°
The 45 degrees indicates that the current and the voltage in the circuit are out of phase by 45
degrees. Impedance is rather complex in ac circuits, and it is not within the scope of this text to
offer a complete study of the subject. (If you want more information, consult one of the several
fine basic electronic fundamental texts available or contact the author on the Internet.) For our
Figure 1-10 Relationship between current and volt-

age in an AC circuit: (a) in a resistor, (b) in a capacitor,
and (c) in an inductor.
purposes we need to understand only that any output device has impedance, that all transmission
lines have impedance, and that any communication device that is a load has impedance. Figure
1-13 is a summary of the reactance and impedance formulas for resistive and reactive circuits.
Transmission lines have a characteristic impedance, and loads are rated at an impedance
value. We will discuss the importance of matching impedance of the transmission line to the
device impedance in a later chapter.
Digital Signals 11
Figure 1-11 Electrical circuit with resistance, inductance, and capacitance;

(a) circuit diagram, (b) vector diagram of voltages.
Figure 1-12 The impedance of a circuit must be calculated by using a right

triangle and the Pythagorean theorem.
1.10 DIGITAL SIGNALS

Digital signals are discretely variable in the form of pulses. The pulses may represent a digital
code that can be interpreted by a computer or other digital device as instructions, information, or
data. Examples of instructions are add, save, or fetch. Examples of data are +3 V, –30 degrees, or
$100.00. Examples of information are where to save or where to send (as an address) within the
computer. Digital pulses are usually coded in a series of voltages and no voltages or ones and
zeros, as shown in Figure 1-14. These digital pulses are called bits. A group of eight of these bits
is called a byte.
The rate at which digital pulses are transmitted is called the baud rate, defined as bits per
second or pulses per second, and is directly related to frequency. The amplitude of the pulse is
the negative or positive peak voltage, as shown in Figure 1-15.
A pulse often appears to rise and fall in zero time when observed on an oscilloscope; how-
ever, this is never the case. The capacitive reactance and the inductive reactance within the cir-
cuit cause the pulse in Figure 1-14 to appear as shown in Figure 1-16. Each pulse has a rise time
and a fall time as shown in Figure 1-17. The rise time (Figure 1-17c) is measured between the
10% point and the 90% point, and the fall time is measured between the 90% point and the 10%
Figure 1-13 Summary of reactance and impedance

formulas for reactive and resistive circuits.
Figure 1-14 A digital pulse train comprised of vol-

tages and no voltages and representing ones and
zeros.
Figure 1-15 A digital pulse with a +5-V amplitude.
point. The zero and 100 percentage points are not used to measure the rise and fall times due to
the difficulty of identifying their exact locations.
Digital Signals 13
Figure 1-16 Pulse deterioration caused by the ca-

pacitance and inductance of the circuit: (a) Pulse
into a transmission line, (b) distorted pulse.
Figure 1-17 Typical digital pulse: (a) theoretical,

(b) actual pulse shape, (c) rise time and fall time of a
pulse.
Figure 1-18 Reactance in a circuit

can make the pulse unrecognizable to
the destination equipment.
With very long transmission lines, where the inductance and capacitance are excessive, a
pulse train may become so distorted that it becomes unrecognizable, as shown in Figure 1-18.
Special equipment can sometimes reconstruct the signal. Reconstruction of digital signals is
much easier than reconstruction of analog signals. For this reason analog signals are often con-
verted to representative digital signals before transmission and reconverted to analog signals at
the receiver. Circuits that perform this function are called analog to digital converters (A to D)
and digital to analog converters (D to A), respectively.
1.11 ANALOG SIGNAL CONCEPTS

Analog signals are any signals other than pulses. An analog signal has a voltage that is variable
with time and is usually continually variable. Some examples of analog signals are shown in
Figure 1-19. An analog signal does not have to vary at a constant rate. Examples of analog sig-
nals are voice or music (audio), sampling voltages (as from a pressure gauge), or dc voltages.
Signals that have a periodic repetition rate (period) have a frequency. This repetition rate or fre-
quency, in cycles per second, is called Hertz or Hz. Frequency is formulated as
f = 1 ⁄ T Hz
Figure 1-19 Analog signals: (a) A ramp signal, (b) a nonlinear analog signal, (c) a sinu-
soidal signal.
Ground and Grounding 15
Figure 1-20 The symbols for ground:

(a) Chassis, (b) earth, (c) common.
1.12 GROUND AND GROUNDING

Ground, or earth as the British say, is usually referred to as the reference level for voltage levels
within a system. United States government safety codes specify that all electrical equipment
must be electrically connected to ground (grounded) to prevent an electrical potential between
the equipment and ground and between pieces of equipment. Equipment grounding is a safety
precaution designed to protect both people and equipment. The symbol for ground is shown in
Figure 1-20. The chassis of most equipment is grounded, and the return path for current flow is
in the chassis. This reduces the need for returned wires from the components. Most voltages in
electronic equipment are measured to ground (the chassis).
Grounding of electrical equipment is usually accomplished through the power plug. For
120-V connections the center prong of the three-prong plug is ground (Figure 1-21). The insula-
tion color of the ground wire in a power lead to equipment is usually green or green and yellow.
Grounding of the shielding wire in telecommunication cable is important to assure the transmis-
sion of electrical signals along a cable without interference from the electromagnetic radiation
from other transmission lines and electrical equipment. This interference, called cross talk, can
originate from adjacent lines, electrical motors, PCs, fluorescent lights, etc. The term cross talk
Figure 1-21 Grounded AC power plugs.

Figure 1-22 A plant grounding system.
originated from the phenomenon of the conversation of an adjacent line being audible on the
other.
While equipment grounding is primarily for the protection of people from electrical shock,
there are other compelling reasons for grounding. Grounding provides a low-impedance path for
electrical energy. In summary, grounding provides the following:
1. Protection of people from electrical shock in the event of an internal short in equipment
2. Protection of semiconductor devices from excessive static voltage buildup
3. A safe path for electrical energy from lightning to protect both equipment and people
4. A low-resistance path around the signal-carrying wires for low-frequency electromagnetic
energy from sources such as power lines, lights, and motors
5. A low-resistance path around the signal-carrying wires for electromagnetic radiation from
high-frequency electromagnetic waves from computers, other transmission lines, radiated
signals (radio, TV), etc.
The grounding system for a facility should maintain all the grounds of all telecommunica-
tion equipment, other electronic equipment, all electrical equipment, and all electrical power at
the same potential, within the closely prescribed limits of the National Electrical Code (NEC).
The earth ground system is the reference for all grounds within a building. The earth
ground is established by inserting bronze rods into the earth or bronze or copper wire into the
concrete foundation of a building. This part of the ground system is the most difficult to estab-
lish to assure long-range effectiveness because of the wide range of soil types and the varying
moisture content of soil. The moisture content of soil and the minerals within the soil determine
the resistance of the soil, and thereby the effectiveness of the ground in maintaining a low-
voltage interface. Figure 1-22 depicts an example of a plant grounding system referenced from
the NEC for proper grounding. Whenever possible, the connection to the ground electrode
should be less than 1 foot below the surface of the soil, and the grounding electrode should
extend at least 10 feet below ground. Ground in soil types other than moist clay requires special
installation techniques. For example, grounding in shallow soil requires that grounding cable be
laid in trenches and the soil compacted. Grounding systems must be a primary consideration
Cross Talk in Wiring 17
Figure 1-23 Power meter, distribution panel, and street light

grounding examples. (Source: Courtesy AMP Inc.)
when designing a new facility. Figure 1-23 illustrates examples of telephone grounding, street
light grounding, and service entrance grounding. Ground conductors must be electrically con-
nected to prevent any resistance between the conductors. Connectors must withstand physical
strains and weather variations without reduction of conductivity. When aluminum and copper
conductors are bonded, the connector must keep the two conductors physically isolated to pre-
vent battery action while maintaining high conductivity. When two dissimilar metals, such as
copper and aluminum, are bonded a virtual battery is formed, producing corrosion, which causes
increased resistance and decreased conductivity between the metals. Figure 1-24 depicts three
examples of ground connections.
In newer construction, architects often require a grid type of grounding comprised of
heavy copper or aluminum conductors or metal rods. Figure 1-25 illustrates methods of bonding
subgrounding conductors to the grid.
All grounding installations must be in compliance with the latest edition of the NEC
handbook.
1.13 CROSS TALK IN WIRING

Electromagnetic pick-up and radiation can cause serious problems in telecommunication sys-
tems, such as signal distortion, noise in conversations, and breach of security from a system.
Some types of cables are protected from inductively induced signals (cross talk) from adjacent
lines. For example, pairs of wires are usually twisted to reduce inductive effects, and cables can
Figure 1-24 Grounding connectors: (a) rod to small conductor, (b) conduc-
tor to conductor, (c) rod to primary ground cable. (Source: Courtesy AMP Inc.)
be shielded from outside electromagnetic lines by surrounding the signal-carrying wires with a
braided or solid metal shield. There are also installation procedures that can reduce the effects of
magnetic induction noise, such as
1. Shielding the cables

2. Never running data cable in a conduit with power cables
3. Using proper grounding of equipment and cables to protect against lighting and surge volt-
ages and to provide shielding against outside signals
Grounding will be discussed in greater detail in Chapters 2 through 4.
1.14 ATTENUATION OF SIGNAL INFORMATION

As stated earlier, wire has resistance, inductance, and capacitance. All these factors attenuate
both digital and analog signals. The attenuation can be measured in either a reduction of voltage
or a loss of power. This loss is usually referred to as a decibel loss. The Bel is the logarithm of
the power input to the power output of a system (in the case of a cable, the power into the cable
Attenuation of Signal Information 19
Figure 1-25 Grid-type grounding system (Source: Courtesy of AMP Inc.
at the source and power output at the receiver). The Bel unit is such a huge number that the deci-
bel (1/10 Bel) is usually used for calculations.
The formula for the decibel (dB) is
dB = 10 log ( P out ⁄ P in )
The decibel gain or loss can also be formulated using voltages:

dB = 20 log V out ⁄ V in
For example, if a signal of 1 W was put into a line with a resulting attenuation to 0.5 W at the
receiver end, the loss in decibels is
dB = 10 log 0.5 ⁄ 1 = 10 log 0.5 = – 3
We would say that the signal had a –3-dB loss.
As another example, suppose that a 1-V signal were injected into a transmission line with
a reduction of to 0.707 V at the receiver end. The dB gain is
dB = 20 log 0.707 ⁄ 1 = 20 log 0.707 = – 3
Again we would say that the attenuation within the line was –3 dB. We might note that –3
dB is also a 50% power loss. Figure 1-26 is an example of decibel gains and losses in a circuit.
Communication systems often have to be designed to accommodate a combination of ana-
log and digital signals. The designer and cabling technician are often required to deal with
Figure 1-26 dB gains and losses in a circuit.
twisted pairs, coaxial cables, and/or fiber-optic cables. The techniques to perform installation
and maintenance of these designs are discussed in later chapters.
1.15 INSULATION OF CONDUCTORS

Insulation is the nonconductive material that encases a wire or cable. Insulation materials are
comprised of compounds that have properties that are Underwriters Laboratory (UL) rated and
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) approved to prevent certain environment hazards while
satisfying special electrical requirements. The electrical requirements might be fire resistance,
weather resistance, pressure resistance, etc. The environmental hazards might be that the insula-
tor gives off toxic gases in a fire. Wires are individually insulated for ratings such as minimum
breakdown voltage, wiring capacitance, and maximum temperature. The primary purpose of any
insulation is to prevent the short circuiting of wires to other wires or ground, which could cause
signal loss, damage to equipment, and possibly fire. When more than one conductor is bundled
into a cable, the insulating material for the cable is called a jacket. The purpose of the jacket,
other than holding the wires together, is to protect the cable.
Wire and cable insulating coverings are made from several insulating materials and com-
pounds. Insulating coverings are rated by the Underwriters Laboratory, a private rating company
that is the industry standard for rating of consumer products for properties such as electrical
characteristics, heat resistance, chemical characteristics, reliability, and safety. The following are
the most common insulating materials used in the insulation of cables and their properties.
• Vinyl: Vinyl is sometimes referred to as PVC or polyvinyl chloride. Certain formulas have
temperature ratings from –40°C to +105°C. Other common vinyls may have ratings from
–20°C to +60°C. There are many formulations for different applications. The formulation
affects both the electrical properties and the pliability, which can vary from rock hard to
puttylike.
• Polyethylene: This material has excellent electrical properties, with a low dielectric value
(low capacitance). Flexibility can vary from soft to rock hard. This insulation has excellent
moisture resistance and can be formulated to withstand extreme weather conditions.
• Teflon: This material has excellent electrical properties, temperature range, and chemical
resistance. The material is not suited for high-voltage applications or for an environment
Insulation of Conductors 21
within nuclear radiation. The cost of Teflon insulation is approximately 10 times that for
comparable vinyl insulation.
• Polypropylene: This insulation is similar to polyethylene in electrical properties but is typ-
ically harder than polyethylene. It is suitable for thin-wall insulation. Most UL ratings call
for 60°C.
• Silicone: This is a very soft insulation with a temperature range of –80°C to +90°C. It has
excellent electrical properties along with ozone resistance, low moisture absorption,
weather resistance, and radiation resistance. However, it has low mechanical strength and
poor scuff resistance and costs from $5.00 to $8.00 per pound compared with $1.00 per
pound for other insulation.
• Neoprene: The maximum temperature range of this material can vary from 55°C to
+90°C. The electrical properties are not as good as other insulating materials, resulting in
the need for thicker insulation. Typically this material is used as a coating for separate lead
wires or cable jackets.
• Rubber: Both natural rubber and synthetic rubber compounds can be used for insulation
and cable jackets. The material is formulated for many different applications and many
different temperature ranges.
Table 1-1 presents the properties of rubber insulation. Table 1-2 summarizes the properties
of plastic insulation. Table 1-3 gives the nominal temperature range of various insulating materi-
als when used as wire insulation or cable jackets.
Table 1-1 Comparative Properties of Rubber Insulation
EPDM
Hypalon (Ethylene
(Chloro- Propylene
sulfonated Diene
Rubber Neoprene Polyethylene) Monomer) Silicone
Oxidation resistance F G E G E
Heat resistance F G E E O
Oil resistance P G G F FG
Low temperature G F,G F G,E O

flexibility
Weather, sun F G E E O
resistance
Ozone resistance P G E E O
Abrasion resistance E G,E G G P

Table 1-1 Comparative Properties of Rubber Insulation (Continued)

EPDM
Hypalon (Ethylene
(Chloro- Propylene
sulfonated Diene
Rubber Neoprene Polyethylene) Monomer) Silicone
Electrical properties E P G E O
Flame resistance P G G P F,G
Nuclear radiation F F,G G G E

resistance
Water resistance G E G,E G,E G,E
Acid resistance F,G G E G,E F,G
Alkali resistance F,G G E G,E F,G
Gasoline, kerosene, P G F P P,F

etc. (aliphatic
hydrocarbons)
resistance
Benzol, Tuluol, etc. P P,F F F P

(aromatic hydro-
carbons) resistance
Degreaser solvents P P P,F P P,G

(halogenated hydro-
carbons) resistance
Alcohol resistance G F G P G
P = poor F = fair G = good E = excellent O = outstanding

These ratings are based on average performance of general purpose compounds. Any given property can usually be
improved by the use of selective compounding.
Source: Courtesy Belden Corporation.
Table 1-2 Comparative Properties of Plastic Insulation

Low-Density Cellular
Poly- Poly- High-Density Poly- Poly-
PVC ethylene ethylene Polyethylene propylene urethane Nylon Teflon
Oxidation resistance E E E E E E E O
Heat resistance G,E G G G E E E O
Oil resistance F G G G,E F E E O
Low temperature flexibility P,G G,E E E P G G O
Weather, sun resistance G,E E E E E G E O
Ozone resistance E E E E E E E E
Abrasion resistance F,G F,G F E F,G O E E
Electrical properties F,G E E E E P P E
Flame resistance E P P P P P P O
23
Nuclear radiation resistance G G G G F G F,G P

Water resistance E E E E E P,G P,F E
Acid resistance G,E G,E G,E G,E E F P,F E
Alkali resistance G,E G,E G,E G,E E F E E
Gasoline, kerosene, etc. (aliphatic hydrocarbons) resistance P P,F P,F P,F P,F G G E
Benzol, Tuluol, etc. (aromatic hydrocarbons) resistance P,F P P P P,F P G E
Degreaser solvents (halogenated hydrocarbons) resistance P,F P P P P P G E
Alcohol resistance G,E E E E E P P E
P = poor F = fair G = good E = excellent O = outstanding

These ratings are based on average performance of general purpose compounds. Any given property can usually be improved by the use of selective compounding.
Source: Courtesy Belden Electronics Division.
Table 1-3 Nominal Temperature Range for Insulating and Jacketing Compounds
Normal Normal Special Special
Compound Low High Low High
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene –20°C 90°C –40°C 105°C
EPDM (ethylene propylene rubber) –55°C 105°C — —
Neoprene –20°C 60°C –55°C 90°C
Polyethylene –60°C 80°C — —
Polypropylene –40°C 105°C — —
Rubber –30°C 60°C –55°C 75°C
Teflon –70°C 200°C — 260°C
Vinyl –20°C 80°C –55°C 105°C
Silicone –80°C 150°C — 200°C
Halar –70°C 150°C — —
Source: Courtesy Belden Electronics Division.
SUMMARY
The proper planning and installation of telecommunication wiring is a complex task and should
not to be attempted without the skills and knowledge necessary to complete the task success-
fully. The material in the following chapters, if studied, will greatly improve your chance of a
successful installation.
QUESTIONS
1. What unit is used most often for cable signal loss?

2. What causes cross talk?
3. Why do wires have capacitance?
4. List several factors that would be considered in the selection of wiring insulation.
5. Define the term analog and give an example of an analog signal.
6. Define the term bit.
7. Define the term digital signal and give an example.

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1.2 VOLTAGE IN AN ELECTRIC CIRCUIT

2 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-1 A 9-V battery.

Current in an Electrical Circuit 3

Figure 1-2 A 120-V, 60-Hz sinewave.

Figure 1-3 Voltages: (a) analog voltages, (b) digital voltages.

1.3 CURRENT IN AN ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

1.4 RESISTANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

4 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Power and Power Loss 5

Figure 1-5 An example of an electrical circuit

The resistance is determined as follows:

Then the current is

There is a loss of 0.4 V along the line.

1.5 POWER AND POWER LOSS

6 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Power (watts) = current in amperes × volts

1.6 SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO

Figure 1-7 An example of noise spikes introduced into

Inductance and Inductive Reactance in Wiring Circuits 7

1.7 INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

8 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-8 (a) Inductor, and (b) circuit symbol for

1.8 CAPACITANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

Figure 1-9 Capacitor and symbol for a capacitor.

Impedance in Wiring Circuits 9

1.9 IMPEDANCE IN WIRING CIRCUITS

10 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-10 Relationship between current and volt-

Figure 1-11 Electrical circuit with resistance, inductance, and capacitance;

Figure 1-12 The impedance of a circuit must be calculated by using a right

1.10 DIGITAL SIGNALS

12 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-13 Summary of reactance and impedance

Figure 1-14 A digital pulse train comprised of vol-

Figure 1-15 A digital pulse with a +5-V amplitude.

Figure 1-16 Pulse deterioration caused by the ca-

Figure 1-17 Typical digital pulse: (a) theoretical,

14 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-18 Reactance in a circuit

1.11 ANALOG SIGNAL CONCEPTS

Ground and Grounding 15

Figure 1-20 The symbols for ground:

1.12 GROUND AND GROUNDING

Figure 1-21 Grounded AC power plugs.

16 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-22 A plant grounding system.

Cross Talk in Wiring 17

Figure 1-23 Power meter, distribution panel, and street light

1.13 CROSS TALK IN WIRING

18 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

1. Shielding the cables

Grounding will be discussed in greater detail in Chapters 2 through 4.

1.14 ATTENUATION OF SIGNAL INFORMATION

Attenuation of Signal Information 19

Figure 1-25 Grid-type grounding system (Source: Courtesy of AMP Inc.

The decibel gain or loss can also be formulated using voltages:

20 Chapter 1 • Electrical Characteristics of Wire

Figure 1-26 dB gains and losses in a circuit.

1.15 INSULATION OF CONDUCTORS

Low temperature G F,G F G,E O