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Oscillator Resonator Design Tutorial

J P Silver

E-mail: john@rfic.co.uk

1 ABSTRACT
3.2 TWO ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS
This paper discusses the design of various types of Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram of a two-element
resonator that form the heart of any oscillator de- resonator. This circuit is seldom used in oscillators as
sign. the loaded Q will be very low as the source and load
The first section describes the different resonator impedances will directly load the tuned cir-
types including lumped, coaxial, microstrip and cuit.
dielectric. The following section deals with varactor 2. R
Q =
diodes, including design equations, temperature & ω. L
loaded Q performance. In the final section the defi-
nitions of loaded and unloaded Q are described
with a worked example and design techniques on Q
transformations.
2 INTRODUCTION
The resonator is key to the design of an oscillator. The
loaded Q determines the phase noise performance of ω. L
Q =
the oscillator. The oscillator frequency will determine 2. R
to some degree the type of resonator eg At microwave
frequencies resonators can be coaxial or microstrip and
at low frequencies the resonators are almost always Figure 1 Schematic of a two element, lumped resona-
made up of lumped components. tor, together with loaded Q equations.

This tutorial gives design data for various types of

resonator.
3 RESONATORS [1]
The resonator is the core component of the oscillator,
in that it is the frequency selective component and its
Q is the dominating factor for the phase noise per-
formance of the oscillator.
At resonance the transmission phase is zero and the
network is loss less (except for the resistance of the
inductor). The series resonator impedes signal trans-
mission while the parallel network allows signal trans-
mission. The main problem with such a simple resona-
tor is achieving a required Q, for example if we want a
Q of 30 we would need the following series inductor &
capacitor at 1GHz:-

This section discusses the range of resonators, that can L=

2.R.Q
=
2 * 50 * 30
= 477nH
be used for an oscillator covering, dielectric, cavity, ω 2π * 1E9
transmission line, lumped element and coaxial resona-
tors. ⎛ 1 ⎞
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
2

3.1 LUMPED ELEMENT
Lumped element resonators can be configured to form
either a low, high or band pass filter, and the given
number of elements is directly related to the Q and loss
of the resonator. The simplest resonators can consist of
just two elements an inductor and a capacitor ie:-
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πf ⎠ ⎝ 2π * 1E 9 ⎠
C= = = 0.05pF
L 477E − 9
Although the inductor is a realised value the capacitor
could not be realised except in perhaps inter-digital
form. This could be used if the oscillator is designed
for fixed frequency but the value is impracticable as a
varactor in a voltage controlled oscillator.
The situation can be improved by using more than two
elements eg 3 or 4 as described in the next section.
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component values can be calculated. Figure 3 shows a

four element lumped resonator and Figure 4 shows an
3.3 THREE ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS
alternative configuration.
The diagram below shows a range of three element
lumped resonators - Figure 2.
L C series

XL
Q=
R
C shunt
2
R2 + XL
XC =
2X L

Figure 3 Schematic diagram of a four element lumped

resonator
R
QL =
XL

X C = 2. X L

XC
Q=
R

2
R2 + XC
XL =
2X C

R
QC =
XC

X L = 2. X C

1
X L = 2π . f . L & XC =
2π . f . C

Figure 2 Schematic diagram of a range of three ele-

ment resonators together with equations to calculate
the reactive components and loaded Q.

3.4 FOUR ELEMENT RESONATOR CIRCUITS

Four element resonators are used most commonly in
oscillators as the loaded Q of the resonator can be set
independently of the resonant circuit so that sensible
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Effective capacitance which resonates ⎛ 2R o Q e ⎞

1/ 2
1
X cseries = R o ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ ∴ C series =
with the series inductor L series is : -
⎝ B L ⎠ 2π .f .X cseries

1 1
Ce =
2C shunt (ω o R o )
2 where Q e =
1 1 1
+ −
C series (ω o R oC shunt )2 + 1 QL Qu

R o = input/oupu t load resistance where Q u is the L unloaded Q

& B L is a given shunt inductor admittance
Required inductance to resonate at f o is given by : -
Capacitanc e to resonate shunt inductor : -
2
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
L series = ⎜ ⎟
2π .f ⎠
ω o Ce Ce = ⎝
2

Loaded Q is a function of C shunt .

Effective capacitanc e which resonates
The reactance for a given loaded Q is approximately : - with the shunt inductor L series is : -

−1 / 2
⎛ 2R Q ⎞ 2C series
X cshunt = R o ⎜⎜ o e − 1⎟⎟ C shunt = Ce −
⎝ X L ⎠ (ω o R oC series )2 + 1

1 R o = input/oupu t load resistance

where Q e = where Q u is the L unloaded Q
1 1
−
QL Qu
3.5 COAXIAL CABLE RESONATOR [2]
C series A quarter-wave coaxial resonator is formed by short-
ing the centre conductor of a coaxial line to its shield
at one end, leaving the other end open-circuited. The
physical length of the resonator is equal to one quarter
the wavelength (90 degrees electrical length) in the
medium filling the resonator. A diagram of a coaxial
C shunt
resonator is shown below in Figure 5.
L

b
Figure 4 Schematic diagram of the alternative four
element lumped resonator
λ /4

Figure 5 Schematic diagram of a coaxial cable

resonator showing the critical dimensions.
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2.99E8 the Q contribution for the conductor ie Qcc is given

λair =
f by:

λair 1 The dielectric of the cable also effects the Q of the

λcoax = ; = Resonator length = λcoax resonator and is given by:
εr 4

The unloaded Q of the resonator is a function of the Qcc = Conductor contribution to unloaded Q
conductor losses, the dielectric losses and the physical
dimensions of the coaxial cable ie: = 8.398.b. f
1 1 1
= + wher e C = Conductor & D = Dielectric
QU Q C QD Overall diameter of typical
semi - rigid cable is 0.141" or 3.58mm
The Q contributi on from conductor is due to energy For above example b = 3.58mm (0.000358) ∴ Qcc = 92.95
lost due to current flow in the conductors and is given by
The dielectric of the cable also effects the Q of the
b resonator and is given by:
π .f .μ .σ .Ln
Q C = 2. a
1 1 Q d = Dielectric loss contribution to unloaded
+
a b 1
Q= loss tangent of dielectric material
tan.δ
where μ = permeabili ty and σ = conductivi ty of the conductors
tan δ for PTFE ~ 0.0004 @ 10GHz
The Q contributi on from the dielectric that separates
the conductors is given by 1
∴ Qd = = 2500
σ 0.0004
QD = tan.δ (Loss Tangent/Di ssipation factor) =
2π .f.ε r .ε o
1 1 1 1
σ = conductivi ty of dielectric ie ; Total unloaded = +
ρ Q Q cc Q d
ε r = relative permitivit y; ε o = 8.854x10 -12 Fm -1
1 1
= + = 89.6
92.95 2500
3.6 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A COAXIAL CABLE
RESONATOR Note the Qcc term dominates the overall Q factor of the
The following example is for the design of a coaxial resonator at this frequency.
resonator to operate in an oscillator at 1GHz. The reso-
nator is made from semi-rigid coaxial cable that con-
tains a dielectric of PTFE, which has a relative permit-
tivity of ~ 2.2 and a tanδ of 0.0004.

2.99E8
90
Resonator length = 1E9 . = 5.04cm
2.2 360

3.7 CALCULATION OF RESONATOR Q

FACTOR
The Q factor of the resonator determines the phase
noise performance of the oscillator. Loss in the coax-
ial cable from the conductivity of the sheath and the
loss tangent of the dielectric will set the Q of the reso-
nator. Most coaxial cables especially semi-rigid cables
use copper as the conductor, therefore the equation for
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Outer surface plated End of resonator plated

The table below shows (Table 1) design data for a
range of common materials used in the construction of
coaxial cables:-

Material εr ρ tanδ
Copper - 1.56E-8Ω.m - W d
Gold - 2.04E-8Ω.m -
Silver - 1.63 E-8Ω.m -
Nylon 3.0 109-1011Ω.m 0.012@3GHz λ/4
PTFE 2-2.1 1E-16 0.0004@10GHz Inner surface plated
Polythene 2.25 >1014Ω.m 0.0004@10GHz
HD
PVC flexi 4.5 109-1012Ω.m
≡ L

C
Table 1 Design data for a range of materials com-
R
monly used in the construction of coaxial cables.
The parameters shown are relative permittivity
(εr), resistivity ρ (1/ρ = conductivity) and tan delta
(tanδ).
Figure 6 Schematic diagram of a coaxial resonator
showing the key dimensions. Note the resonator is
3.8 COAXIAL RESONATOR [3]
plated with silver except for one end to allow it to be
A quarter-wave coaxial resonator is formed, by plating grounded.
a piece of dielectric material with a high relative per-
mittivity using a highly conductive metal.
The expression for the unloaded Q of such a resonator
is
A cylindrical hole is formed along the axis of a cylin-
der of high relative permittivity dielectric material. All ⎛ W⎞
Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
surfaces, apart from the end surface, are coated with a = k. fo. ⎝ d⎠
⎛ 1 1⎞
L
good conductor to form the coaxial resonator. The 25.4⎜ + ⎟
physical length of the resonator is equal to one quarter ⎝ W d⎠
the wavelength (90 degrees electrical length) in the
medium filling the resonator. The diagram (Figure 6) where W = outside diameter in mm,
below shows the key dimensions of a coaxial resona- d = inside diameter in mm
tor. k = 240 for a silvered dielectric with ε r of 38.6
= 200 for a sivered dielectric with ε r of 88.5

⎛ W⎞
Input Impedance (Z in ) =
60
.Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
εr ⎝ d⎠

8.Zo.l. ε r
Inductance = l = Physical length in mm
25.4.π 2 3 x10 8

l. ε r
Capacitance =
25.4 * 2 * 3 x10 8.Zo

4.Zo.Q
Resistance =
π

Below resonance, such short-circuited coaxial line

elements simulate high-Q, temperature stable ‘ideal’
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inductors. They will only realise an ‘ideal’ inductor c/fo 3E8 / 800E6
Wavelength = = = 60.36mm
over a narrow range as shown in the diagram Figure 7. εr 38.6

S elf R eso n a n t We subtract the tab inductance from the required

F req u en cy
inductance ie 4 - 1 = 3nH whose
reactance is 15.1Ω at 900MHz.
XL
‘Id eal’ λg ⎛Z ⎞
In d u ctan ce Length of resonator = . tan−1⎜⎜ input ⎟⎟
2π ⎝ Zo ⎠
R egio n
0.6036 ⎛ 15.1⎞
F req u en cy = . tan−1⎜ ⎟ = 9.74mm
2π ⎝ 9.4 ⎠

⎛ W⎞
Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
Q = k. fo . ⎝
d⎠
=
⎛ 1 1⎞
25.4⎜ + ⎟
⎝ W d⎠

XC
⎛ 0.006 ⎞
Ln⎜1.079. ⎟
F req u en cy → ⎝ 0.00246 ⎠
Q = 240. 800E6 . = 415.7
⎛ 1 1 ⎞
25.4⎜ + ⎟
Figure 7 Frequency response of a coaxial resonator. ⎝ 0.006 0.00246 ⎠
The first region shows an area of inductance followed
by a point of resonance followed by a region of ca- λ g .f o 1
Self Resonant Frequency = . MHz
pacitance. The resonator is usually used below the 4 l
self-resonant frequency so that in a VCO the varactor
can be used to resonate with the coaxial resonator. 0.6036 * 800 1
= . = 1241MHz
4 0.0973
In order to use the coaxial resonator as a ‘ideal’ induc-
tor the resonator must be used below the self-resonant Therefore the coaxial line is
0.0973
= 0.161λ g long
frequency. 0.6036

The part resonance could be tested to ensure that it

3.9 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A COAXIAL
RESONATOR [4,5,6]
The following section describes the design of a coaxial
resonator to be used in a varactor controlled oscillator
at 900MHz. We need therefore to select a suitable
resonator that is inductive at 900MHz.
Assume an ‘ideal’ starting inductance of 4nH at
900MHz.
The material chosen is a silver-plated ceramic resona-
tor with a relative permittivity of 38.6 from Transtech.
It has a tab inductance of 1nH, a W/h ratio of 2.57, a
width of 6mm and a characteristic impedance of 9.4Ω.
occurs at the self-resonant frequency of 1.241GHz.
3.10 DIELECTRIC RESONATOR [7]
At lower frequencies the length of W/d ratio of a coax-
ial resonator becomes too big to realise so a dielectric
‘puck’ is used instead. The dielectric resonator is often
made from the same material as the coaxial resonators
except that they are not plated with a low-loss metal.
In addition they are mounted on planer circuits as
shown below (figure 35) and are coupled to a trans-
mission line without a direct connection. As with
other resonators, standing TE waves will be set up
within the resonator, which will be dependent on the
physical dimensions of the cylinder.

The diagram of a dielectric resonator is shown below

in Figure 8
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a
34 ⎛a ⎞
FGHz = .⎜ + 3.45 ⎟ =
a (mm) . ε r ⎝ L ⎠

34 ⎛ 3.8735 ⎞
b .⎜ + 3.45 ⎟ = 7.313GHz
3.8735. 30 ⎝ 3.479 ⎠

This calculated figure assumes that the resonator is in

Figure 8 Schematic diagram of a dielectric reso-
nator showing the key dimensions.
free-space. If the resonator is mounted on a substrate
in a cavity then this will significantly alter the resonant
frequency. A more accurate model to take into ac-
count cavity and substrate is the Itoh and Rudokas
model [7] which, is shown below in Figure 9:

The most common resonant mode in dielectric resona-

tors is the TE01δ mode and when the relative dielectric
constant is around 40, more than 95% of the stored
a
energy are located within the resonator. For an ap- shield
proximate estimation of the resonant frequency in
TE01δ mode of an isolated dielectric resonator, the fol-
Region 2 er2 L2
lowing simple formula can be used:

Region 4 er6 er4 L

34 ⎛a ⎞
FGHz = .⎜ + 3.45 ⎟
a(mm) . ε r ⎝ L ⎠ Region 1 er1 L1

The above equation is accurate to about 2% in the

range shield
0.5 < a/L < 2 and 30 < εr < 50 Region 6

The approximate Q factor of the resonator is directly

related to the dielectric loss ie tanδ.
Figure 9 Itoh & Rudokas model of a dielectric
1 σ resonator inside a metallic shielded cavity
Qunloaded = tanδ =
tanδ (ω.ε o .ε r )
This model can be simplified to the numerical solution
of a pair of transcendental equations:
3.11 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A DIELECTRIC
RESONATOR π
The following section describes the design of a dielec- k oa = .a (mm) .f( GHz)
150
tric resonator for a frequency of ~ 7GHz. A manufac-
turer of dielectric resonators – Transtech can supply
An initial frequency is entered to calculate the height L
two relative permittivities of 30 and 38. The Trans-
Tech D8733-0305-137 puck was selected with the
following parameters, εr = 30, Diameter = 7.75mm, y0 = (k o a )2 (ε r 6 − ε r 4 ) − x 012 x 01 is taken to be 2.4048
Height = 3.48mm, the resonant frequency can be esti-
mated using: y0
k ρ 1a = 2.4048 +
⎛ 2.43 ⎞
2.4048⎜⎜1+ + 0.291y 0 ⎟⎟
⎝ y0 ⎠
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The attenuation constantsin regions1and 2 are : - 1

LC =
(2πf )2
α1 = k ρ1 − k .ε r 1
2 2
0

R = 2 * Zo * β
α 2 = k ρ1 − k .ε r 2
2 2
0

⎛ Q ⎞ QU
Q L = ⎜⎜ U ⎟⎟ − 1= β
The propagation constant common ⎝ 1+ β ⎠ QL
to regions 4 and 6 is : -

With the above equations it is possible to design VCO

β = k 02 .ε r 6 − k 2ρ1
for a given Q for example if we want a minimum Q of
1000:
ResonatorLengthL
If we use a Resonator with a unloaded Q of 5000

=
1
β
[tan (
−1 α1
β
)
cothα1.L1 + tan−1 (
α2
β
1
cothα 2 .L 2 )] ⎛ Q ⎞ QU 5000
Q L = ⎜⎜ U ⎟⎟ − 1= β − 1= 4
⎝ 1+ β ⎠ QL 1000

3.12 COUPLING OF RESONATOR TO For analysing on a CAD we can replace the

MICROSTRIP LINE [8]
resonator with a series resistor of
For analysis of the resonator coupled to a micro-strip
line, the transformation shown in the Figure 10 below
R = 2 * Zo * β 2 * 50 * 4 = 4KΩ
is used. β (coupling coefficient) is used to provide an
equivalent series resistance for the resonator:-
Trans-Tech have a CAD package [15] to calculate
various design parameters using their dielectric resona-
d tors. We can use the CAD package to calculate a plot
of the coupling coefficient β vs distance from the cen-
tre of the micro-strip line to the centre of the DRO
puck. The plot of the analysis is shown below in
Figure 11.

Coupling Coefficient
45
40
C 35

L 30
25
≡
|B|

20
15
R 10
5
Figure 10 Dielectric resonator coupled to a micro-
strip line and the corresponding circuit diagram.
The resistor L simulates the coupling of the L-C 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5
resonant circuit of the dielectric resonator. D (mm) Center to Center

Calculation of loaded Q:
Figure 11 Plot of coupling coefficient (β) with dis-
tance from the centre of the puck to the centre of
the microstrip line in mm
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Therefore, in our example, the puck would be placed at divide through by 2cos β .l
a distance of 7.15mm from the puck centre to the mi-
cro-strip line centre.
⎡ Zl . 2 cos β .l Zo . j 2 sin β .l ⎤
⎢ 2 cos β .l + 2 cos β .l ⎥
3.13 TRANSMISSION LINE RESONATOR [9] Zo . ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Zl . j 2 sin β .l + Zo . 2 cos β .l ⎥
Over a narrow bandwidth L-C lumped components can
be realised using short-circuit and open-circuit trans- ⎣⎢ 2 cos β .l 2 cos β .l ⎦⎥
mission lines. If we analyse a transmission line termi-
nated in a load ZL we can define the transformed im- ⎡ Zo . j sin β .l ⎤
pedance in terms of the characteristic line impedance ⎢ Zl + cos β .l ⎥
and the electrical length of the transmission line. The Zo . ⎢ ⎥
⎢ Zo + Zl . j sin β .l ⎥
diagram below (Figure 12) shows a transmission line
⎢⎣ cos β .l ⎥⎦
loaded with ZL.

⎡ Zl + Zo . tan β .l ⎤
ZL Z ( in ) = Zo . ⎢ ⎥
Z (in) → T.L Z o ⎣ Zo + Zl . tan β .l ⎦

This equation is the general expression for the imped-

l l=0 ance looking into a load ZL via a length of transmis-
sion line. If we now have the case where the transmis-
Figure 12 Transmission line loaded with load ZL sion line is terminated with a short circuit we find the
general expression simplifies ie let ZL = 0 then

Z (in ) =
V
=
[
v 1e + jβ .l + v 2e − jβ .l ]
I 1
[
v 1e + jβ .l − v 2e − jβ .l ] ⎡ Zl + Zo. tan β . l ⎤
Zo Z (in) = Zo. ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Zo + Zl. tan β . l ⎦
V2 Z − Zo
== L
V1 Z L + Zo = jZ o tan β . l ( Short circuit)

V ⎡ (Zl + Zo ).e + jβ .l + (Zl − Zo ).e − jβ .l ⎤ We can now plot the impedance (Figure 13) of the
∴ Z (in ) = = Zo.⎢ ⎥ shorted length of transmission line vs electrical length
⎣⎢ (Zl + Zo ).e − (Zl − Zo ).e − ⎥⎦
+ jβ .l jβ .l
I
and we get the following graph, which shows how the
transmission line equates to lumped capacitance and
⎡ Zl (e jβ .l + e − jβ .l ) + Zo(e jβ .l − e − jβ .l ) ⎤ inductance with resonance’s in between.
Z (in ) = Zo.⎢ jβ .l − jβ .l ⎥
⎣ Zl (e − e ) + Zo(e jβ .l + e − jβ .l ) ⎦
In general Z(in) = R(in) + jX(in) For S/CCT R(in) = 0 ;
X(in) = Zotanβ.L
(e jβ .l + e − jβ .l ) = 2 cos β .l
Zotanβ.L is purely reactive varies between - ∞ & + ∞
(e jβ .l − e − jβ .l ) = j 2 sin β .l as L varies

⎡ Zl .2 cos β .l + Zo. j 2 sin β .l ⎤

∴ Z (in ) = Zo.⎢ ⎥
⎣ Zl . j 2 sin β .l + Zo.2 cos β .l ⎦

⎡ Zl .e jβ .l + Zo.e jβ .l + Zl .e − jβ .l − Zo.e − jβ .l ⎤
∴ Z ( in ) = Zo.⎢ jβ .l jβ .l − jβ . l ⎥
⎣ Zl .e + Zo.e − Zl .e + Zo.e − jβ .l ⎦
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X = Z o tan β . l
← λg λg 3λg/4 λ g/2 λg/4 0
Similarly, for a transmission line terminated by an
β =
2π open circuit we can repeat the analysis, but we divid-
1 1
λg
ing through by ZL. Note Zo/ZL tends to zero ie:-
ω.l
ϑ = β. l =
v

= ⎜⎛ ⎟⎞ ω
l
⎝ v⎠
Z (in) → T.L Z o ZL V=M ax
θ = β.L l=0
2π 3π/2 π π/2 at O/cct

2 2 ZL = ∞

←f 4fo 3fo 2fo fo 0

⎡ Zl + Zo. tan β .l ⎤
Z ( in ) = Zo .⎢ ⎥
4 4 ⎣ Zo + Zl . tan β .l ⎦
3 3 3
divide top & bottom by Z L ie

⎡ Zl Zo . tan β .l ⎤
⎢ + ⎥
Zo .⎢ Zl Zl
⎥
Zo Zl . tan β .l
⎢ + ⎥
Figure 13 Plot of impedance against length of a ⎣ Zl Zl ⎦
short circuited transmission line. The plot shows
how the reactance of the transmission line varies
between inductive and capacitive reactances with ⎛ 1 ⎞
= jZ o ⎜⎜ ⎟( Open circuit)
resonant frequency regions in between. ⎝ [tan β .l ] ⎟⎠

Each region of figure 40 is now described:

Again we can plot the impedance against electrical
(1) If θ between 0 & π/2 tanβ.L is positive ∴X is +ve length of the transmission line (Figure 14) to see the
⇒ j(ω.L) - INDUCTIVE. equivalent lumped reactance and resonance points.

(2) If π/2 < θ < π tanβ.L is -ve ∴ X is -ve ⇒ j(-1/ω.C)

- CAPACITIVE. In general Z(in) = R(in) + jX(in) For O/CCT R(in) = ∞ ;
X(in) = Zocotβ.L
(3) If θ ≈ 0, π , 2π | X | goes to a minimum ie:-
Zocotβ.L is purely reactive varies between - ∞ & + ∞
as L
|X |
X = Z o cot β . l
← λg λg 3λg/4 λg/2 λg/4
≅ 0
2π
β =
λg
L .C 1 1 ω. l
ϑ = β. l =
v
θ = ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ω
l
⎝ v⎠

θ = β.L l=0
(4) If θ ≅ π/2 , 3π/2 | X | goes to a maximum:- 2π 3π/2 π π/2

|X | 2 2

≅ ←f 4fo 3fo 2fo fo 0

L //C 4
4 3 4
3
θ

Figure 14 Plot of impedance against length of a open

circuited transmission line. The plot shows how the
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reactance of the transmission line varies between 3.15 CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE

inductive and capacitive reactance’s with resonant
frequency regions in between.
The previous graphs show that we can realise lumped
components from transmission lines eg
RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY [10]
The following section describes the empirical equa-
tions that are used to calculate the dimensions of the
micro-strip lines and characteristic impedance [8]. The
first equation describes the effective relative permittiv-
ity which, differs from the specified value due the
width of the micro-strip track.

3.14 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF INDUCTOR USING

− a .b
A TRANSMISSION LINE ε r + 1 ε r − 1⎛ h⎞
ε eff = + ⎜1 + 10. ⎟
The following section describes the process of design- 2 2 ⎝ w⎠
ing a transmission line to have a specific inductance of
0.7nH at a frequency of 8.8GHz. The transmission ⎛ ε − 0 .9 ⎞
0.053

line is to be etched on RT duroid substrate material, where b = 0.564⎜⎜ r ⎟⎟

which has a relative permittivity of 2.94 and a sub- ⎝ εr + 3 ⎠
strate thickness of 0.25mm.
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎡ (W / h ) + (W / 52h ) ⎤ ⎛ 1 ⎞
4 2

⎥+⎜ ⎟Ln (1 + (W / 18.1h ) )

3
and a = 1+ ⎜ ⎟Ln ⎢
Reactance = 38.8Ω of inductance of 0.7nH at 8.8GHz ⎝ 49 ⎠ ⎣ (W / h ) + 0.432 ⎦ ⎝ 18.7 ⎠
4

2
⎛ 1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2πf ⎠
Calculation of W/h (width of micro-strip/substrate
= C ∴ C = 0.466pF thickness) for a given characteristic impedance and
L
effective relative permitivity:
⎛ 1 ⎞ 2π
Zin = - j.Zo⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ where β = Solve for l For Z o ≤ 44 - 2ε r
⎝ tanβ .l ⎠ λg

Using the transmission line equation for an open- W 2⎧ ε −1⎡ 0.517 ⎤ ⎫

= ⎨B - 1 - Ln(2B - 1) + r ⎢Ln(B - 1) + 0.293 - ⎬
circuit stub we can calculate the electrical length re- h π⎩ 2ε r ⎣ ε r ⎥⎦ ⎭
quired for an inductance of 0.7nH.
377π
where B =
Therefore a open-circuit stub of length 3.1mm will 2Z o ε r
have an inductance of 0.7nH at 8.8GHz.
For Z o ≥ 44 - 2ε r
As the equations show the resulting impedance is a
function of the characteristic of the line and generally
W 8e n
we use a narrow high impedance line ~ 100Ω for an = 2n
h e −2
inductive impedance and a wide length of line ~ 20Ω,
for a capacitive impedance. For completeness the em-
pirical equations for calculating line widths are given ε r + 1 Zo εr −1 ⎛ 0.12 ⎞
where n = . + .⎜⎜ 0.226 + ⎟
in the next section:- 2 60 εr + 1 ⎝ ε r ⎟⎠

Relative permittivity of the material to be used is 2.94 therefore

λair 3E8/8.8E9
λg = = = 0.0214m or 21.4mm
ε eff 2.53
3.16 INTER-DIGITAL MICRO-STRIP
CAPACITORS [11]
2π Normally resonators need to be lightly coupled in or-
β= = 293
0.0214 der to maintain a high Q, this can be done by using a
filter arrangement or by using very small value capaci-
⎛Z ⎞ ⎛ 50 ⎞ tors. Normal chip capacitors can go as low as 0.1pF,
arctan⎜ o ⎟ arctan⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ =
X ⎝ 38.9 ⎠ = 3.1mm but for smaller capacitance it is convenient to use
l=
β 293 transmission line inter-digital capacitors.
 Sheet
12 of 20

Literature on the subject is very scarce so a basic de- Transmission lines may be used as single resonators
sign formula was used to get the initial dimensions and capacitively coupled to the active device, but also they
the final dimensions were optimised during RF simula- may be configured as a micro-strip band-pass filter.
tions. The basic principle involves using open circuit trans-
mission lines of electrical length 180 degrees, which is
The basic formula for the inter-digital capacitor is equivalent to a ‘tuned circuit’ parallel resonator. What
given by:- tends to differ in the topographies are the ways in
which the resonators are coupled together. The resona-
C = 0.83 (N F − 1).L tors can be end coupled or parallel coupled using the
Where NF = Number of fingers gaps between them as the low value coupling capaci-
L = Length of fingers in cm tors. It is also possible to use inter-digital capacitors to
C = Capacitanc e in pF generate coupling capacitors less than 1pF

This formula assumes a finger spacing of 5um 3.17 VARACTORS [12]

and a finger width of 10um Voltage variable capacitors or tuning diodes are best
For example if we want a 0.05pF capacitor and described as diode capacitors employing the junction
if we assume that there are 2 fingers capacitance of a reverse biased PN junction. The ca-
then the length of the fingers will be : - pacitance of these devices varies inversely with the
applied reverse bias voltage.
C 0.05 The general equation for calculating the capacitance of
=L = = 0.06 cm the varactor is :-
0.83 * (N F − 1) 0.83(2 - 1)

CD
= 600um long fingers CJ =
(V + φ )γ

To further aid in the evaluation of a inter-digital ca-

where C D = diode capacitanc e;
pacitor the model was analysed in Libra RF CAD with
a finger width and gaps of 0.1mm and number of fin- V = applied voltage,
gers 2,3 & 4. φ = junction contact potential (~ 0.7V) and
γ = Capacitanc e exponent
The graph (Figure 15) shows the relationship between
capacitance and finger length.
3.18 DESIGN EXAMPLE OF A VARACTOR
DIODE
3 The following section describes how information from
a data sheet can be used to predict the capacitance of
2.5
the varactor diode for a given reverse bias. For this
example the varactor diode selected is a Macom Tun-
ing diode type MA46H071.
2
The data sheet gives the following parameters for the
Capacitance pF

diode:-
1.5

C = 0.9-1.1pF @ 4V;cap ratio Cto/Ct20 =

1 5.5;Gamma=0.75;Q @ 50MHz=4500

CD
0.5 CJ = rearrange to give CD = C J .(V + φ )γ
(V + φ )γ

0
0 0.5 1 1.5
Finger Length mm
2 2.5 3 = 1E -12 (4 + 0.7) 0.75 = 3.19pF

therefore, to calculate a capacitanc e for a given bias

Figure 15 Graph of a micro-strip inter-digital ca-
pacitor vs capacitance. The plots were calculated 3.19E −12
by analysis on HP/Eesof libra. = CJ =
(V + 0.7) 0.75
 Sheet
13 of 20

This is obviously the ideal case as it does not take into Rp

account the case parasitics
3.19 TUNING RATIOS
The tuning or capacitance ratio, TR, denotes the ratio
Rs
of capacitance obtained with two values of applied bias
voltage. This ratio is given by the following:-

γ Cj
C J ( V2 ) ⎡ V1 + φ ⎤
TR = = ⎢ ⎥
C J ( V1 ) ⎣ V2 + φ ⎦ Figure 17 Simplified model of a typical varactor
diode with parasitic reactance removed.
where CJ(V1) = junction capacitance at V1;CJ(V2) =
junction capacitance at V2 (V1>V2). The resulting Q for the above circuit is given by :-
3.20 CIRCUIT Q
The Q of the varactor can be very important, because 2πfC.Rp 2
Q=
the varactor usually directly forms the tuned circuit Rs + Rp + (2πfC) 2 Rs.Rp 2
and the overall Q is dominated by the worst Q factor.
The Q of tuning diode capacitors falls off at high fre-
quencies because of the series bulk resistance of the Typically Rs = 1Ω & Rp = 30x10 9 Ω
silicon used in the diode. The Q also falls off at low
frequencies because of the back resistance of the re- Therefore for a MA/COM MA46H071 we would ex-
verse-biased diode. pect the following Q’s at different frequencies as
shown in the table below:
The equivalent circuit of a tuning diode is often shown
in the form given below in Figure 16. f(GHz) Q
0.05 3500
Rp 2 88
6 30
Rs Ls Ls’
The degradation of Q at microwave frequencies means
that the varactor, has to be lightly coupled, or Q trans-
Cj
formed in order not to load the resonant circuit, lower-
ing the loaded Q with the resultant degradation in
Cc phase noise performance.
The following graph (Figure 18) of the varactor diode
frequency response shows that at low frequencies the
Q is dominated by the parallel term ie Qp = 2πf.Rp.C
Figure 16 Equivalent circuit of a typical varctor diode and at high frequencies by the series term Qs =
together with case and lead parasitic components. 1/(2πfRs.C).

Where Rp = Parallel resistance /back resistance of

the diode.
Rs = Bulk resistance of the silicon in the di-
ode.
Ls’ = External lead inductance.
Ls = Internal lead inductance.
Cc = Case Capacitance.

Normally the lead inductance and case capacitance can

be ignored, which results in a simplified circuit shown
in Figure 17.
 Sheet
14 of 20

100000
Compensatin Varactor
g
10000
Vin
1000

R
100

10

Figure 19 Schematic circuit diagram, for tem-

1
perature compensation, of a varactor diode
1 100 10000 1000000 100000000 1E+10
Normally, however the varactor is part of a feedback
0.1 Frequency (Hz) loop, which controls the frequency of oscillation eg in
a PLL system. In this case, the temperature effects are
generally accounted for in the loop so that external
Figure 18 Plot of Q against frequency. The verti- compensation is not required.
cal scale is Q and the horizontal scale is frequency
in Hz.
4 LOADED & UNLOADED Q [13,14,15]
3.21 TEMPERATURE VARIATION 4.1 UNLOADED Q
The two mechanisms for the variation of capacitance The earlier section described how the Q of a tuning
over temperature are (i) contact potential and (ii) case diode varies over frequency and can be quite low (~
capacitance. 30) at microwave frequencies. This will obviously
have an effect on the loaded Q of a circuit where the
The contact potential will vary at -2.2mV/°C thus for individual components may have higher Q’s in the
the MACom diode we would expect the following hundred’s. We therefore need to estimate the loaded Q
temperature drifts as shown in Table 2. of a resonator, with a varactor connected, in order to
calculate the phase noise performance of the oscillator.
V Cj Cj+1 decC Diff ppm/degC
1 2.1426636 2.1405863 0.0020773 2077.292
2 1.5144951 1.5135702 0.0009249 924.86538 It is useful to be able to simplify the equivalent Q of a
4 0.9993492 0.9989986 0.0003507 350.69174 circuit, so the effect of the varactor Q can be evaluated.
6 0.7660103 0.7658217 0.0001886 188.59013 Some basic definitions of Q in the series and parallel
8 0.6297254 0.629606 0.0001194 119.40427 form are:
10 0.5392037 0.5391205 8.313E-05 83.133275
12 0.4741742 0.4741126 6.16E-05 61.595969
Unloaded Series circuit Q
14 0.4249156 0.4248679 4.769E-05 47.688364
16 0.3861476 0.3861094 3.815E-05 38.14791 ω oL 1 ω oL
= = External Q =
18 0.3547394 0.3547081 3.13E-05 31.297317 R ω oR.C RL
20 0.32871 0.3286838 2.62E-05 26.199086

Unloaded Parallel circuit Q

Table 2 Calculated data of the capacitance varia-
tion with temperature for the MACom varactor
diode. R RL
= ω oR.C = External Q =
ω oL ω oL

3.22 TEMPERATURE COMPENSATION
A popular method of temperature compensation in-
volves the use of a forward bias diode. The voltage
drop of a forward biased diode decreases as the tem-
perature rises, therefore applying a changing voltage to
the tuning diode. For the circuit to be effective the
compensating diode must be thermally coupled to the
varactor to be corrected. Figure 19 shows a method
for temperature compensating a varactor diode.
We can take the specified Q values for inductors and
capacitors from the data sheets and calculate the
equivalent series or parallel resistance that distinguish
the component from an ‘ideal’ component to one with
a finite Q. Once the resistance has been calculated, the
circuit can be simplified down to a single component
or a series/parallel combination of two circuits, to al-
low calculation of the unloaded circuit Q. The follow-
 Sheet
15 of 20

ing example (shown in Figure 20) shows a simple L-C 4.2 LOADED Q
tuned circuit but with losses added. The loaded Q of a resonant circuit is dependent on
three main factors:
RIND=163KΩ
(1) The source impedance (Rs).
(2) The load impedance (RL).
L ~ 2.5uH (3) The component Q.
RC=318KΩ
Q =100 @ 100MHz
The circuit used in the example of section 3.5.1 is to be
loaded in a 50-ohm system as shown in Figure 21.
C = 1pF
Q = 200 @ 100MHz
Rs = 50Ω RRES=108KΩ
Figure 20 Simple L-C circuit with component
losses added
L ~ 2.5uH
RL=50Ω
The equivalent parallel loss resistance for each com- Q =100 @ 100MHz
ponent was calculated as follows-
C = 1pF
Q
R PL = Q.ω o .L and R CP = Q = 200 @ 100MHz
ω o .C

Figure 21 Simple L-C resonant circuit loaded,

R LP = 2π * 100 * 100E 6 * 2.5E −6 with 50-ohm source and load impedances.

200
The addition of the source and load impedances will
= 163KΩ and R CP = = 318KΩ degrade the loaded Q of the circuit as they will effec-
2π * 100E 6 * 1E −12
tively be in parallel with the high impedance resonant
circuit as shown below in Figure 22.
Parallel equivalent resistance = R LP //R CP
L ~ 2.5uH
163K * 318K RRES=108KΩ
= = 108K Q =100 @ 100MHz Requ = 24.99Ω
163K + 318K

∴ Unloaded Q of circuit = ω o .R.C and

=
RL=50Ω
R
Q= = 2π * 100E 6 * 1E −12 * 108E 3 = 67
ω o .L Rs = 50Ω C = 1pF
Q = 200 @ 100MHz
A useful transformation from series equivalent resis-
tive loss (Rs) to parallel equivalent resistive loss (Rp)
is given as – Figure 22 L-C resonant circuit reduced to one re-
sistive loss component.
For Q < 10
The loaded Q of the circuit of Figure 22 is:-
Rp = (Q 2 + 1) * Rs
Rp 24.99
Q= = = 0.0159
For Q > 10 ωo L 2π * 100E 6 * 2.5E -6

Rp ≈ (Q 2 ) * Rs and Xs ≈ Xp This dramatic decrease in Q will give the simple L-C

network a 3dB bandwidth of:
These transformations are only valid at one frequency,
as they involve the component reactance, which is fre- Δf 100MHz
Q = ∴ Δf = = 6GHz !!
quency dependant. fo 0.0159
 Sheet
16 of 20

To improve the loaded Q, given a restraining source Rp = Q.Xp = 10 * 2π * 100E6 * 2.6E−6 = 15.7KΩ
and load impedance, we could alter the value of Xp.
This however, results in either very high inductors, or Rs * RL
very low capacitors. 15707 = From previous calculations RL = 108KΩ
Rs + RL
If we are restrained from altering the value of Xp we
can either use a tapped L or C transformer or coupling Rs * 108KΩ
L or C. 15707 = solve for Rs = 18.37KΩ
Rs + 108KΩ

4.3 Q TRANSFORMATION Therefore we need to transformour source impedance

The circuits shown in Figure 23 show the two methods to 18KΩ using a capacitor tapped transformer,
of transforming the Q of a circuit, by the use of imped-
ance transformers. 2
⎛ C1⎞ ⎛ Rs' ⎞ C1 ⎛ 18K ⎞
Rs' = Rs⎜1 + ⎟ ∴ ⎜ ⎟ -1 = ⎜ ⎟ - 1 = 18
Tapped C circuit ⎝ C2 ⎠ ⎝ Rs ⎠ C2 ⎝ 50 ⎠

C1 * C2
Therfore C1= 18 * C2 and = 1pF
C1 + C2

We could have C1 = 1.055pF and C2 = 18pF

RL The final circuit designed to give a Q of 10 is shown in

Rs Figure 24.

L = 2.5uH

2
⎛ C1 ⎞
Rs' = Rs⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ C2 ⎠ C 2=
18pF
R L = 108K Ω
Tapped L circuit

C 1=
1.055pF

R s = 50Ω 2
⎛ C1 ⎞
n Rs' = Rs⎜1 + ⎟
n1 RL ⎝ C2 ⎠
Rs
2
⎛ 18 ⎞
Rs' = 50⎜1 + ⎟ = 16K3Ω
⎝ 1.055 ⎠
2
⎛n⎞
Rs' = Rs⎜ ⎟ 18pF * 1.055pF
⎝ n1 ⎠ C1//C2 = ~ 1pF
18pF + 1.055pF

Figure 23 Impedance transformation circuits (Tapped

Figure 24 L-C circuit with a capacitor tapped im-
L & C). These circuits can be used to increase the
pedance transformer, to give a loaded Q of 10,
effective source & or load impedances in order to
when loaded with a source impedance of 50
improve the loaded Q of a circuit.
ohms.

If we require a Q of 10 then this will equate to a paral-

lel equivalent resistance of:
 Sheet
17 of 20

Equally we could use a coupling capacitor between the
source impedance and resonant circuit such that the
resistance will equal 16KΩ.
Required coupling capacitor reactance at 100MHz
= 16KΩ - 50Ω ~ 16KΩ
4.5 DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR A VARACTOR
CONTROLLED RESONATOR
Consider the varactor resonator shown below in
Figure 26. The capacitor combination can be simpli-
fied to a single capacitor that then forms a parallel
resonant circuit with the inductor. In this example, we
assume a source impedance of 50ohms.

1
∴ C coupling = = 0.1pF
2π * 100E 6 * 16E 3

Rcdiode= 2.65Ω
The addition of a coupling capacitor to the circuit is
shown in Figure 25.
Cdiode ~ 1pF
Q =30 @ 2GHz
L = 2.5uH L ~ 7.6nH
Q =150 @ 1GHz
C ~5pF
Cc=0.1pF
RIND=7163Ω Q = 100 @ 5GHz

RL = 108KΩ RC=0.06Ω

Rs = 50Ω

C=1pF Figure 26 Schematic circuit diagram of a varactor

controlled resonator for use at 2GHz. The equiva-
lent loss resistances have been calculated using the
equations of section 3.5.1

Figure 25 Addition of a coupling capacitor to the

simple L-C to increase the loaded Q to ~10
The required coupling capacitor is very small at 0.1pF
and is probably impracticable at 100MHz. However
this size of capacitor can be realised at microwave fre-
quencies by the use of a microstrip gap or a inter-
digital capacitor (as described in section 3.16).
This circuit of Figure 26 can be simplified to that
shown in Figure 27. The loss resistances of the capaci-
tor arm can be added and converted to a parallel loss
resistance that can be added to the loss of the inductor.
The equivalent capacitor now equals 0.833pF ie 1pF //
5pF.
Rcdiode= 2.71Ω(series)
3343Ω (parallel)

4.4 INSERTION LOSS OF RESONATOR

The insertion loss of a resonator is important in oscilla- L ~ 7.6nH
tor design as there needs to be enough loop gain to Q =150 @ 1GHz
allow oscillation. A high insertion loss resonator may
require two stages of amplification around the loop
that will add to the size, power consumption and com- RIND=7163Ω Q of
plexity of the oscillator. The insertion loss of the reso- capcitor+diode
nator is a function of loaded and unloaded Q ie:- ~35

⎛ Q ⎞
Insertion loss (dB) = - 20log ⎜⎜1 − L ⎟⎟ Figure 27 Simplified varactor controlled resona-
⎝ Q U ⎠
tor for use at 2GHz
where Q L = loaded Q and Q U = unloaded Q
 Sheet
18 of 20

Conversion of series capacitor loss to parallel loss : -

Graph 1
0 DB(|S[2,1]|) *
Varactor
1
-2
Xs
(series) = 2π . * 2E * 0.833E
−12
9
Q= = 35
Rs (2.65 + 0.06) -4

R P = Q 2 * R s = (35) * 2.71 = 3319Ω

2 -6

-8
Now we can calculate the equivalent loss resistance
and the unloaded Q of the circuit:
-10
0.2 2.2 4.2 6.2 8
Equivalent loss resistance across the Frequency (GHz)
resonant circuit is 7163Ω // 3319Ω = 2268Ω

Unloaded Q of the circuit =

Rp Figure 29 Varactor resonator circuit loaded, with 50-
Xp ohm source and load impedances. The Q was graphi-
cally measured at ~ 0.28.

=
2268
= 23.7 The loaded Q is lower than the unloaded Q due to the
2π * 2E 9 * 7.6E −9 damping effect of the low value source impedance. An
oscillator with a resonant circuit with a Q of 0.24 will
We can see that the low Q of the inductor is going to be very unsatisfactory, so a means of increasing the
dominate the unloaded Q of the parallel circuit. Now, loaded Q is required. We cannot do much about the
if we load the circuit with 50-ohm source and load tuned circuit, but we can modify the source and load
impedances, (as shown in Figure 28) we can calculate impedances either by the used of a C/L tapped trans-
the loaded Q of the circuit. former or by the use of coupling capacitors. For this
example we shall consider the use of coupling capaci-
RS = 50Ω RRES=2268Ω RL = 50Ω
tors on the varactor circuit. Figure 30 shows the im-
plementation of coupling capacitors.

Coupling Coupling
RS = 50Ω C
L ~ 7.6nH RRES=2268Ω C

Cdiode ~ 0.833pF L ~ 7.6nH

RL = 50Ω

Figure 28 Resonant varactor circuit loaded with

Cdiode ~ 0.833pF
50ohm source and load impedances.
The loaded Q of the circuit will be the parallel combi-
nation of the equivalent parallel resistance of the reso- Figure 30 Varactor tuned circuit, with coupling
nant circuit with the source and load impedances ie- capacitors, added between 50- ohm source and
load impedances.
1
=
1
+
1
+
1
∴ Rp = 24.73 Ω If we decide that we require a loaded Q of say 10, then
Rp 50 50 2268 we can calculate the value of the source resistors, that
when placed in parallel with the tuned circuit, will give
Rp 24.73 the required value of Q ie
This will give a loaded Q of = = 0.26
Xp 2π * 2E 9 * 7.6E -9

The circuit was analysed on the CAD to confirm the Q

calculations and is shown in Figure 29.
 Sheet
19 of 20

Total parallel resistance to give a Q of 10 = Finally a lumped element resonator with varactor diode
was given as an example in designing a resonator to
X .QL = Rp ∴ Rp = 2π * 2E 9 * 7.6E -9 * 10 = 95.5Ω give a loaded Q of 10 and at the same time an accept-
able insertion loss of ~4dB.
1
=
1
+
1
+
1
∴ Rp = 198Ω 4.7 REFERENCES
Rp Rs RL 2268 [1] Oscillator Design and Simulation, Randall W Rhea,
Value of series capacitor =
1
= 0.4pF
1995 ,Noble Publishing, ISBN 1-884932-30-4, chap 4.
2π * 2E 9 * (198)
[2] RF Design Guide, Peter Vizmuller, 1995, Artech-
This value of series coupling capacitor is very small house, ISBN 0-89006-754-6, p237.
but can be realised at microwave frequencies by the
use of a inter-digital microstrip capacitor. The coupling [3] Trans-Tech Application Note 1008,1010 & 1015,
capacitors were added to the CAD model and analysed from www.alphaind.com.
to confirm a Q of ~ 10, the plot is shown in Figure 31.
[4] Microwave Circuit Design – Using Linear and
Predicted insertion loss: Nonlinear Techniques ,George D Vendelin,Anthony M
Pavio and Ulrich L Rohde, 1990. Wiley – Interscience
⎛ Q ⎞ ⎛ 10 ⎞ ISBN 0-471-58060-0, p 403.
loss (dB) = - 20log⎜⎜1 - L ⎟⎟ = - 20log⎜1 - ⎟ = 4.76dB
⎝ QU ⎠ ⎝ 23.7 ⎠
[5] Dielectric Resonators, D Kajfez & P Guillon, 1990,
Vector fields, ISBN 0-930071-04-2.
Loaded Q
0
DB(|S[2,1]|) * [6] Microwave Engineering, David Pozar, 1993, Addi-
-2
Varactor son Wesley, ISBN 0-201-50418-9, p354-358.

-4 [7] Card V3 Dielectric resonator design software by

Scillasoft Consultants for Trans-Tech,
-6 www.alphaind.com.

-8 [8] Micro-strip coupling model by Patrick Champagne,

“Better coupling model of DR to micro-strip ensures
-10 repeatability”, Microwaves & RF Sept 1987, p113-
1.5 2
Frequency (GHz)
2.5
118.

Figure 31 Varactor resonator circuit loaded, with

50-ohm source, load impedances and coupling ca-
pacitors. The Q was graphically measured at ~
10, with a resonator insertion loss of ~ -3.85dB.
4.6 CONCLUSION/SUMMARY
This paper described the design of various types of
resonator suitable in oscillator designs. For each type
the design equations for frequency and unloaded Q
were given that are required in order for an oscillator
to meet a given phase noise specification. As most
oscillators require electronic tuning the various design
aspects of varactor diodes was given including the
effects of temperature and a method of temperature
compensation.
Various methods of Q transformation were given using
the tapped ‘C’ and tapped ‘L’ methods together with
worked examples.
[9] MSc Solid State Physics Course Notes for Unit
P503 – Transmission line theory ,1999, Dr D Nixon.
[10] Microstrip Circuit Analysis , David H
Schrader,1995 ,Prentice-Hall , ISBN 0-13-588534-5,
p30-32.
[11] Microwave Field Effect Transistors, Raymond S
Pengelly, 1994, Noble Publishing, ISBN 1-884932-50-
9, p473-476.
[12] Motorola Semiconductor Application Note – Tun-
ing diode design technique – AN847/D, 1994.
[13] Radio Frequency Design – Wes Hayward, 1994,
The American Radio Relay League, ISBN 0-87259-
492-0, p54-59.
 Sheet
20 of 20

[14] Oscillator Design and Simulation, Randall W

Rhea, 1995, Noble Publishing, ISBN 1-884932-30-4, p
35.

[15] RF Circuit Design, Chris Bowick, 1997, Butter-

worth & Heinemann, ISBN 0750699469.