Radar Training System

Radar Training System
Telecommunications
Radar
LabVolt Series
Instructor Guide
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Festo Didactic
en
www.festo-didactic.com 38542-10
Telecommunications
Radar

Instructor Guide
38542-10
Order no.: 38542-10
First Edition
Revision level: 04/2017
By the staff of Festo Didactic
© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2006

Internet: www.festo-didactic.com
e-mail: did@de.festo.com
Printed in Canada
All rights reserved
ISBN 978-2-89289-957-3 (Printed version)
ISBN 978-2-89747-266-5 (CD-ROM)
Legal Deposit – Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec, 2006
Legal Deposit – Library and Archives Canada, 2006
The purchaser shall receive a single right of use which is non-exclusive, non-time-limited and limited
geographically to use at the purchaser's site/location as follows.
The purchaser shall be entitled to use the work to train his/her staff at the purchaser's site/location and
shall also be entitled to use parts of the copyright material as the basis for the production of his/her own
training documentation for the training of his/her staff at the purchaser's site/location with
acknowledgement of source and to make copies for this purpose. In the case of schools/technical
colleges, training centers, and universities, the right of use shall also include use by school and college
students and trainees at the purchaser's site/location for teaching purposes.
The right of use shall in all cases exclude the right to publish the copyright material or to make this
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Entitlement to other rights relating to reproductions, copies, adaptations, translations, microfilming and
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Information in this document is subject to change without notice and does not represent a commitment on
the part of Festo Didactic. The Festo materials described in this document are furnished under a license
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Festo Didactic recognizes product names as trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective
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Festo Didactic disclaims any proprietary interest in trademarks and trade names other than its own.
Safety and Common Symbols
The following safety and common symbols may be used in this manual and on
the equipment:
Symbol Description
DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

indicates a hazard with a potentially hazardous situation which,
if not avoided, may result in property damage.
Caution, risk of electric shock
Caution, hot surface
Caution, risk of danger
Caution, lifting hazard
Caution, hand entanglement hazard
Notice, non-ionizing radiation
Direct current
Alternating current
Both direct and alternating current
Three-phase alternating current
Earth (ground) terminal
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 III

Safety and Common Symbols
Symbol Description
Protective conductor terminal
Frame or chassis terminal
Equipotentiality
On (supply)
Off (supply)
Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

reinforced insulation
In position of a bi-stable push control
Out position of a bi-stable push control
IV © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................. IX
To the Instructor .................................................................................................... XI
Volume 1 – Principles of Radar Systems ....................................................... XIII
Unit 1 Fundamentals of Pulsed Radars ................................................. 1

Exercise 1-1 Basic Principles of Pulsed Radars ........................ 3
Exercise 1-2 The Range-Delay Relationship ............................. 6
Exercise 1-3 Radar Antennas .................................................... 8
Exercise 1-4 The Radar Equation ............................................ 10
Unit 2 A Pulsed Radar System.............................................................. 13

Exercise 2-1 Pulsed Radar Transmitter and Receiver ............. 14
Exercise 2-2 Antenna Driving System ...................................... 17
Unit 3 CW Radars ................................................................................... 21

Exercise 3-1 CW Radars and the Doppler Effect ..................... 22
Exercise 3-2 Frequency-Modulated CW Radar ....................... 25
Unit 4 Troubleshooting Radar Systems .............................................. 31

Exercise 4-1 Troubleshooting a CW Radar.............................. 33
Exercise 4-2 Troubleshooting an FM-CW Radar ..................... 35
Exercise 4-3 Troubleshooting a Pulsed Radar: The RF
Section ................................................................ 36
Volume 2 – Analog MTI Processing ................................................................. 39
Unit 1 Analog Radar Systems ............................................................... 41

Exercise 1-1 Familiarization with the Analog Pulsed Radar
System ................................................................ 42
Exercise 1-2 The PPI Display................................................... 43
Unit 2 Analog MTI Radar ....................................................................... 47

Exercise 2-1 Phase-Processing MTI ........................................ 49
Exercise 2-2 Vector-Processing MTI ........................................ 53
Exercise 2-3 Staggered PRF.................................................... 56
Exercise 2-4 MTI Limitations .................................................... 59
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 V

Table of Contents
Unit 3 Target Detection in Noise and Clutter ...................................... 63

Exercise 3-1 Threshold Detection ............................................ 65
Exercise 3-2 Pulse Integration ................................................. 72
Exercise 3-3 Sensitivity Time Control....................................... 77
Exercise 3-4 Instantaneous Automatic Gain Control ............... 79
Exercise 3-5 The LOG-FTC Receiver ...................................... 81
Exercise 3-6 Constant False-Alarm Rate ................................. 85
Unit 4 Troubleshooting .......................................................................... 91

Exercise 4-1 Troubleshooting the MTI Processor .................... 92
Exercise 4-2 Troubleshooting the Display Processor .............. 94
Exercise 4-3 Troubleshooting an MTI Radar System .............. 95
Volume 3 – Digital MTD Processing ................................................................. 97
Unit 1 Digital Pulse Radar Systems ..................................................... 99

Exercise 1-1 Familiarization with the Digital Pulse Radar ...... 100
Exercise 1-2 The PPI Display................................................. 101
Unit 2 MTD Detection Processing ...................................................... 103

Exercise 2-1 Cell Mapping ..................................................... 104
Exercise 2-2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Processing......... 105
Exercise 2-3 Constant False-Alarm Rate (CFAR).................. 106
Unit 3 Alarm Processing ..................................................................... 107

Exercise 3-1 Correlation and Interpolation (C&I)
Processing ......................................................... 108
Exercise 3-2 Surveillance (Track-While-Scan) Processing .... 109
Unit 4 Troubleshooting ........................................................................ 111

Exercise 4-1 Troubleshooting the Digital MTD/PPI
Processor .......................................................... 112
Volume 4 – Tracking Radar ............................................................................. 113

Exercise 1 Familiarization with the Tracking Radar ............ 115
Exercise 2 Manual Tracking of a Target ............................. 117
VI © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Table of Contents
Exercise 3 Automatic Range Tracking ................................ 118

Exercise 4 Angle Tracking Techniques............................... 120
Exercise 5 Automatic Angle Tracking ................................. 122
Exercise 6 Range and Angle Tracking Performance
(Radar-Dependent Errors) ................................ 124
Exercise 7 Range and Angle Tracking Performance
(Target-Caused Errors) ..................................... 126
Exercise 8 Troubleshooting a Radar Target Tracker .......... 128
Volume 5 – Radar in an Active Target Environment .................................... 131
Unit 1 Noise Jamming ......................................................................... 133

Exercise 1-1 Familiarization with the Jamming Pod............... 135
Exercise 1-2 Spot Noise Jamming and Burn-Through
Range ................................................................ 138
Exercise 1-3 Frequency Agility and Barrage Noise
Jamming ............................................................ 140
Exercise 1-4 Video Integration and Track-On Jamming ........ 142
Exercise 1-5 Antennas in EW: Sidelobe Jamming and
Space Discrimination......................................... 144
Unit 2 Range Deception Jamming ...................................................... 147

Exercise 2-1 Deception Jamming Using the Radar
Jamming Pod .................................................... 148
Exercise 2-2 Range Gate Pull-Off .......................................... 150
Exercise 2-3 Stealth Technology: The Quest for Reduced
RCS ................................................................... 152
Unit 3 Angle Deception Jamming ....................................................... 155

Exercise 3-1 Deceptive Jamming Using Amplitude-
Modulated Signals ............................................. 156
Exercise 3-2 Cross-Polarization Jamming ............................. 158
Exercise 3-3 Multiple-Source Jamming Techniques .............. 161
Unit 4 Chaff ........................................................................................... 165

Exercise 4-1 Chaff Clouds...................................................... 166
Exercise 4-2 Chaff Clouds Used as Decoys .......................... 168
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 VII

Table of Contents
Volume 6 – The Phased Array Antenna ......................................................... 171
Unit 1 Basic Operation ........................................................................ 173

Exercise 1-1 Basic Principles, Operation, and Adjustments .. 174
Exercise 1-2 The True-Time Delay Rotman Lens .................. 175
Exercise 1-3 The Switching Matrix ......................................... 177
Unit 2 Measurement of Useful Phased Array Antenna

Characteristics .......................................................................... 179
Exercise 2-1 Beamwidth Measurement ................................. 180
Exercise 2-2 Radiation Pattern Measurement ....................... 181
Exercise 2-3 Angular Separation Measurement .................... 182
Exercise 2-4 Phased Array Antenna Gain Measurement ...... 183
Exercise 2-5 Maximum Scan Angle Measurement ................ 185
Exercise 2-6 Target Bearing Estimation ................................. 186
Exercise 2-7 Target Speed Estimation ................................... 187
Appendix A Hints for Using the Radar Training System ........................... 189
Appendix B Test Points and Block Diagrams ............................................. 191
Appendix C Fault Switches ........................................................................... 195
Appendix D Answers to Unit Test Questions.............................................. 197
VIII © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Preface
If one had to identify the instrument which, by its great versatility, most extends
the immense capacities of the human senses, radar would certainly be a serious
candidate, if not the most serious. With a radar, one can see in the dark,
measure the speed of a moving object precisely, measure the distance of a rain
storm or the density of clouds, prevent collisions, obtain advance warning of an
impending danger, land in dense fog, determine the relief of mountains, and
much more. In a way, radars allow men to do with electromagnetic waves what
they would like to be able to do using their senses. It is not surprising, therefore,
that radars are used almost everywhere, even though they were invented only
during the Second World War. Radars are an extension of our capacity to
perceive complex situations, and they are such powerful tools that once one has
understood their capabilities, radars can no longer be ignored.
The speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves (the speed of light) allows

very little time to perceive a radar echo if the reflecting object is very close. Since
this speed is approximately 300 m per microsecond, the radar system must be
either quite far from the target or extremely rapid to perceive the effect of a return
signal. If the target is far away, however, a great deal of power must be
transmitted in order to obtain an echo strong enough to be detected. These are
the two points which have always made practical teaching of radar in a laboratory
very difficult, and at the same time, very dangerous.
It is in this context that we undertook to develop table-top radar specifically

designed for teaching radar principles in a safe way within a laboratory
classroom; a project which was said at first to be technically impossible. We have
taken into consideration not only all the technical details but also the needs of the
student in this field, of his or her capacities, of safety standards, and finally, of the
versatility required of the apparatus. We put all the energy necessary into this
project, and today, the Radar Training System is available and ready to provide
the student with a unique learning experience.
We hope that you will have as much pleasure using this system and discovering
its potential as we have had conceiving and producing it.
We invite readers of this manual to send us their tips, feedback, and

suggestions for improving the book.
Please send these to did@de.festo.com.

The authors and Festo Didactic look forward to your comments.
Acknowledgements
We thank the following people for their participation in the development of the
Radar Instructional Program: Gilles Y. Delisle, Ph.D., Michel Lecours, Ph.D.,
from Laval University; John Ahern, M.Sc.A., Marcel Pelletier, Ph.D., from
Comlab.
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 IX

Preface
We also thank Peter G. Forrest, Incorporated Engineer and Member of the

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, who initiated the design of the
Radar Target Tracker and Radar Jamming Pod Trainer. Mr. Forrest has served
as a flight lieutenant in the Royal Air Forces based in Cosford, England.
X © Festo Didactic 38542-10

To the Instructor
The Radar Instructor Guide is designed to help instructors using the Radar
Training System to prepare theoretical courses and laboratory periods for their
students.
Introductory Information, Instructional Plans, Demonstrations, and Presentation

Aids are provided in this guide for each unit in the student manuals. Included in
the appendices are answers to Unit Tests, test point descriptions and block
diagrams for the training modules, and a description of each fault that can be
inserted in the training modules for troubleshooting exercises.
The study of radar requires an understanding of basic physics and mathematics,

including exponents and logarithms. Although not essential for performing the
exercise Procedures, familiarity with differential and integral calculus, and with
the subject of probability, will help the student understand several of the
Discussions.
The theoretical material covered in the Radar series is not simple, and the
Procedures are rather lengthy. It is strongly recommended, therefore, that the
students read the entire exercise before beginning the laboratory period.
Procedure step results may differ from one student to another. For this reason,
all figures and answers given in the student manual should be considered only as
a guide. Students who correctly perform the exercises should expect to
demonstrate the principles involved, to plot the same form of graphs as those
given in the answers, and to make measurements within the same order of
a
magnitude as the answers.
For hints and information on using the pa8095Radar Training System

effectively, see Appendix A of this guide.
Safety with RF fields
When studying radar systems, it is very important to develop good safety habits.
Although microwaves are invisible, they can be dangerous at high levels or for
long exposure times. The most important safety rule when working with
microwave equipment is to avoid exposure to dangerous radiation levels.
In normal operation, the radiation levels in the Radar Training System are too low
to be dangerous. The power radiated by the Radar Transmitter in CW mode is
typically 2 mW from 8 GHz to 10 GHz. The maximum power density produced by
the Radar Training System is thus equal to 0.08 mW/cm² from 8 GHz to 10 GHz.
In order to develop good safety habits, you should, whenever possible, set the
RF Power switch to the STANDBY position before placing yourself in front of the
transmitting antenna. Your instructor may have additional safety directives for
this system.
For your safety, do not look directly into the source of microwave radiation while
power is being supplied to the Radar Transmitter.
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 XI

To the Instructor
Accuracy of measurements
The numerical results of the hands-on exercises may differ from one student to
another. For this reason, the results and answers given in this manual should be
considered as a guide. Students who correctly performed the exercises should
expect to demonstrate the principles involved and make observations and
measurements similar to those given as answers.
Systems of units
The values of measured parameters are expressed using the SI system of units
followed by the values expressed in the U.S. customary system of units (in
parentheses).
XII © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Volume 1 – Principles of Radar Systems
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 XIII

Unit 1 Fundamentals of Pulsed Radars
Introductory information
This unit presents the fundamentals of pulsed radar, such as the range-delay
relationship and the radar equation, a simplified block diagram of a typical pulsed
radar system, as well as safety rules applicable to all radar systems. Students
are reminded of these safety rules by notes in the Procedure of each exercise in
this manual.
Exercise 1-1 deals with the operation of pulsed radar at the system level, and
introduces the A-scope display. The pulsed radar that can be obtained with the
Radar Training System is then described, and the differences between this
system and typical pulsed radar systems are pointed out. The role of the Dual-
Channel Sampler, in particular, is explained. Various population protection
standards for microwave radiation are presented, and students compare these to
the radiation levels in the Radar Training System. Although the radiation levels in
the Radar Training System are not dangerous, the safety rules used in working
with microwave equipment are presented so that students will be acquainted with
the working habits that must be followed in a full-scale radar environment.
For this first exercise, the Procedure provides very detailed descriptions of all
manipulations. It also provides explanations on the role and operation of the
various controls and displays of the Radar Training System used during this
exercise. Fixed target blips, moving target blips, and the parasitic blips due to the
system imperfections are observed on the A-scope display. The pulsed radar
system is then used to detect various metallic objects in the laboratory classroom
to increase the student's familiarity with the system. Appendix A in the student
manual provides all the information required for setting up the Radar Training
System.
The relationship between the target range and the round-trip transit time is
explained in Exercise 1-2. This exercise also explains the concepts of range
resolution and pulse length, and illustrates the relationship between them. The
exercise shows that the range of targets and the round-trip transit time related to
targets can be measured on the A-scope display. It also shows the effect of
target separation and pulse width on the resolution of blips observed on the A-
scope display.
As was the case for Exercise 1-1, the Procedure of this exercise provides
explanations on the role and operation of the controls and displays of the Radar
Training System that have not yet been used. The origin calibration of the A-
scope display is carried out first, and then various observations on the range-
delay relationship are performed using the A-scope display. The range resolution
is measured and the effect of the pulse width on the range resolution is observed
using the A-scope display. The origin calibration of the A-scope display could be
introduced during a class period preceding the laboratory period for this exercise,
since this subject is not dealt with in the discussion. Appendix B in the student
manual provides a procedure for calibrating the A-scope display of the pulsed
radar.
© Festo Didactic 38542-10 1

Exercise 1-3 presents the role of antennas in general, the role of the antenna in a
pulsed radar system, and some types of radar antennas. It also presents antenna
characteristics, such as the antenna fields, the radiation pattern, the directivity,
the gain, and the angular resolution, and relates them to the antenna
performance requirements of pulsed radar systems.
As was the case for the previous exercises, the Procedure of this exercise
provides explanations on the role and operation of the controls and displays of
the Radar Training System that have not yet been used. The radiation pattern, in
the horizontal plane, is determined by receiving an FM-CW RF signal with the
Radar Antenna. The angular resolution of the Radar Antenna is calculated using
the 3-dB beamwidth determined from its radiation pattern. This result is then
confirmed using the A-scope display of the pulsed radar. The FM-CW radar
principles could be introduced in a class period preceding the laboratory period
for this exercise since an FM-CW RF signal is used to determine the radiation
pattern of the Radar Antenna. FM-CW radar is presented in Unit 3 of Volume 1.
The radar equation is derived in Exercise 1-4 to show the relationship between
the various parameters which affect the operation of the radar. The relationship
between the range and the power of the received echo signal is especially
highlighted.
The exercise Procedure begins with the verification of the relationship between
the maximum range and the transmitted power. The relationships between the
power of the received echo signal and the target range, the target radar cross
section, and the antenna parameters are then verified. The target radar cross
section could be introduced more extensively than in the Discussion of this
exercise, in a class period preceding the laboratory period for this exercise.
Appendix C in the student manual provides details on the target radar cross
section.
2 © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Exercise 1-1 Basic Principles of Pulsed Radars
Instructional plan
A. Explain the principle of operation of a pulsed radar system:
1. A pulsed RF signal is radiated by an antenna.
2. Part of the pulsed RF signal strikes a target, and is reflected

back to the antenna which captures it.
3. The received pulsed RF echo signal is demodulated and

converted into a video signal to be displayed.
B. Describe the role of each element in the simplified block diagram of a

typical pulsed radar:
1. The transmitter produces a high-power pulsed RF signal. It may

consist of a low-power RF oscillator, a modulator, and an RF
amplifier connected in series. It may also consist of a modulator
supplying high-power dc pulses to a high-power RF oscillator.
2. The pulse generator produces very short pulses that control the
modulator in the transmitter.
3. The duplexer allows the transmitter and receiver to share the

same antenna. In low-power radar systems, a circulator may act
as a duplexer.
4. The antenna is the transition device between waveguides or

transmission lines and free space. It is designed to radiate and
receive RF signals within a narrow beam, thus allowing the
direction of targets to be determined.
5. The antenna driving system is used to orient the antenna. The

movement of the antenna depends on the application for which
the radar system is intended.
6. The receiver demodulates the received pulsed RF echo signal.
7. In many systems, the demodulated signal is passed through a

signal processor to reduce the power of noise, interference, and
unwanted echoes, and to provide various automatic detection
functions.
8. The indicator of any radar system conveys target information to

the operator. The indicator of most pulsed radar systems
consists of a CRT display on which each target appears as a
deflection or intensity modulation of the CRT beam (blip).
9. The synchronizer produces a train of pulses that are used to

trigger the pulse generator and reset the indicator. The repetition
frequency of these pulses is called the PRF.

C. Present a very common deflection-modulated display, the A-scope

display:
1. In the A-scope display, the vertical deflection of the CRT beam is

proportional to the target echo signal strength, and the horizontal
deflection of the CRT beam is proportional to the target range.
2. A fixed target appears as a fixed amplitude deflection on the A-

scope display. The amplitude and polarity of the deflection
depend on the phase of the received echo signal.
3. A moving target appears as a varying amplitude deflection on the

A-scope display since the phase of the received echo signal is
varying in this case.
4. In pulsed radar, the target range is determined by the time

elapsed between the transmission of an RF signal pulse and the
reception of the echo signal (round-trip transit time).
5. Since the horizontal deflection of the CRT beam begins at the

time an RF signal pulse is transmitted, the horizontal position of
the beam is proportional to the round-trip transit time, and
therefore to the target range.
D. Present the pulsed radar that can be obtained with the Radar Training
System:
1. This pulsed radar system resembles typical pulsed radar

systems, although some design differences can be noted.
2. First, the pulse generator is included in the Radar Transmitter.

The radar transmitter has no RF amplifier since it operates at
very low power.
3. The antenna driving system consists of the Antenna Controller,

the Antenna Motor Driver, and the Rotating-Antenna Pedestal. A
circulator in the Rotating-Antenna Pedestal acts as a duplexer.
4. The most noticeable difference between a typical pulsed radar

system and the Radar Training System is the use of a sampler
after the Radar Receiver.
5. The Dual-Channel Sampler allows the Radar Training System to

operate over much shorter ranges than conventional pulsed
radar systems.
6. The Dual-Channel Sampler is required to reduce the complexity

and cost of the circuitry required to process the very short pulse
a
signal from the receiver.
See Appendix D in the student manual for more details on the reasons for
using a sampler in the Radar Training System.
E. Briefly explain the A-scope display that is obtained with the Dual-
Channel Sampler:

1. The Dual-Channel Sampler samples only a part of the

demodulated echo signal received after the transmission of each
RF signal pulse.
2. The RANGE SPAN selector determines the length of the part of

this signal that is sampled, and the ORIGIN control determines
a
the instant at which sampling begins.
See Appendix D in the student manual for more details on the internal
operation of the Dual-Channel Sampler.
F. Present the safety rules which apply to full-scale radar systems:
1. Microwaves can be dangerous at sufficiently high levels and for

sufficiently long exposure times.
2. There are several safety standards intended to protect people

working with microwaves. These are usually expressed in units
of power density (Watt per unit area) at a given frequency.
3. The power density of a microwave beam is equal to the average

power radiated, divided by the area of the beam.
4. The basic safety rule to be followed when working with full-scale

radar systems is to avoid exposition to dangerous microwave
radiation levels.

Exercise 1-2 The Range-Delay Relationship
Instructional plan
A. Explain the range formula:
1. The pulsed RF signal produced by the radar transmitter, like all

EM waves, travels at the speed of light c.
2. The time the pulsed RF signal takes to travel from the radar to
the target and back to the radar, is the round-trip transit time TR.
3. The distance the pulsed RF signal travels from the radar to the
target and back to the radar, is equal to twice the target range R.
4. Therefore,
𝑐𝑐𝑇𝑇𝑅𝑅
𝑅𝑅 =
2
B. Explain the range resolution and pulse length concepts:
1. The range resolution is the ability of a pulsed radar to resolve

closely spaced targets along the same line of sight.
2. The range resolution is mostly determined by the duration, or

pulse width τ, of the RF signal pulses transmitted by the radar.
3. The distance related to the pulse width is called the pulse length
𝐿𝐿𝑃𝑃 = 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏
4. Theoretically, the range resolution is equal to one half the pulse

length.
5. In practice, however, due to the performance limitations of

various circuits and the presence of noise, the range separation
required for resolving targets must be substantially greater than
one half the pulse length.
6. The range resolution of a pulsed radar deteriorates as the pulse

length increases.
C. Relate the range formula, the range resolution, and the pulse length to
the A-scope display:
1. The A-scope display shows the amplitude of target echoes

versus range for some fixed direction.
2. Since the target range is proportional to the round-trip transit

time, the X axis of the A-scope display could be calibrated in
either range or transit time.

3. As the range separation between targets decreases, the space

between the corresponding blips on the A-scope display also
decreases.
4. As the pulse length increases, the blips on the A-scope display

become wider.
5. When the range separation between targets is smaller than one

half the pulse length, the corresponding blips on the A-scope
display merge to form a single blip.

Exercise 1-3 Radar Antennas
Instructional plan
A. Explain the role of antennas in general, and the role of the antenna in a
pulsed radar system:
1. The role of any antenna is to radiate the signal which feeds it

and/or capture the signal which strikes it.
2. In most pulsed radar systems, the antenna concentrates the

pulsed RF signal into a narrow beam pointing in the desired
direction, and captures echo signals from the desired direction
only.
B. Describe some types of basic antennas:
1. The isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna which radiates

equally in all directions.
2. The parabolic-reflector antenna consists of a parabola and a

source of energy called the feed. The feed is located at the focus
of the parabola, and illuminates the parabola.
3. Due to the characteristics of the parabola, any ray from the feed
is reflected by the parabola in a direction parallel to its axis.
4. One disadvantage of the basic parabolic-reflector antenna is that

the feed blocks some of the reflected signal. This can be
remedied by using an offset feed.
5. There are other types of directional antennas, such as the

Cassegrain and phased-array antennas.
C. Explain the antenna characteristics that are closely related to the

performance of pulsed radar systems:
1. The area in front of the antenna is divided into three regions

called the near field, the Fresnel field, and the Fraunhofer or far
field.
2. Radar antennas usually operate in the far-field region where the

antenna characteristics are independent of range.
3. The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional graph showing the

energy radiated or received by the antenna as a function of
direction.
4. A radiation pattern in one plane only is often sufficient to

characterize an antenna. For this reason, it usually consists of a
two-dimensional graph.

5. The radiation pattern is usually determined by measuring the

received signal level from another source when the antenna is
pointing in various directions.
6. This measurement is usually carried out in an anechoic chamber

to prevent undesired reflections from disturbing the result.
7. The radiation pattern of an isotropic antenna shows that the

radiation is uniform in all directions, whereas that of a directional
antenna shows that the radiation is concentrated in a main lobe
pointing in one direction.
8. The radiation pattern of a directional antenna also contains

sidenotes, which represents the radiation in other directions.
9. Sidenotes are undesired since the role of the antenna in a

pulsed radar is to radiate and receive signal in one direction at a
time.
10. The 3-dB beamwidth of the antenna is a measure of the antenna

directivity.
11. The directivity 𝐺𝐺𝐷𝐷 is the capability of a directional antenna to

concentrate energy in one particular direction. It is calculated by
dividing the maximum radiation intensity by the average radiation
intensity.
12. The power gain 𝐺𝐺 of a directional antenna is equal to the

directivity 𝐺𝐺𝐷𝐷 multiplied by the efficiency factor of the antenna.
13. The effective aperture 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 of a directional antenna is the size of

the antenna's frontal area expressed in terms of the wavelength.
It is related to the power gain by the following equation:
4𝜋𝜋 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒
𝐺𝐺 =
𝜆𝜆2
14. The angular resolution is the ability of a directional antenna to

distinguish between targets located in different directions. It is
usually 1 to 1.5 times the 3-dB beamwidth of the antenna.

Exercise 1-4 The Radar Equation
Instructional plan
A. Present the most important factors affecting the power of the received
echo signal:
1. One of the most important characteristic of a radar system is the

maximum detection range. It is ultimately determined by the S/N
ratio required by the receiver.
2. The received echo signal power is proportional to the average

power of the transmitter.
3. The received echo signal power decreases rapidly as the target

range increases. This is mainly due to the reduction of the power
density of the transmitted EM waves as they spread.
4. The received echo signal power is proportional to the antenna

gain and antenna effective aperture.
5. The radar cross section is a measure of the size of a target as

seen by the radar. The greater this size, the greater the
transmitted power intercepted by the target, and the greater the
received echo signal power.
B. Derive the radar equation:
1. The power density at a distance 𝑅𝑅 from an isotropic antenna is

equal to the transmitted power 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 divided by the surface area of
a sphere of radius 𝑅𝑅 (equation (1-8) in the student manual).
2. The power density at a distance 𝑅𝑅 from a directive antenna is

equal to the product of the transmitted power 𝑃𝑃𝑡𝑡 and antenna
power gain 𝐺𝐺, divided by the surface area of a sphere of radius 𝑅𝑅
(equation (1-9) in the student manual).
3. The power reflected back towards the radar by a target located

at a distance 𝑅𝑅 from the antenna is equal to the power density at
the target times the radar cross section 𝜎𝜎 of the target
(equation (1-10) in the student manual).
4. The power density of the signal reaching the radar antenna is

equal to the power reflected back towards the radar by the target
divided by 4𝜋𝜋𝑅𝑅2 (equation (1-11) in the student manual).
5. The power 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 of the signal received by the radar antenna is

equal to the power density at the antenna times its effective
area 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒 (equation (1-12) in the student manual).
6. This form of the radar equation shows that the power of the
received echo signal is inversely proportional to the fourth power
of the range 𝑅𝑅.

7. The substitution of 𝑃𝑃𝑟𝑟 by 𝑆𝑆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 and 𝑅𝑅 by 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 in equation (1-12),

and a rearrangement of terms, allows the classical form of the
radar equation to be obtained (equation (1-13) in the student
manual).
C. Explain the use of the radar equation:
1. The classical form of the radar equation can be used to estimate

the maximum range at which a target can be detected, although
it neglects many losses such as atmospheric absorption, system
degradation in the field, etc.
2. The radar equation shows the relationship between the various

parameters which affect the operation of the radar.
3. When the same antenna is used for both transmission and

reception, it is convenient to express the antenna effective
aperture in terms of gain using equation (1-14) in the student
manual.
Demonstrations
• Observation of the output signals of the Dual-Channel Sampler
1. Set up and calibrate the pulsed radar with the A-scope display,
and then place the target at a range of approximately 1 m.
2. Make the appropriate settings on the oscilloscope to

simultaneously observe the I- or Q-CHANNEL SAMPLED
OUTPUT and the A-SCOPE TIME BASE OUTPUT signals.
3. Observe that the SAMPLED OUTPUT signals are repetitive

pulse signals, and that the A-SCOPE TIME BASE OUTPUT
signal is a ramp signal.
4. Select various PRFs on the Radar Synchronizer. Observe that

the repetition frequency of the SAMPLED OUTPUT signals and
A-SCOPE TIME BASE OUTPUT signal is equal to the PRF
selected.
5. Vary the origin of the observation range. Observe that the pulses
in the SAMPLED OUTPUT signals move left when the origin is
moved away from the Radar Antenna (ORIGIN control turned
clockwise) and vice versa.
6. Select the 7.2-m range span and set the origin of the observation
range so that the parasitic blips affecting the pulsed radar are
near the origin.
7. Successively select the 3.6- and 1.8-m range spans. Observe

that the SAMPLED OUTPUT signals represent a smaller portion
of the radar echo signal as the range span decreases.

• Observation of the reciprocity of antenna characteristics
1. Install the horn on the target table mast and orient it so that it
points towards the Radar Antenna.
2. Connect the modules as shown in Figure 3-18 of the student

manual. This figure shows an FM-CW radar system in which the
Radar Antenna is used in transmission and the horn in reception.
3. Set the modulating frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 and frequency deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 to

600 Hz and 150 MHz, respectively (1.2-V p-p, 600-Hz triangular-
wave signal at the CONTROL VOLTAGE MONITOR OUTPUT of
the Radar Transmitter).
4. Set the RF power on, and then vary the position of the Radar
Antenna so that it scans the horn. Observe that the signal at the
FM-CW OUTPUT is maximal when the Radar Antenna is aligned
with the horn because the Radar Antenna directs energy in one
direction only.
5. Using the same set-up, perform a similar observation with the

Radar Antenna used in reception and the horn in transmission.
In this case, observe that the signal at the FM-CW OUTPUT is
maximal when the Radar Antenna is aligned with the horn
because the Radar Antenna receives energy from one direction
only. This shows the reciprocity of antenna characteristics.
Presentation Aids
1. Review the New Terms after the unit DISCUSSION OF

FUNDAMENTALS.
2. Explain that the microwaves used in radar are similar to those used in
microwave ovens. To protect the microwave oven users against
exposition to dangerous levels of radiation, all such ovens are provided
with a security mechanism that automatically turns off the microwave
source when the oven door is opened. This highlights the need to
observe the basic safety rules that apply when working in a radar
environment.
3. Compare the radar echo signal to the echo you hear when shouting in a
vast closed area, such as a valley encircled by mountains.
4. Review the properties of parabolas.

Unit 2 A Pulsed Radar System
This unit explains in detail the operation of a pulsed radar system. Most
explanations start from pulsed radar principles, and relate these to the block
diagrams of the circuitry commonly found in pulsed radars. In certain cases, the
circuitry used in the Radar Training System is considered as an example.
Exercise 2-1 shows the operating principles of the radar transmitter and receiver.
Various transmitter and receiver configurations, including those of the Radar
Training System, are discussed to illustrate the differences between them. Since
the Radar Training System operates in the X-frequency band, and can produce
pulses as short as 1 ns, it is not possible to observe the pulsed RF signal using
regular laboratory classroom equipment. However, the modulating pulse signal in
the Radar Transmitter and the demodulated pulse signals in the Radar Receiver
are observed in this exercise using the Dual-Channel Sampler.
The antenna driving system is studied in detail in Exercise 2-2. The various
possible movements of the antenna, the mechanical aspects of the system, and
the control circuitry are some of the topics discussed. Note that the material
presented in this exercise will help to understand how the PPI display is
generated, as explained in Volume 2.
The first three parts of the exercise Procedure deal with the various antenna
rotation modes and with the monitoring of the antenna position and speed in the
Radar Training System. The fourth part studies the operation of the control
amplifier used in the feedback loop of the Radar Antenna driving system. This
part is optional since not all radar systems use a feedback loop to control the
rotation of the antenna. Familiarity with the operation of some simple electronic
devices, such as comparators, oscillators and choppers, as well as with some
simple concepts such as the amplitude, polarity or dc value of a signal is required
to carry out this part of the exercise.

Exercise 2-1 Pulsed Radar Transmitter and Receiver
Instructional plan
A. Explain the role and the various configurations of the radar transmitter:
1. The role of the radar transmitter in a pulsed radar is to produce a

pulsed RF signal which can be transmitted by the antenna.
2. It may consist of a high-power RF oscillator, such as a

magnetron, a modulator and a pulse generator. The modulator
and the pulse generator produce high-power dc pulses that
supply the high-power RF oscillator, which in turn produces a
high-power pulsed RF signal.
3. It may consist of a low-power master oscillator followed by a

high-power amplifier, such as the griddled travelling wave tube
amplifier. The amplifier is keyed on and off by a pulse generator
to produce a high-power pulsed RF signal.
4. The Radar Transmitter consists of an RF oscillator followed by a

modulator, which is controlled by a pulse generator to produce a
low-power pulsed RF signal.
B. Describe the time-domain characteristics of the signal the radar

transmitter produces:
1. The radar transmitter produces a pulsed RF signal.
2. Typical frequencies of the RF signal are between 220 MHz

and 35 GHz.
3. Typical pulse repetition frequencies (PRFs) range from several

hundred hertz to several hundred kilohertz. Typical pulse widths
usually range from 0.02 to 60 μs.
4. The Radar Transmitter operates in the X-frequency band, the

selected, or effective, PRF can be 144, 216 or 288 Hz in normal
a
operation, and the pulse width ranges from 1 to 5 ns.
See Appendix D in the student manual for details on the actual PRF used in
the Radar Transmitter.
5. The average power of the pulsed RF signal is equal to its peak

power multiplied by the duty factor of the transmitter (pulse width
divided by interpulse period).
C. Explain the role of the radar receiver in a pulsed radar:
1. The radar transmitter produces a pulsed RF signal.
2. Envelope detection can be carried out using a tuned radio

frequency (TRF) or superheterodyne receiver.

3. Envelope detection alone is not satisfactory when the phase of

the received signal must be detected. In this case, quadrature
detection is required.
D. Explain the operation of the envelope-detection receiver:
1. The envelope-detection receiver removes the carrier from the

received pulsed RF signal, and retains only the positive portion
of its envelope.
2. The TRF receiver carries out envelope detection directly at the

RF frequency. It is seldom used since it is generally more costly
than a superheterodyne receiver with equal performance.
3. In the superheterodyne receiver, the received pulsed RF signal

is frequency translated to an intermediate frequency (IF) before
envelope detection takes place. This adds flexibility and reduces
cost.
4. There are many design variations of the basic superheterodyne

receiver.
E. Explain the operation of the quadrature detection receiver:
1. The quadrature detection receiver detects the amplitude as well

as the phase of the received pulsed RF signal. For this reason, it
is said to be a coherent receiver.
2. The received pulsed RF signal is divided between two channels.
3. The reference signals used in both channels are in quadrature.
4. The output signals of both channels, which are in quadrature,

fully represent the amplitude and phase of the received pulsed
RF signal.
5. When the received pulsed RF signal is frequency translated

directly to baseband, the receiver is known as a homodyne, or
DC-IF, receiver.
6. When the received pulsed RF signal is frequency translated to

an IF frequency, the receiver is known as a superheterodyne
receiver.
F. Describe the Radar Transmitter and Radar Receiver:
1. The frequency of the RF OSCILLATOR of the Radar Transmitter

can be varied between 8.0 and 10.0 GHz or frequency
modulated.
2. A switch allows the RF power to be switched on or off.
3. The pulse width of the PULSE GENERATOR of the Radar

Transmitter is variable between 1 and 5 ns.

4. The Radar Receiver is a synchronous, or quadrature, detection

receiver.
5. Since the received pulsed RF signal is frequency translated

directly to baseband, the Radar Receiver is known as a
homodyne, or DC-IF receiver.

Exercise 2-2 Antenna Driving System
Instructional plan
A. Describe the role of the antenna driving system in a pulsed radar:
1. The antenna driving system controls the antenna movement.
2. The antenna may be made to rotate, to scan over a certain area,

or to lock onto and track a moving target.
B. Discuss the various factors that influence the design of the antenna
driving system:
1. The essential part of any antenna driving system is the position

transducer, which constantly indicates the antenna position to
the rest of the pulsed radar.
2. It is generally more important to have accurate antenna position

and speed information than it is to have precise control of these
parameters.
3. When signal processing is used, it is sometimes important that a

constant number of pulses be transmitted per degree of antenna
movement.
4. This can be done by adjusting the PRF to the instantaneous

antenna speed, or by adjusting the antenna speed to the PRF.
C. Explain the operation of an antenna driving system which makes the

antenna rotate in the horizontal plane only:
1. It consists of a motor, a shaft encoder, a rotary joint, and a

control amplifier.
2. The motor turns the antenna directly or through a set of gears. A

rotary joint is necessary to couple the RF signal between the
rotating antenna and the rest of the pulsed radar.
3. The shaft encoder constantly indicates the antenna position.

There are two types of shaft encoder, the absolute and
incremental types.
4. The absolute type produces an absolute position signal.
5. The incremental type produces a differential position signal by

generating a certain number of pulses per degree of rotation.
The position and rotation speed of the antenna are determined
by counting these pulses.
6. The control amplifier amplifies a command signal to produce the

signal necessary to drive the motor.

7. A feedback loop can be added to the system. It compares the

command signal with the feedback signal from the shaft encoder.
The resulting error signal is then amplified by the control
amplifier.
D. Explain the operation of the antenna driving system in the Radar Training
System:
1. It is composed of the following three modules: the Antenna

Controller, the Antenna Motor Driver, and the Rotating-Antenna
Pedestal.
2. The Rotating-Antenna Pedestal contains the motor and gears,

the ROTARY JOINT, and the SHAFT ENCODER. It also
contains the CIRCULATOR which is not part of the antenna
driving system.
3. The SHAFT ENCODER is of the incremental type. Signals A and

B are pulse signals, in quadrature, consisting of 1024 pulses per
revolution. The index signal is a pulse signal consisting of one
pulse per revolution.
4. The Antenna Controller contains the feedback loop of the

system. It uses the motor feedback signal and an internal
command signal to generate an error signal. It also uses the
motor feedback signal to indicate the rotation speed or position
of the antenna on a display.
5. The Antenna Controller can make the antenna rotate in either

direction at variable speeds, rotate clockwise at a speed
proportional to the PRF, or scan over a defined area. An input is
also provided to inject the command signal required to track a
moving target.
6. The Antenna Motor Driver contains the control amplifier. The

control amplifier is a PWM modulator which transforms the error
signal from the Antenna Controller into a 24-V peak bipolar PWM
signal suitable for driving the motor.
Demonstrations
• Measurement of the radar wavelength with the A-scope display
1. Set up and calibrate the pulsed radar with the A-scope display.
Set the RF OSCILLATOR frequency to 10.0 GHz.
2. Using the POSITION MODE of the Target Controller and a flat

plate target, observe that the amplitude of the target blip varies
as the target range varies.
3. Using the Target Controller, measure the target range variation

between two positive maxima or two negative maxima of the
target blip amplitude. Double this result to obtain the radar
wavelength. The result should be close to 3 cm, which is the
radar wavelength λ for a 10-GHz frequency.

4. Decrease the RF OSCILLATOR frequency to 8.0 GHz, then

repeat the measurement. Compare the results using 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 .
• Frequency-domain observation of the various signals of the Radar

Transmitter
1. A spectrum analyzer having a frequency range of at

least 12 GHz, and a frequency span of at least 200 MHz/div. is
required to carry out the following observations.
2. Connect the CW/FM-CW RF OUTPUT to the spectrum analyzer,

and observe the characteristics of the RF OSCILLATOR signal
frequency spectrum. Vary the RF OSCILLATOR frequency, and
observe the effect on the frequency spectrum.
3. Connect the PULSE GENERATOR OUTPUT to the spectrum

analyzer, and observe the characteristics of the pulse signal
frequency spectrum. Vary the PRF and the pulse width of the
PULSE GENERATOR, and observe the effects on the frequency
spectrum.
4. Connect the PULSED RF OUTPUT to the spectrum analyzer,

and observe the characteristics of the pulsed RF signal
frequency spectrum. Vary the RF OSCILLATOR frequency, the
PRF, and the pulse width of the PULSE GENERATOR, and
a
observe the effects on the frequency spectrum.
When the entire frequency spectrum of the pulsed RF signal is observed on

the spectrum analyzer, it may be partly or completely lost in noise. This is
more likely to happen with the 1- and 2-ns pulse widths. This problem may be
resolved by inserting a wideband amplifier between the PULSED RF OUTPUT
and the spectrum analyzer input. The wideband amplifier should have a gain of
20 to 30 dB, over a frequency range of 7 to 11 GHz.
• Observation of target blips and of the parasitic blips affecting the pulsed
radar simultaneously on the A-scope display.
1. Set up and calibrate the pulsed radar with the A-scope display.
Use any of the available observation ranges.
2. Using the MANual ANTENNA ROTATION MODE of the Antenna

Controller, set the rotation speed of the Radar Antenna to
approximately 1 r/min.
3. Observe that when the Radar Antenna points to targets, blips

appear briefly on the A-scope display.
4. Slightly decalibrate the origin of the observation range in order to

observe the parasitic blips on the A-scope display.
5. Observe that the parasitic blips appear as a group of pulses on

the A-scope display.

Presentation Aids

FUNDAMENTALS.
2. Explain that the pulsed RF signal is similar to an ASK signal, except that
an RF-frequency carrier and very short-duration modulating pulses are
used. Their frequency spectra have the same shape.
3. Describe the operation of mixers in both the time and frequency

domains.
4. Show that the I- and Q-channel outputs of a quadrature detector fully

represent the amplitude A and the phase ϕ of the received signal:
If:
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙
Then:
𝐴𝐴 = �𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑄𝑄 2
𝜙𝜙 = arc tan(𝑄𝑄 ⁄𝐼𝐼 )

Unit 3 CW Radars
This unit covers the fundamentals and operating principles of both CW and FM-
CW radars, such as the Doppler effect, the range rate, frequency modulation etc.
It also presents the applications in which CW or FM-CW radars can be used, and
compares them to those requiring pulsed radars. Since there are fewer
reminders of safety rules in this unit than in the two preceding units, it is
suggested that you briefly recall these rules during class periods. A frequency
counter may be used to facilitate the various frequency measurements in the
exercises of this unit.
Exercise 3-1 explains in detail the Doppler effect, and shows how it is used in
CW radar to determine the speed of targets. The effect of the target direction of
motion on the Doppler frequency is highlighted to introduce the concept of range
rate. The operation of CW radar is then dealt with at the system level, including
the use of two channels in quadrature in the receiver to determine whether the
target is approaching or receding from the radar.
In the exercise Procedure, the relationship between the Doppler frequency, the
target speed, and the transmitted RF-signal frequency is verified. Then, the effect
of the target direction of motion on the Doppler frequency is demonstrated.
Finally, the target direction of motion (approaching or receding) is determined
using the output signals of the two mixers in the Radar Receiver.
The use of frequency modulation to mark the RF signal transmitted by FM-

CW radars, to determine the range of targets, is explained in Exercise 3-2. The
operation of FM-CW radar is then dealt with at the system level. The relationship
between the transmitted and received RF-signal frequencies is observed in the
time domain to show that the beat frequency resulting from these signals is
proportional to the round-trip transit time. The equation relating the beat
frequency to the target range and rate of change of the transmitter frequency is
also derived. The relationship between the residual path length, the residual
path-length error 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 , and the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 is pointed out and explained. It is
particularly important to insist on the fact that the residual path-length error 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 is
an error in the measurement of target ranges caused by the residual path length,
and that even though both are expressed in unit of distance, they have different
values.
Familiarization with the FREQUENCY MODULATION section of the Radar

Transmitter is carried out first in the exercise Procedure. The time-domain
characteristics of the FM-CW radar output signal are then observed and related
to the target range. The modulating frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 and frequency deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 of
the Radar Transmitter are varied to verify the relationship between these and the
beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 . The residual path-length error is determined, and attributed to
some parts of the FM-CW radar. The range-vs-beat frequency equation is then
verified by measuring the beat frequency for various target ranges.

Exercise 3-1 CW Radars and the Doppler Effect
Instructional plan
A. Describe the Doppler effect and explain how it is used in CW radar:
1. The Doppler effect is the change in the frequency of a signal that

occurs when the signal source and the observer are in relative
motion.
2. A very common illustration of the Doppler effect is the shift in

frequency a person hears when standing near the path of a
moving sound source, such as a train whistle.
3. Similarly, when the transmitted radar signal is reflected by a

moving target, the received signal is shifted in frequency.
4. The frequency shift (Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 ) of the received signal

is proportional to the target speed. It adds to the frequency of the
transmitted signal when the target approaches the radar and vice
versa.
B. Explain what causes the frequency shift of the received signal:
1. The constant change in the round-trip transit time between the

radar and a moving target causes the frequency shift of the
received signal.
2. When there is no relative movement between the radar and a

target, the round-trip transit time is constant.
3. In this case, each wavefront transmitted takes the same time to

travel from the radar to the target and back to the radar, leaving
the wavelength unchanged.
4. Therefore, the wavefronts are received at the same frequency as

that at which they are transmitted.
5. When the target approaches the radar, the round-trip transit time
constantly decreases.
6. In this case, each wavefront transmitted takes slightly less time

that the previous one to travel from the radar to the target and
back to the radar, slightly decreasing the wavelength.
7. Therefore, the wavefronts are received at a frequency slightly

higher than that at which they are transmitted.
8. Inversely, when the target recedes from the radar, each

wavefront transmitted takes slightly more time than the previous
one to travel from the radar to the target and back to the radar,
slightly increasing the wavelength.

9. Therefore, the wavefronts are received at a frequency slightly

lower than that at which they are transmitted.
10. The change in wavelength 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 = −2𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣.
C. Derive the equation for calculating the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 , by

considering the effect of the target motion on the phase of the received
signal:
1. The total distance travelled by the wave between the radar and a
target at a range 𝑅𝑅 is equal to 2𝑅𝑅.
2. The number of wavelengths in the round-trip path is 2𝑅𝑅/𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆,

where 𝑅𝑅 and 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 are in the same units.
3. The phase difference 𝜙𝜙 between the transmitted and received

signals, in whole cycles is 𝜙𝜙 = 2𝑅𝑅/𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆.
4. Since there are 2𝜋𝜋 radians per cycle, the phase 𝜙𝜙 in radians
is 𝜙𝜙 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆.
5. Because the range 𝑅𝑅 of a moving target varies continuously, the

phase of the received signal also varies continuously.
6. A continuous variation of phase is equivalent to a shift in

frequency. Therefore, the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is equal to the
rate of change of the phase of the received signal: 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
7. Knowing that 𝜙𝜙 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋/𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆, the previous equation can be

rewritten as follows: 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = (4𝜋𝜋/𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆)(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑). In this equation, the
Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is expressed in units of radians per
seconds.
8. Knowing that there are 2𝜋𝜋 radians per cycle, and that the
wavelength of the transmitted signal 𝜆𝜆𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐/𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 , the previous
equation can be rewritten as follows: 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = (2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑐𝑐)(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑). In this
equation, the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is expressed in hertz.
9. The last two equations show that the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is
proportional to the target range rate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
D. Explain the relationship between the range rate, and the target velocity
and direction of motion:
1. The velocity 𝑣𝑣 and the range rate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 related to a target are
equal when the target direction of motion is parallel to the line of
sight of the radar.
2. In this case, the equation for calculating the Doppler

frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 can be rewritten as follows: 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐.
3. However, when the target direction of motion is not parallel to the

line of sight of the radar, the velocity 𝑣𝑣 and the range rate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
are not equal.

4. In this case, the velocity 𝑣𝑣 must be multiplied by the cosine of the

angle 𝜃𝜃 between the target direction of motion and the line of
sight of the radar, to obtain the range rate 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.
5. As a result, the equation for calculating the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑

can be rewritten as follows: 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = (2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃.
E. Explain the operation of a CW radar:
1. The transmitter generates an unmodulated RF signal of

frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 .
2. Part of this signal strikes a target. Depending on whether the

target is fixed or moving, the frequency of the received RF signal
is 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 or 𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 ± 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 .
3. CW radars use a single antenna or separate antennas. If a

single antenna is used, a duplexer or a circulator is required to
correctly route the transmitted and received RF signals.
4. The received RF signal is mixed with a portion of the original

signal.
5. If both a fixed and a moving target are detected, the following

sum and difference frequencies are obtained: 2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 , 2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 ± 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 , 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 ,
and a dc component.
6. An ac coupled low-pass filter removes the unwanted

frequencies, leaving only the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 .
7. The sign of the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is lost when the received
signal is mixed with the original signal. In this case, it is
impossible to determine if the target is approaching or receding
from the radar.
8. The addition of another channel in quadrature resolves this

problem. In this case, the Doppler frequency signal in one
channel either leads or lags by 90̊ that of the other channel
depending on whether the target is approaching or receding from
the radar.

Exercise 3-2 Frequency-Modulated CW Radar
Instructional plan
A. Explain the operating principle of FM-CW radar:
1. For a radar to measure round-trip transit times, and therefore

target ranges, some sort of timing marks must be included in the
transmitted RF signal.
2. In pulsed radar, amplitude modulation is used to mark the

transmitted RF signal. The time elapsed between the
transmission and reception of each RF signal pulse is equal to
the round-trip transit time.
3. In FM-CW radar, frequency modulation is used to mark the

transmitted RF signal.
4. Since the transmitted RF signal requires a certain time to travel

the round-trip path between the radar and target, there is a
difference between the instantaneous frequencies of the
transmitted and received RF signals.
5. The frequency difference increases as the round-trip transit time,

and therefore the target range, increases.
6. Mixing the transmitted and received RF signals produces a beat

frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 equal to the frequency difference. The target range
can be determined from this frequency.
B. Explain the operation of an FM-CW radar:
1. In the transmitter, a modulator generates a signal which

modulates the frequency of the RF signal.
2. Most FM-CW radars use separate antennas for transmitting and

receiving RF signals, because duplexers and circulators provide
insufficient isolation to prevent part of the transmitted signal from
reaching the receiver input and causing erroneous range
measurements.
3. The received RF signal is injected in a mixer, where it is mixed

with the local oscillator signal (a portion of the transmitted RF
signal), to produce the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 .
4. The output signal of the mixer is passed through a high-pass

filter to attenuate the strong beat frequency signal from nearby
targets, making the signal more uniform in amplitude.

C. Describe the signals in the FM-CW radar (see Figures 3-14 to 3-16 in the
student manual):
1. In the transmitter, a modulator generates a signal which

modulates the frequency of the RF signal.
2. The amplitude of the modulating waveform determines the

frequency deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥.
3. The frequency deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 is the amount that the frequency of

the transmitted RF signal deviates from the transmitted average
frequency which is also called center frequency 𝑓𝑓0 , or carrier
frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 .
4. The variation in time of the transmitted and received RF signal

frequencies is of triangular form like the modulating signal.
5. However, the variation in time of the received RF signal lags that

of the transmitted RF signal by a time equal to the round-trip
transit time.
6. The difference in instantaneous frequency between the

transmitted and received RF signals, the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 , is
constant, except at the turn-around regions where there are
short-time variations.
7. As the target range increases, the round-trip transit time

increases, the lag of the received RF signal frequency over the
transmitted RF signal frequency increases, and therefore, the
beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 also increases.
8. If the target is moving, the range is constantly changing, and the

received RF signal frequency is shifted up or down because of
the Doppler effect.
9. As a result, the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 varies with time because the
Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 sometimes adds to, and sometimes
subtracts from, the difference in instantaneous frequency
between the transmitted and received RF signals.
D. Derive the range-vs-beat frequency equation:
1. For a fixed target, the round-trip transit time 𝑇𝑇 is equal to twice

the target range 𝑅𝑅 divided by the speed of light 𝑐𝑐: 𝑇𝑇 = 2𝑅𝑅/𝑐𝑐.
2. The frequency difference between the transmitted and received

RF signals, the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 , is equal to the round-trip
transit time 𝑇𝑇 multiplied by the rate of change of the transmitter
frequency 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑: 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 𝑇𝑇(𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑).
3. Combining the previous two equations gives the following

equation: 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = (2𝑅𝑅/𝑐𝑐)(𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑). This equation relates the beat
frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 to the target range 𝑅𝑅 and rate of change of the
transmitter frequency 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑.

4. With triangular modulation, the total frequency change during

one modulation period 1/𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 is equal to four times the frequency
deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥.
5. As a result, the rate of change of the transmitter frequency

𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is equal to four times the modulation frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚
multiplied by the frequency deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥: 𝑑𝑑𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 /𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 4𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥.
6. Therefore, the equation for calculating the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 can
be rewritten as follows: 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 8𝑅𝑅𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥/𝑐𝑐.
E. Discuss the range resolution and measurement errors:
1. The range resolution of a radar is the ability to distinguish

between closely spaced targets along the line of sight of the
antenna.
2. In FM-CW radar, the range resolution depends on the accuracy

with which the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 can be measured. This in turn
depends on the bandwidth 𝐵𝐵 of the frequency modulation, where
𝐵𝐵 = 2𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥.
3. The equation for calculating the range resolution of an FM-CW

radar is: range resolution = 𝑐𝑐/(2𝐵𝐵), which can be rewritten as
follows: range resolution = 𝑐𝑐/(4𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥).
4. The difference in length between the radar signal path and local
oscillator signal path when the range is zero, from the transmitter
to the inputs of the mixer in the receiver, is called the residual
path length.
5. The residual path length causes a constant error in the

measurement of target ranges, which is called residual path-
length error 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 .
6. To take into consideration this error, the equation for calculating

the beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 can be rewritten as follows:
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 = 8(𝑅𝑅 + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 ) ⋅ 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 𝛥𝛥𝑓𝑓/𝑐𝑐.
7. Some other possible sources of error in the measurement of

target ranges are uncontrolled variations of the operating
parameters of the transmitter, undesired reflections within the
system etc.
Demonstrations
• Observation of the residual path-length error
1. Assemble the horn, the waveguide-to-SMA coaxial adaptor, and

the support pin of the horn. Install this assembly on the fixed
mast provided with the target table.

2. Connect the modules as shown in Figure 3-18 of the student

manual. This figure shows an FM-CW radar system in which the
a
Radar Antenna is used in transmission and the horn in reception.
It is important to use an extra-long SMA cable (approximately 4 m) to connect

the RF OSCILLATOR OUTPUT of the Radar Transmitter to the LOCAL
OSCILLATOR INPUT of the Radar Receiver, and to use long SMA cables
(approximately 2 m) to connect the Radar Transmitter and Radar Receiver to
the Radar Antenna and horn, respectively.
3. Set the modulation frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 and frequency deviation 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 of

the Radar Transmitter to 1.0 kHz and 500 MHz, respectively.
4. Install the large metal plate target on the mast of the target table.
Place the target table, the target, the Rotating-Antenna Pedestal,
and the horn installed on the fixed mast as shown in Figure 3-23
of the student manual. Orient the Radar Antenna and horn
installed on the fixed mast so that they point towards the target.
5. Turn the RF power on, and then orient the target so that the
amplitude of the signal at the FM-CW OUTPUT of the Radar
Receiver is maximal. You should observe a sine wave of varying
amplitude with discontinuities occurring at the peaks of the
modulating triangular signal.
6. The frequency of this signal, which should be equal to

approximately 20 kHz, is the residual beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 from
which the residual path-length error 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 is calculated. It is due to
the difference in length between the paths travelled by the radar
and local oscillator signals when the target range is zero, that is
the residual path length. In this case, the radar signal path is
longer than the local oscillator signal path.
7. Turn the RF power off, and then replace the extra-long SMA
cable with a medium-length SMA cable. This decreases the
length of the local oscillator signal path, thus increasing the
residual path length.
8. Turn the RF power on. The residual beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 should be
approximately 50 kHz. This shows that the residual beat
frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 , and therefore the residual path-length error 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 ,
a
depends on the residual path length.
To show the effect of decreasing the residual path length on the residual beat
frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 , replace one of the long SMA cables used in the radar signal path
with a medium length SMA cable. In this case, a residual beat frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏 of
approximately 9 kHz should be obtained when an extra-long SMA cable is
used to connect the RF OSCILLATOR OUTPUT of the Radar Transmitter to
the LOCAL OSCILLATOR INPUT of the Radar Receiver.
• Observation of the output signal of the FM-CW radar when two targets
are on the line of sight of the antenna
1. Set up the FM-CW radar following the first four steps of the
previous demonstration.

2. Place the target at a range of approximately 0.9 m. Set the RF

power on, and then orient the target so that the amplitude of the
signal at the FM-CW OUTPUT of the Radar Receiver is maximal.
You should observe a sine wave of varying amplitude with
discontinuities occurring at the peaks of the modulating triangular
signal.
3. Place a small metal plate target at a range of approximately

0.1 m. Orient this target so that the amplitude of the signal at the
FM-CW OUTPUT of the Radar Receiver is maximum.
4. Observe that the waveform of the FM-CW OUTPUT signal is

now more complex, and that there is much more amplitude
variation. Explain that this signal results from the addition of the
beat frequency signals produced by the two targets.
5. Slowly increase the range of the small metal plate target while
observing the FM-CW OUTPUT signal. From time to time,
reorient the small metal plate target so that the amplitude of the
FM-CW OUTPUT signal remains maximal. Observe that the
waveform of the FM-CW OUTPUT signal varies as the range of
the small metal plate target varies. This is due to the variation in
frequency of the beat frequency signal produced by the small
metal plate target.
Presentation aids

FUNDAMENTALS.
2. Review the operation of mixers in the frequency domain.
3. Point out the major differences between pulsed, CW, and FM-CW
radars.
4. Compare the application fields of pulsed, CW, and FM-CW radars.

Unit 4 Troubleshooting Radar Systems
This unit is designed to teach the student how to troubleshoot the RF section of a
CW, FM-CW or pulsed radar using standard test equipment. It is important to
insist on the fact that a methodical approach for troubleshooting any type of
system usually leads to a quicker location of the problem source.
Exercise 4-1 explains in detail a systematic procedure for troubleshooting almost

any type of equipment. The difficulties of troubleshooting most radars, such as
the remoteness of some of the elements of a full-scale radar system and the
difficulty of using an oscilloscope to trace signals in the RF section, are
highlighted. The operation of the RF test points in the Radar Transmitter and
Radar Receiver is explained, as well as their use in troubleshooting the Radar
Training System.
The exercise Procedure first guides the student through the Troubleshooting
Procedure presented in the Discussion to facilitate the location of a fault in the
RF section of the CW radar. This will allow the student to experience
troubleshooting a radar for the first time, and to learn how to fill in the
Troubleshooting Worksheet provided at the end of each exercise. The student is
then asked to repeat the Troubleshooting Procedure to locate another fault in the
RF section of the CW radar by himself. Note that faults 7 to 9 in the Radar
Transmitter and faults 1, 2, and 5 in the Radar Receiver can be used when
troubleshooting the RF section of the CW radar. The other faults in these
modules have no effect on the operation of the CW radar.
Exercise 4-2 covers troubleshooting the RF section of an FM-CW radar, which is

basically the same as troubleshooting the RF section of a CW radar because
these two types of radar use fairly similar circuitry.
The exercise Procedure simply asks the student to carry out the Troubleshooting
Procedure once he has observed the proper operation of the RF section of the
FM-CW radar. Note that faults 7 to 10 in the Radar Transmitter and faults 1, 2,
and 6 in the Radar Receiver can be used when troubleshooting the RF section of
the FM-CW radar. The other faults in these modules have no effect on the
operation of the FM-CW radar.
Exercise 4-3 presents troubleshooting the RF section of a pulsed radar, which

may be more difficult than troubleshooting the RF section of a CW or FM-CW
radar because the RF signals are pulsed. In the case of the Radar Training
System, the pulsed RF signals have an infinitesimal average power and a large
bandwidth. As a result, very sensitive wideband equipment is required to detect
these signals. To avoid this problem, a CW RF signal can be used to perform
signal flow tracing within the Radar Receiver, as explained in detail in the
exercise Discussion.

The exercise Procedure first guides the student through the Troubleshooting
Procedure to facilitate the location of a fault in the RF section of the pulsed radar.
This gives the student an opportunity to use a CW RF test signal to perform
signal flow tracing within the Radar Receiver. The student is then asked to repeat
the Troubleshooting Procedure to locate another fault in the RF section of the
pulsed radar by himself. Note that faults 1 to 9 in the Radar Transmitter and
faults 1 to 4 in the Radar Receiver can be used when troubleshooting the RF
section of the pulsed radar. The other faults in these modules have no effect on
the operation of the pulsed radar.
In all cases, faults should be inserted by the instructor after the student has
observed the proper operation of the radar. The Procedure of each exercise in
this unit indicates to the student when to ask the instructor to insert a fault. In
certain cases, the Procedure indicates the number of the fault and the module in
which the fault must be inserted. Otherwise, it is recommended that each student
be given faults that correspond to his or her level of knowledge and
advancement, especially when troubleshooting the RF and display sections of
the pulsed radar. Some faults do not prevent the pulsed radar from apparently
functioning properly and require a thorough knowledge of the system to
diagnose. For information concerning the nature and effect of the various faults in
the training modules, refer to Appendix C of this manual.

Exercise 4-1 Troubleshooting a CW Radar
Instructional plan
A. Discuss the difficulty of troubleshooting microwave equipment:
1. In most cases, microwave signals cannot be observed using an

oscilloscope.
2. However, the presence or absence of a microwave signal can be

determined, or its power level can be measured.
3. These are often the only means which can be used for
troubleshooting microwave equipment, such as the RF section of
a CW radar.
4. Therefore, troubleshooting the RF section of a radar system

requires a sound knowledge of the equipment and of its normal
operation.
B. Present and explain the six steps of the Troubleshooting Procedure:
1. The first step consists of observing the problem and its

symptoms to identify the module(s) which may be defective.
2. This reduces the time and effort required to troubleshoot a radar

system, especially when the modules are not easily accessible.
3. The second step consists of checking the power supplied to the

modules suspected to be defective.
4. The third step consists of signal flow tracing within the module(s)
suspected to be defective to locate a defective part of circuitry.
5. Signal flow tracing can be carried from input to output and vice
versa. The direction in which signal flow tracing is carried out
depends on the ability and training of the troubleshooter, and on
the nature of the equipment to be troubleshot.
6. The fourth step consists of verifying the operation of other

branches of circuitry that may meet at the point where defective
operation was discovered, before concluding that the part of
circuitry located in the previous step is really defective.
7. The fifth step consists of verifying that the malfunction of the

defective part of circuitry located plausibly explain the problem
observed.
8. The sixth step consists of diagnosing the problem.
9. When possible, the Troubleshooting Procedure should be

preceded by a visual inspection of wires and components, since
experience shows that connector faults are more common than
any other problem.

C. Discuss the difficulties of carrying out signal flow tracing within the RF
section of a radar system:
1. The RF signals in a radar system cannot be observed using a

common oscilloscope, which is the instrument most often used to
carry out signal flow tracing.
2. These RF signals can be measured using equipment such as a

high-frequency spectrum analyzer, a microwave frequency
meter, an RF power meter, or other specialized instruments
using crystal detectors.
3. RF test points are provided in the RF section of the Radar

Training System. Each RF test point consists of an RF detector
which indicates, using a TTL-level signal, the presence or
absence of RF power at a given point of the circuit.
4. The RF test points can be used to monitor CW signals only,

because the pulsed RF signals in the Radar Training System are
of very short duration, and therefore, of very weak average
power.
5. The RF test point at the RF INPUT of the Radar Receiver (TP1)

may fail to detect a CW signal even though it is present, because
of the weakness of the received signal.
6. In this case, a metal plate can be placed in front of the Radar

Antenna horn aperture to ensure that a strong signal is returned
to the RF INPUT of the Radar Receiver.
7. Test point TP1 of the Radar Receiver may also fail to detect a
CW signal because of standing waves.
8. In this case, varying the frequency of the Radar Transmitter RF

OSCILLATOR modifies the position of nulls in the standing wave
at the RF INPUT of the Radar Receiver, allowing test point TP1
to detect the signal.
D. When the student reaches step 9 of the Procedure, insert fault (FLT) 1 in
the Radar Receiver.
1. This interrupts the signal at the RF INPUT and simulates a faulty

connection.

Exercise 4-2 Troubleshooting an FM-CW Radar
Instructional plan
A. Show that troubleshooting the RF section of an FM-CW radar is basically

the same as troubleshooting the RF section of a CW radar:
1. Although CW and FM-CW radars use different RF signals, their

circuitry is fairly similar.
2. The Troubleshooting Procedure described in Exercise 4-1 of

Volume 1 is appropriate for troubleshooting FM-CW radars.
3. The difficulties of troubleshooting CW radars also apply when

troubleshooting FM-CW radars. See step C in the instructional
plan of Exercise 4-1, Volume 1.

Exercise 4-3 Troubleshooting a Pulsed Radar: The RF

Section
Instructional plan
A. Discuss the difficulties of troubleshooting the RF section of a pulsed

radar:

Volume 1 is appropriate for troubleshooting the RF section of a
pulsed radar.
2. Since the RF signals are pulsed, troubleshooting the RF section

of a pulsed radar is usually more difficult than troubleshooting
the RF section of a CW or FM-CW radar.
3. Usually, radar manufacturers provide optional test equipment to

facilitate troubleshooting, or even incorporate it into the radar
itself thus reducing the test equipment required for
troubleshooting.
4. In the pulsed radar that can be obtained with the Radar Training
System, the shortness of the pulses and the weakness of the
average power of the RF signals make troubleshooting more
difficult.
5. The RF test points of the Radar Training System cannot be used

with pulsed RF signals. Highly sensitive test equipment having a
large bandwidth is required to detect such weak signals.
6. To facilitate troubleshooting the receiver of a pulsed radar, the

pulsed RF signal normally received can be replaced with a CW
RF signal having a comparable amplitude. This eliminates the
need of sensitive test equipment to trace signals within the
receiver.
7. This approach is used to troubleshoot the pulsed radar that can

be obtained with the Radar Training System, once the Radar
Receiver is suspected to be defective.
8. The pulsed signal normally received at the RF INPUT of the

Radar Receiver can be replaced with a CW RF signal, provided
by the CW/FM-CW RF OUTPUT of the Radar Transmitter, to
carry out signal flow tracing.
9. DC voltages are obtained at the RF MIXER outputs (TP3 and

TP5) of the Radar Receiver when a CW RF signal is injected at
the RF INPUT.
10. These voltages vary between approximately +2 V and -2 V when

the frequency of the CW RF signal is varied and the POWER
DIVIDER and HYBRID JUNCTION related to the RF MIXER
inputs, and the RF MIXERs themselves, operate normally.

a For this exercise, it is assumed that the Dual-Channel Sampler is fault-free.

Since this module is considered as an instrument, there are no faults which
can be inserted in it.
B. Explain that no RF test point is provided at the PULSED RF OUTPUT of

the Radar Transmitter since the average power at this output is
infinitesimal, and there are no faults affecting the operation of the
MODULATOR.
C. Explain that the average power at the PULSE GENERATOR OUTPUT of

the Radar Transmitter is also infinitesimal, but that the signal on this
output can be visualized using one channel of the Dual-Channel
Sampler.
the Radar Receiver.
1. This produces no output at the I-CHANNEL PULSED OUTPUT.
Presentation Aids
1. Review the test points and block diagrams for each module. See
Appendix B in this manual.
2. Refer to Appendix C of this manual for descriptions of the faults in the

training modules.

Volume 2 – Analog MTI Processing

Unit 1 Analog Radar Systems
This unit is designed to provide an introduction to analog radar systems, and to

familiarize the student with the Radar Training System Analog Pulse Radar.
The unit introduction discusses some basic concepts concerning radar systems
and analog signal processing.
Exercise 1-1 provides an introduction to the Radar Training System in general

and to the Analog Pulse Radar in particular, including the LVRTS software.
Exercise 1-2 explains the role and the generation of the PPI display. The use of
markers, such as the range rings, the VRM, and the EBL, to determine target
positions is also covered. A brief review of the range and angular resolutions of a
pulsed radar is carried out since these are measured in this exercise using the
PPI display.
This exercise also reviews the conventional radial-scan format PPI display and
the raster-scan format PPI display, showing the advantages of the latter over the
former. The need for some type of scan format conversion is highlighted, and
various scan converting techniques are then described, from early optical
techniques to modern digital scan converters. The generation of the PPI display
in the Analog Pulse Radar is also covered.

Exercise 1-1 Familiarization with the Analog Pulsed Radar

System
Instructional plan
A. Describe the Radar Training System:
1. The system components.
2. The Analog Pulse Radar.
3. The LVRTS software. Encourage students to refer to the on-line

Help for detailed information on the different commands in the
software. For contextual help about an item in the software,
place the cursor over that item and press F1.

Exercise 1-2 The PPI Display
Instructional plan
A. Describe the PPI display:
1. The PPI display is a map-like CRT display on which targets are

displayed as luminous spots.
2. The center of the display, or origin, represents the location of the

radar.
3. The distance of any blip from the origin represents the target
range, and the angle from a reference line on the display to the
blip represents the target bearing.
B. Explain how a PPI display can be obtained using successive radial

scans:
1. Each beam scan begins at the time an RF signal pulse is

transmitted.
2. The antenna azimuth information is communicated to the PPI

display to determine the direction of each scan.
3. Each scan starts at the origin and the beam moves at a constant
rate until it reaches the edge of the display.
4. Every target detected during the beam scan causes the beam
intensity to be increased to produce a blip.
5. When the beam reaches the edge of the display, it is turned off
and retraces.
6. For the next RF signal pulse transmitted, the antenna azimuth

information will have changed, thus changing the direction of the
next beam scan.
7. The complete PPI display is radially scanned every turn of the

antenna.
C. Explain why the distance between the origin and a blip is proportional to
the range of the corresponding target:
1. At any time during a scan, the distance of the beam from the
origin is proportional to the time elapsed since the transmission
of the last RF signal pulse.
2. Since nearby targets have short round-trip transit times, they are
displayed near the origin.
3. As the range of targets increases, the round-trip transit time

increases, and the distance of blips from the origin increases.

4. Each beam scan is similar to a single scan on an A-scope

display.
D. Explain the various markers that accompany most PPI displays:
1. Markers are displayed along with blips to help the radar operator
determine the polar coordinates of targets.
2. The range rings are a series of equally-spaced concentric rings

on the PPI display.
3. The VRM is a ring whose radius can be varied by the radar

operator. A digital display indicates the range corresponding to
the VRM radius.
4. The EBL is a straight line starting from the origin whose azimuth
can be varied by the radar operator. Another digital display
indicates the bearing corresponding to the EBL.
5. When the intersection of the VRM and EBL coincides with a blip
on the PPI display, their digital displays indicate the polar
coordinates of the corresponding target.
E. Briefly review the range and angular resolution:
1. See the instructional plans of Exercises 1-2 and 1-3 of Volume 1

to review the range and angular resolutions.
2. Unresolved targets appear as a single blip on the PPI display.
F. Discuss the advantage of the raster-scan format over the radial scan
format:
1. Review the radial-scan format, or conventional, PPI display.
2. The blips on the conventional PPI display are refreshed at a slow

rate depending on the antenna rotation speed.
3. Most modern radar PPI displays use a television-like raster-scan

format.
4. The faster refresh rate of this type of scan format with respect to
that of the radial-scan format produces a stable display which is
less fatiguing to look at.
5. The raster-scan format facilitates the generation of markers.
G. Explain the role and operating principle of a digital scan converter:
1. A scan-format conversion is necessary to produce a PPI display

with a raster-scan format.
2. In modern radars, this task is carried out using a digital scan

converter.

3. The acquisition/write section of the digital scan converter writes

the video data in a memory by addressing its cells radially.
4. The read/display section of the digital scan converter reads the

video data from the memory by scanning its cells in a raster-scan
format to produce the PPI display.
H. Explain the generation of the PPI display in the Analog Pulse Radar:
1. The Display Processor of the Analog Pulse Radar uses circuitry

similar to a digital scan converter to generate a PPI display on
the Radar Display.
2. During each write scan, the write circuitry generates rectangular

coordinates for memory addressing.
3. Each write scan is triggered by the PRF signal.
4. The PRF signal resets the RADIAL POSITION GENERATOR

which generates the range information.
5. The rectangular coordinates are calculated from the range and

azimuth information by the POLAR TO RECTANGULAR
CONVERTER.
6. The THRESHOLD COMPARATOR detects the pulses in the

VIDEO INPUT signal that exceed its threshold level to transform
them into TTL-level pulses. This signal serves to generate a
fixed-threshold PPI display.
7. The Display Threshold setting in the Radar Display controls the

threshold of the THRESHOLD COMPARATOR.
8. The Display Processor can produce variable intensity PPI

display, using the D/A converted VIDEO INPUT signal.
9. In the Radar Training System, the host computer is used to store

and display the data. In a typical radar system, however, these
tasks are handled by dedicated circuitry.

Unit 2 Analog MTI Radar
This unit presents moving-target indication (MTI) processing in an analog radar

system. The unit begins with a brief discussion of the concept of clutter and the
need for MTI in certain applications.
Exercise 2-1 deals with phase-processing MTI, that is, single-channel MTI
processing. It covers the principle of coherence and shows how phase detection
is accomplished in a coherent radar receiver.
In the Radar Receiver, mixers are used as synchronous phase detectors. The
output of the phase detector is shown to consist of a train of fixed-amplitude
pulses for a fixed target and a train of pulses with a sinusoidal envelope in the
case of a moving target.
Phase-processing MTI is then shown to consist of cancelling fixed amplitude

pulses using a delay-line canceller. The canceller stores each pulse in the delay
line and subtracts it from the next pulse. For a fixed target, the result of the
subtraction is always zero, whereas a residue remains when the target is moving.
The operation of the delay-line canceller is also explained in the frequency
domain.
The formula for determining the Doppler frequency was derived in Volume 1. For
convenience, the derivation is repeated at the end of Exercise 2-1.
The Procedure of this exercise demonstrates the operation of the mixer as a

phase detector, the Doppler effect in pulsed radar, the role of the MTI circuit, and
the frequency response of the MTI circuit.
Exercise 2-2 deals with blind phases and why they result in reduced receiver
sensitivity. It explains how this problem can be eliminated using a quadrature
phase detector (I and Q detector). It shows that vector-processing MTI consists
of processing the I and Q channels separately for MTI and combining the two
outputs in a magnitude detector. These operations are explained using both
illustrations and equations.
In the Procedure, the students observe the blind phases phenomenon, the
elimination of blind phases and the effect of the MTI circuit on fixed and moving
target blips on the PPI display.
Exercise 2-3 first deals with blind speeds. Using equations, the output of a
phase- or vector-processing MTI circuit is shown to be zero when certain radial
velocities are encountered.
Range ambiguities are then explained. Although this is phenomenon can exist in
all pulsed radars, not just MTI radars, it is presented here because the technique
for overcoming blind speeds–staggered PRF–also helps to identify second-trace
echoes. The staggered PRF technique is presented, and its effect on blind
speeds and range ambiguities explained.

The Procedure allows students to observe the blind speeds phenomenon, the
technique of staggered PRF, the frequency response of the MTI circuit in
staggered PRF, and the effect of staggered PRF on blind speeds and on second-
trace echoes.
Exercise 2-4 deals with performance limitations of MTI systems. This exercise
shows that MTI processing in practical systems is not perfect and that the limiting
factors can be quantified.
The Procedure covers the effects of frequency instability of the coherent

oscillator, the cancellation ratio, the effect of the MTI circuit on non-stationary
clutter, and other MTI limitations.

Exercise 2-1 Phase-Processing MTI
Instructional plan
A. The role of phase in detecting moving targets
1. The phase of the echo signal depends on the target range.
2. If the phase of the transmitted signal is stable from pulse to

pulse, the phase of the echo signal received from a fixed target
will also be stable. If the target is moving, the phase of the echo
signal will change at a rate which depends on the target's radial
velocity.
3. The rate of change of the phase is the Doppler frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 .
B. Coherence
1. The word coherent means "in phase", or more precisely,

maintaining a definite phase relationship with a certain reference
waveform.
2. The phase of a coherent signal at any point, relative to the

reference, is completely predictable.
C. Noncoherent and coherent radar
1. Phase detection can be accomplished by comparing the phase

of the echo signal with that of a reference signal which is
coherent with the transmitted signal.
2. A radar which uses such a reference signal for signal

demodulation is called a coherent radar.
3. In a noncoherent radar:
a. the phase relationship between successive pulses in the

transmitted signal is usually random (the transmitted
signal is noncoherent).
b. the received RF signal and the local oscillator signal are

heterodyned in the mixer. This shifts the RF signal down
to the intermediate frequency (IF).
c. the envelope detector produces an output signal whose

level corresponds to the envelope of the IF signal.
d. all frequency and phase information is lost.
4. In a coherent radar with a superheterodyne receiver:
a. the coherent reference signal is generated by a stable

oscillator called the COHO (coherent oscillator).

b. the local oscillator is also a stable oscillator called the

STALO (stable local oscillator).
c. to insure that the transmitted signal is coherent with the

COHO signal, the transmitted signal is generated by
heterodyning the COHO and the STALO signals. The
resulting high-frequency signal is amplified and pulse
modulated by the RF amplifier. The RF pulses are
coherent because they have been generated from a
stable continuous wave.
d. the received signal is heterodyned with the STALO

signal 𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 , and the difference frequency 𝑓𝑓𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ± 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 applied
to the IF amplifier.
e. instead of an envelope detector, the coherent radar

receiver uses a phase detector to produce the video
signal.
f. the output of the phase detector is a bipolar pulse signal

whose amplitude depends on the phase of the phase
detector input signal (in this case, the IF signal) relative
to the coherent reference signal. This output video signal
is called coherent video.
5. For the fixed target, the amplitude is constant from pulse to

pulse. For the moving target, the pulse amplitude varies as the
phase of the received signal varies.
D. Coherent homodyne receiver
1. In this type of receiver, there is no IF stage. Instead, the received

RF signal is applied directly to the phase detector.
2. The coherent reference signal in a homodyne receiver has the

same frequency as the transmitted signal.
E. The mixer as a phase detector
1. Because the phase-detector input and reference signals have

more or less the same frequency, this type of detector is called a
synchronous detector.
2. The synchronous detector can consist of a balanced mixer

followed by a lowpass filter.
3. The mixer multiplies the input signal by the reference signal,

producing the sum and difference of the frequencies of these two
signals. The lowpass filter removes the sum frequency, leaving
only the difference frequency.
4. The amplitude of the output is a function of both the phase of the

received signal (relative to that of the coherent reference signal)
and of the amplitude of the received signal.

5. Since the sum frequency is approximately twice the reference

frequency, the bandwidth limitations of the circuit alone are often
sufficient to remove the sum frequency, making a separate
lowpass filter unnecessary.
6. Equations (2-1) to (2-8) show the operation of the mixer as

phase detector (see PRESENTATION AIDS).
a. For a fixed target, the output of the phase detector is
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (fixed target) = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜙𝜙0 (6)
b. For a moving target, the output of the phase detector is
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (moving target) = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜙𝜙 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙0 ) (8)
where 𝜙𝜙 is the phase

𝜙𝜙0 is the phase shift due to the target range
𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is the Doppler frequency
F. Phase-processing MTI
1. One way of accomplishing moving-target indication is to use the

pulse-to-pulse change in amplitude at the output of the phase
detector to differentiate between fixed and moving targets. This
is called phase-processing MTI.
2. It is implemented using a delay-line canceller.
3. The delay line delays the video signal by a time equal to the
pulse-repetition interval 𝑇𝑇 = 1/𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 .
4. The delayed video signal is subtracted from the undelayed video

signal by the summer.
5. The output of the delay-line canceller consists of the differences

between successive pulses in the video signal.
6. If the target is not moving, the amplitude of each pulse is the

same as that of the previous pulse. The result of the subtraction
is zero.
7. If the target is moving, the pulse amplitude changes from pulse

to pulse. The result of the subtraction is not zero; a residue
remains in the form of a bipolar pulse train.
G. Frequency response of the single delay-line canceller
1. The delay-line canceller acts as a time-domain filter, rejecting the

clutter frequency components.
2. Low frequencies and frequencies in the rejection notches are

attenuated. These notches are centered at multiples of the
pulse-repetition frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 .

H. The Doppler frequency formula
1. The Doppler frequency is due to the continuous change in phase

of the received signal which is caused by the target motion.-
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 4𝜋𝜋 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = = (rad/s)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 (Hz) (9)
𝑐𝑐
where 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is the Doppler frequency

𝜙𝜙 is the phase of the received signal with respect to the transmitted
signal
𝜆𝜆 is the wavelength of the transmitted signal
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is the range rate, or radial velocity (𝑅𝑅 and 𝜆𝜆 measured in the same
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 units)
𝑣𝑣 is the target speed
𝜃𝜃 is the angle between the target direction and the line of sight
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 is the frequency of the transmitted signal
𝑐𝑐 is the speed of light (3.00 x 108m/s)
2. This formula is derived in the student manual, equation (2-9).
3. The Doppler effect is explained in detail in Ex. 3-1 of Volume 1.

Exercise 2-2 Vector-Processing MTI
Instructional plan
A. Blind Phases
1. A phase-processing MTI system consists of a coherent radar

with one delay-line canceller. The delay-line canceller
suppresses the pulses in the coherent video which correspond to
fixed targets.
2. With a moving target, the coherent video at the output of the

phase detector consists of pulses with a sine-wave envelope.
3. If the phases of the echoes are such that two successive pulses
in the video signal have the same amplitude, these pulses are
canceller by the delay-line canceller, even though the target is
moving. This results in a pulse of zero amplitude in the canceller
video. This phenomenon is known as blind phases.
4. Blind phases can cause nulls in the unipolar video signal. This
results in reduced sensitivity of the radar.
5. Even if the phases are such that no pulses are completely

cancelled, the fact that the amplitude of the unipolar video signal
drops periodically causes a loss of sensitivity.
6. The problem of reduced sensitivity caused by blind phases can

be eliminated by using a quadrature phase detector.
B. Quadrature phase detector
1. See Equations (2-10) to (2-12) in the student manual.
2. The received signal 𝐴𝐴 sin(2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙) can be represented as a

vector (actually a phasor) of length 𝐴𝐴 and angle 𝜙𝜙. This vector
can be broken down into two components in phase quadrature,
the in-phase component 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 and the quadrature
component 𝑄𝑄 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙.
3. The quadrature phase detector, or I and Q detector, detects both

the in-phase and the quadrature components of the received
signal separately.
4. In channel Q, the coherent reference signal undergoes a phase

shift of 90̊ before being applied to the Q-channel phase detector.
5. The I-channel output of the quadrature detector is the in-phase

component of the signal 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 . In the Q channel, heterodyning
the received signal and the phase-shifted reference signal yields
the quadrature component 𝐴𝐴 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙.

6. Together, the in-phase and quadrature components define the

vector which represents the received signal.
7. Each component of this vector is processed in a separate delay-

line canceller for MTI. This is called vector-processing MTI.
C. Vector-processing MTI
1. In the receiver section of a vector-processing MTI radar, there is

a delay-line canceller for each of the I and Q channels. The
outputs of the I- and Q-channel cancellers are combined in the
magnitude detector to produce a unipolar video signal.
2. Equations (2-13) to (2-20) of the student manual show the

operation of the vector-processing MTI receiver.
3. In the I channel canceller, the result of the subtraction is:
𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼 = −2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜋𝜋 sin �2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜋𝜋 + 𝜙𝜙0 � (18)
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝
where 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is the Doppler frequency

𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 is the pulse-repetition frequency
𝜙𝜙0 is the phase shift due to the target range
See the PRESENTATION AIDS for a complete derivation of this

equation.
4. In the Q channel canceller, the result of the subtraction is:
𝑄𝑄 = 2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜋𝜋 cos �2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜋𝜋 + 𝜙𝜙0 �
5. The I-and Q-channel canceller outputs are applied to the

magnitude detector.
6. The output of the magnitude detector is
Magnitude = �𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑄𝑄 2
𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑
Magnitude = �2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜋𝜋 �
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝
This shows that the output of the magnitude detector is a

constant value between 0 and 2A (assuming that 𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 is constant).
7. Since the output of the magnitude detector is independent of the

phase of the received signal, a vector-processing MTI radar does
not suffer from blind phases.
8. Both the in-phase and quadrature components of the signal are

utilized. As a result, the receiver sensitivity is approximately 3 dB
better than with phase-processing MTI.

9. In a practical radar receiver, the magnitude detector circuit often

only approximates the �𝐼𝐼2 + 𝑄𝑄 2 operation.
10. Most modern MTI radars use a vector-processing configuration.
11. One limitation of MTI is that the target's radial velocity must be
non-zero for the target to be displayed. A moving target whose
direction is perpendicular to the line of sight will have a Doppler
frequency of 0 Hz.
12. For this reason, most MTI radars have provision for turning off
the MTI function.

Exercise 2-3 Staggered PRF
Instructional plan
A. Blind speeds
1. In a vector-processing MTI radar, the magnitude detector output

contains the term 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜋𝜋(𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 /𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 ). In a phase-processing MTI radar
the output signal of the delay-line canceller also contains this
term.
2. Since 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 equals zero whenever 𝑛𝑛 is an integer, the output of

a phase- or vector-processing MTI processor is zero whenever
𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 , where 𝑛𝑛 is an integer.
3. This phenomenon is apparent from the frequency response of a

delay-line canceller.
a. Nulls in the response of the canceller occur at multiples

of the pulse-repetition frequency 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 .
b. If the Doppler frequency is a multiple of the pulse-

repetition frequency, all of the frequency components of
the canceller input signal will lie in the nulls.
c. When this happens, the signal is rejected and the output

of the canceller is zero.
4. Because of this phenomenon, moving targets with certain radial

velocities produce no output from the MTI processor.
5. A blind speed occurs when:
𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
= 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑛𝑛 , 𝑛𝑛 an integer
𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 𝑐𝑐𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
where 𝑐𝑐 is the speed of light

𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 is the pulse-repetition frequency (PRF)
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 is the transmitted frequency
𝑣𝑣𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 is the target radial velocity
6. Therefore, blind speeds occur at the radial velocities:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 =
2𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡
0.15 ∙ 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 (Hz) 𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = for 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 (GHz) 𝑠𝑠
where 𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 is the nth blind speed

7. Blind speeds are one of the limitations of MTI radar.
8. Blind speeds would not be a problem if the first blind speed were
always greater than the maximum radial velocity expected of a
target.
a. For this, the ratio 𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 ⁄𝑓𝑓𝑡𝑡 would have to be large, that is,
the pulse-repetition frequency high and the transmitted
frequency low.
b. Unfortunately, there are other constraints on these

parameters which often make it difficult to avoid blind
speeds.
B. Range ambiguity
1. Occurs when the pulse-repetition interval is less than the transit

time.
a. A second pulse is transmitted before the first echo has

time to return to the radar.
b. Since there is no way of telling which echo results from

which pulse, the round-trip transit time "perceived" by
the radar is much less that the actual transit time.
c. The target, therefore, appears at a much closer range

than its actual range. This phenomenon makes the
range measurement ambiguous.
2. An echo which is received after a time delay exceeding one

pulse-repetition interval, but less than two pulse-repetition
intervals, is called a second-trace echo or a second-time-around
echo.
3. The range beyond which targets appear as second-trace echoes

is called the maximum unambiguous range 𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 .
𝑐𝑐
𝑅𝑅𝑢𝑢 =
2𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝
4. Second-trace echoes can be caused by distant clutter.
a. These echoes, called second-trace clutter, or second-

time-around clutter can be misleading if not identified by
the operator as second-trace echoes since they appear
much closer than their actual range.
b. MTI processing using delay-line cancellers can cancel

second-trace echoes from fixed targets or clutter, but not
those from moving targets or time-varying clutter such as
rain clutter.

C. Staggered PRF
1. Both blind speeds and range ambiguities are phenomena that

depend on the pulse-repetition frequency.
2. Their effects can be reduced or eliminated by switching the

pulse-repetition frequency periodically between two or more
different values. This technique is called staggered PRF. The
terms dual PRF and multiple PRF are also used.
3. The pulse-repetition frequency can be changed every antenna

scan period, every time the antenna scans a half beamwidth, or
from pulse to pulse.
4. The composite canceller frequency response obtained with

staggered PRF is the average of the frequency responses for
each individual PRF.
a. Nulls occur in the composite response only when the

blind speeds for each PRF coincide.
b. As a result, the first blind speed is several times greater

than when one PRF is used.
5. Staggered PRF can be used to identify second-trace echoes.
a. When two PRFs are used, the apparent range of

second-trace echoes alternates between two values.
b. On a PPI display, the clutter (or target) would appear at

two different ranges.
6. Because staggered PRF causes the apparent range of second-

trace echoes to change periodically, these echoes are not
completely canceller by the delay-line canceller.
a. This is one disadvantage of the staggered-PRF

technique.
b. In some systems, a constant PRF is used over those

angular sectors where second-trace clutter is expected
and staggered PRF is used elsewhere.

Exercise 2-4 MTI Limitations
Instructional plan
A. Limiting factors
1. An ideal MTI system would remove all trace of fixed clutter from
the video signal, leaving only information corresponding to
moving targets.
a. In practice, this ideal is never achieved.
b. The clutter power remaining after MTI cancellation is

called clutter residue.
2. One of the factors that limit MTI performance is instabilities in the

radar system.
a. The MTI system uses the phase change caused by the

Doppler effect to distinguish between fixed and moving
targets.
b. It is not possible to distinguish between phase changes

due to target motion and those due to system
instabilities.
c. Pulse-to-pulse changes in the amplitude, frequency,

phase, or pulse width of the transmitted signal will
prevent the canceller from performing efficiently and a
clutter residue will remain at the output. Instabilities in
the STALO or COHO oscillators in a superheterodyne
receiver or variations in the time delay through the delay
lines will produce the same result.
d. All of these factors tend to broaden the apparent

frequency spectrum of stationary clutter.
3. Another factor limiting MTI performance is clutter fluctuation.
a. There are many types of clutter, such as trees, rain and

the sea surface, which are not absolutely stationary.
b. Because the echoes from these types of clutter vary with

time, the spectral lines in the coherent video are
relatively broad, and an MTI canceller has a limited
capacity to eliminate them.
c. In such cases, additional signal-processing techniques

may be necessary to prevent uncancelled clutter from
saturating the display.

4. Antenna motion also imposes a limit on MTI performance.
a. A short time on target produces a broad spectrum which

is not completely eliminated by the MTI canceller.
b. This phenomenon, called antenna scanning modulation,

also limits MTI performance.
B. Performance measurement
1. Several different parameters exist for specifying the performance

of MTI systems.
a. Some of these parameters refer to system operation

under normal operating conditions, that is, with the
antenna rotating and with all target radial velocities
equally likely, and are therefore difficult to measure in
the laboratory.
2. The preferred measure of MTI radar performance is the MTI

improvement factor I. This is equal to the signal-to-clutter ratio at
the output of the MTI system divided by the signal-to-clutter ratio
at the input, averaged uniformly over all target radial velocities of
interest.
a. Each of the limiting factors previously mentioned reduce

the maximum MTI improvement factor obtainable.
3. The clutter rejection CR is the ratio of clutter power at the

canceller input to the clutter power at the output.
4. The target enhancement factor TE is ratio of the output signal

power to the input signal power, averaged over all possible radial
velocities.
5. The MTI improvement factor can be expressed as ratio of the

target enhancement factor and the clutter rejection:
𝑇𝑇𝐸𝐸 𝑆𝑆𝑜𝑜 ⁄𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆𝑜𝑜 ⁄𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜

𝐼𝐼 = = =
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 ⁄𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 ⁄𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖
where 𝑇𝑇𝐸𝐸 is the target enhancement factor

𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 is the clutter rejection
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 and 𝑆𝑆𝑜𝑜 are the input and output signal powers, respectively
𝐶𝐶𝑖𝑖 and 𝐶𝐶𝑜𝑜 are the input and output clutter powers, respectively
6. The subclutter visibility SCV is the ratio by which the target echo
power may be weaker than the coincident clutter echo power
and still be detected with specified detection and false alarm
probabilities.
7. The cancellation ratio is the ratio of canceller output amplitude to

the input amplitude, for clutter echoes received with a fixed
antenna.

8. Note that all of the above ratios are normalized to compensate

for the gain for a single pulse passing through the unprocessed
channel of the canceller.
C. Staggered PRF
1. The use of this technique, makes it difficult to remove second-

trace clutter echoes, since their apparent range changes
periodically.
2. One solution is to use a constant PRF over angular sectors

where such clutter is expected.
3. This, however, reintroduces the problem of blind speeds in these

sectors.
Demonstrations
• Show the effect of having a non-coherent reference signal at the LOCAL

OSCILLATOR INPUT of the Radar Receiver, using a second Radar
Transmitter, if available.
1. Connect the modules as shown on the Analog Pulse Radar tab

of the LVRTS software, but connect the LOCAL OSCILLATOR
INPUT to the RF OSCILLATOR OUTPUT of the second
transmitter.
2. Set the RF OSCILLATORS of both transmitters to 9.4 GHz

(CAL.).
3. Observe the waveform on the oscilloscope for a fixed and a

moving target, and compare with a coherent system.
• Show that in the STAGGERED PRF MODE, the PRF is switched

approximately every half beam width.
1. Show that in the STAGGERED PRF MODE, the PRF is switched

approximately every half beam width.
2. On the Radar Synchronizer / Antenna Controller, set the PRF

MODE to STAGGERED and the ANTENNA ROTATION MODE
to PRF LOCKed.
3. Select a PRF and note the antenna speed as shown in the

Radar Display.
4. Connect probe 1 to TP3 of the Display Processor (PRF

TRIGGER INPUT). Connect probe 2 to TP15 of the MTI
PROCESSOR (PRF DETECTOR).
5. Measure the time interval between changes in the PRF using the
oscilloscope (this is measured by the students in Exercise 2-3).

6. Knowing that the antenna beamwidth is approximately 6̊,

compare the time required to scan one half beamwidth with the
time interval between changes in the PRF.
Presentation Aids
1. Review the NEW TERMS after the unit DISCUSSION OF

FUNDAMENTALS.
2. Give the trigonometric identities used to obtain equations (2-4) and (2-5)
of Ex. 2-1:
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜙𝜙
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃 = (½)[𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝜃𝜃 − 𝜃𝜃) − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝜃𝜃 + 𝜃𝜃)] = (½)(1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃)
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝜃𝜃 + 𝜃𝜃) = 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃
Therefore,
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 = (½) 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜃𝜃
3. Show how equation (2-18) of Ex. 2-2 is derived:
𝐼𝐼 = 𝑎𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑎1
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴 cos[2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 (𝑡𝑡 + 𝑇𝑇) + 𝜙𝜙0 ] − 𝐴𝐴 cos[2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙0 ]
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴[cos(𝛼𝛼 + 𝛽𝛽) − cos(𝛼𝛼 − 𝛽𝛽)]
where 𝛼𝛼 = 2 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑇𝑇 + 𝜙𝜙0

𝛽𝛽 = 2 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡
𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴[(cos 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 − sin 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛽𝛽) − (cos 𝛼𝛼 cos 𝛽𝛽 + sin 𝛼𝛼 sin 𝛽𝛽)]
𝐼𝐼 = −2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝛽𝛽 sin 𝛼𝛼
𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼 = −2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇 sin �2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 �𝑡𝑡 + � + 𝜙𝜙0 �
2
𝐼𝐼 = −2𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜋𝜋 sin �2𝜋𝜋𝑓𝑓𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡 + 𝜋𝜋 + 𝜙𝜙0 �
4. Review the use of phasors for representing periodic signals. The length
of each phasor represents the amplitude of a signal and the orientation
of the phasor represents the relative phase. The phasor rotates once for
each cycle of the signal. Since a phasor appears fixed on paper, it can
be thought of as being illuminated by a strobe light that flashes "on" at
the same time a reference phasor would be crossing the x axis.

Unit 3 Target Detection in Noise and Clutter
This unit deals with the automatic detection of targets when noise and clutter are
present along with the desired signal. The unit begins with a discussion of the
characteristics of noise and various types of clutter. An introduction to the Clutter
Generator, which generates noise and clutter signals in the Radar Training
System, is provided. The Clutter Generator is implemented using plug-in
module 9630 installed in the Reconfigurable Training Module (RTM).
Exercise 3-1 presents the technique of automatic detection and the two errors
that can occur–false alarms and misses. The concept of probability is then
introduced in order to deal with the random phenomenon of noise. Probability-
density functions are used to show the relationship between the probability of
false alarm, the probability of detection, the threshold voltage and the standard
deviation of the noise voltage.
The Procedure of this exercise includes plotting the relationship between the
probability of false alarm and the detection threshold. The probability density of
noise is calculated and plotted and compared to the theoretical curve. Then the
probability of detection is measured. A graph of the measured probability of
detection as a function of the signal-to-noise ratio, for a given probability of false
alarm, is made and compared to the theoretical relation.
Exercise 3-2 begins with a discussion of the role of pulse integration in radar
detection. Both coherent and noncoherent integration are discussed, even
though the Radar Training System only performs noncoherent integration. The
integration-improvement factor, integration efficiency and integration loss are
defined. The recirculating-delay-line integrator, which is used in the Radar
Training System, is described in detail.
In the Procedure of this exercise, students observe the operation of the VIDEO
INTEGRATOR using noise and interference signals, measure the effect of the
VIDEO INTEGRATOR in the detection of a target in noise, determine the
integration-improvement factor for 8 pulses integrated, and observe the effect of
noise and interference suppression on the PPI display.
Exercise 3-3 deals with sensitivity time control (STC). STC is shown to
compensate for limited dynamic range which results in saturation of the receiver
by close-range clutter. The operation and implementation of STC is discussed.
In the Procedure, students measure the relationship between the gain of the STC
amplifiers and the range, and observe the compensation of the STC circuit for
attenuation of the received signal with range. They also observe suppression of
sea clutter using a STC circuit in the time domain and on the PPI display.
Instantaneous automatic gain control (IAGC), a technique used in some linear

receivers, is the subject of Exercise 3-4. The linear receiver is discussed, as is
the operation and implementation of IAGC.
In the Procedure, students observe the operation of the IAGC amplifier and its
effect, observed in the time domain and on the PPI display.

The log-FTC receiver is studied in Exercise 3-5. The problem of detection of

targets in rain clutter is discussed. The use of circular polarization to reject rain
clutter is included for interest, although it cannot be demonstrated using the
Radar Training System. The characteristics of the logarithmic receiver and the
operation of the log-FTC receiver are then presented both graphically and
mathematically.
In the Procedure, students observe the operation of the log-FTC circuit using
variable-width pulses. The suppression of rain clutter is observed in the time
domain and on the PPI display.
Exercise 3-6 deals with other techniques used to obtain a constant false-alarm
rate. The adaptive threshold detector is presented. The cell-averaging CFAR
technique commonly used in digital systems and analog CFAR systems are
discussed. The limitations of the CFAR technique are also considered.
In the Procedure, students observe the operation of the CFAR circuit in the MTI
Processor. They also observe rain clutter suppression in the time domain.
Finally, they observe the effect of CFAR as seen on the PPI display.

Exercise 3-1 Threshold Detection
Instructional plan
A. Detection of targets
1. In some pulsed radars, the unipolar video signal from the

receiver is used directly to intensity-modulate a cathode-ray-tube
PPI display.
a. In some pulsed radars, the unipolar video signal from the

receiver is used directly to intensity-modulate a cathode-
ray-tube PPI display.
b. With this type of system, it is sometimes up to the radar

operator to decide whether a blip is due to a desired
target or to noise, interference or some other undesired
phenomenon.
2. In most modern pulsed radars, targets are detected

automatically.
a. A target is assumed to be present only when the

instantaneous voltage of the receiver video output
exceeds a certain threshold.
b. This process is called threshold detection or automatic

detection.
3. A false alarm occurs when a peak due to noise alone exceeds

the threshold and is mistakenly assumed to represent a target.
4. When an actual target fails to be detected, a miss is said to

occur.
5. False alarms and misses are the two errors that are likely to
occur when threshold detection is used.
6. The setting of the threshold level is critical in determining how

frequently false alarms and misses will occur.
7. Setting the threshold level in a radar system requires making a

compromise between an acceptable number of false alarms and
misses.
8. Electrical noise is electrical energy of random amplitude and

random frequency.
a. Since noise is random, the instantaneous voltage of

noise varies unpredictably.

b. It is possible, however, to predict the average frequency

of false alarms due to noise and the average likelihood
of detecting targets.
c. This requires an understanding of the statistical nature of

noise, which can be described using probability theory.
B. Probability
1. Probability is a measure of the likelihood of occurrence of an

event.
a. The probability of an event is defined as the ratio of the

chances favoring an event to the total number of
chances for and against it.
b. An event which is certain has a probability of 1

(sometimes expressed as 100%), whereas an
impossible event has a probability of 0.
c. The more likely an event, the greater its probability.
2. In a random process, the probability of an event cannot be

measured directly. It can, however, be calculated from theory or
approximated by experiment.
3. To evaluate the probability that the noise voltage at some point

in the receiver circuit, at any one instant, will be within a certain
interval (between 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2 ), measure the instantaneous noise
voltage 𝑁𝑁 times, where 𝑁𝑁 is a large number, and count the
number of measured values that lie between the two fixed
voltages 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2 .
Nb of values between 𝑉𝑉1 and 𝑉𝑉2

Probability (𝑉𝑉1 < 𝑣𝑣 < 𝑉𝑉2 ) = (1)
Total nb of values 𝑁𝑁
4. The larger the interval 𝑉𝑉2 − 𝑉𝑉1 , the greater the probability that any
one value will lie within the interval.
5. If 𝑉𝑉1 is −∞ and 𝑉𝑉2 is +∞, then:
Probability (𝑉𝑉1 < 𝑣𝑣 < 𝑉𝑉2 ) = 1
Since all values lie between the two limits −∞ and +∞.
C. Probability-density functions
1. A more complete description of the noise can be obtained by

dividing the entire range of voltages into equal intervals of 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥
volts, and repeating the whole experiment for each interval.
a. As each separate interval 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 is considered, 𝑁𝑁 values are

measured and the number of those values which lie in
that particular interval is noted.

b. Then the following calculation is made for each interval:
Probability (𝑣𝑣 in interval 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥) Nb of values in interval 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥

= (2)
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
c. By plotting the results of these calculations, a probability

histogram is obtained.
d. The probability histogram indicates probability as an

area.
2. If the intervals 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 were made infinitesimally small, and if the total
number of values 𝑁𝑁 measured per interval made infinitely large,
the probability histogram would become a continuous function of
the voltage 𝑣𝑣.
a. This is the probability-density function 𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣) of the noise

voltage, and can be defined for every value of 𝑣𝑣 as a
limit:
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣)
Nb of values in interval 𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥 centered at 𝑣𝑣
= lim (3)
𝛥𝛥𝛥𝛥→0 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁→∞
3. A Gaussian, or normal, probability-density function arises when a

large number of independent sources contribute additively to the
end result, as long as the contribution of each is small compared
to the sum.
a. Thermal noise has a Gaussian probability-density

function because it results from the agitation of a large
number of independent atomic particles.
b. Probabilities are represented as areas under the curve.
c. Since the probability that any one measured value lies

between −∞ and +∞ is 1, the total area under the curve
must be equal to 1.
4. The Gaussian probability-density function is defined by the

equation:
1 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑚𝑚)2
𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− � (4)
√2𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎 2 2𝜎𝜎 2
where 𝑥𝑥 is the random variable

𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is the probability-density function of 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚 is the mean
𝜎𝜎 2 is the variance
𝜎𝜎 is the standard deviation (the square root of the variance)

(The factor 1⁄√2𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎 2 is required to make the total area under the
a
curve equal to 1.)
The notation 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎) means 𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎 . This is the same function obtained by pressing
the EXP key on a scientific calculator.
5. The standard deviation 𝜎𝜎 is a statistical parameter which

represents the spread of the values about the mean 𝑚𝑚.
a. If the random variable is a voltage, the standard

deviation is equal to the root-mean-square (rms) value of
the ac component.
b. This can be measured using an ac-coupled true rms

voltmeter.
6. The variance 𝜎𝜎 2 is equal to the average power of the

ac component into a 1 Ω load.
a. These and other statistical terms are explained in the

student manual.
b. The standard deviation 𝜎𝜎 should not be confused with

the radar cross section of a target, for which 𝜎𝜎 is also
used.
7. Noise in the RF and IF sections of a radar receiver can be

considered to be Gaussian.
8. If the mean of the noise voltage is zero, the noise at the input of
the envelope (or magnitude detector) is described by the
Gaussian probability-density function:
1 −𝑣𝑣 2
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣) = exp (5)
�2𝜋𝜋𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2 2𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2
where 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is the standard deviation of the noise voltage at the input of the
envelope detector (or magnitude detector)
9. The envelope detector (or magnitude detector) produces a

unipolar signal which follows the envelope of the IF signal.
10. When Gaussian noise is applied to the input of the detector, the
noise at the output of the detector has a Rayleigh probability-
density function similar to Figure 3-9 in the student manual.
a. This probability-density function shows that the noise is

now unipolar (the probability of a negative voltage is
zero).
b. The horizontal axis of this figure is not calibrated in volts,

but in terms of the ratio 𝑣𝑣/𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 , where 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is the standard
deviation of the noise at the input of the envelope
detector. This allows the same curve to describe the
probability density no matter what value the standard
deviation takes.

11. The equation for this Rayleigh probability-density function is:
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣) = exp �− � , 𝑣𝑣 ≥ 0 (6)
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2 2𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2
where 𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣) is the probability density

𝑣𝑣 is the instantaneous voltage
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is the standard deviation of the noise voltage at the input of the
envelope detector
D. Predicting the probability of false-alarm
1. If the threshold voltage of the threshold detector is 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 , then the

probability of false alarm is equal to the probability that, during
any one noise pulse, the envelope of the noise voltage will
exceed the threshold 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 .
a. This is simply the area under the curve to the right of the
ratio 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 /𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 , as shown by the crosshatched area in
Figure 3-9 of the student manual.
b. This area can be evaluated by integration:
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = Probability (𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 < 𝑣𝑣 < ∞) (7)
∞
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = � 𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 2
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 �− �
2𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2
where 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 is the probability of false alarm

𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 is the threshold voltage
𝑣𝑣 is the random noise voltage
𝑝𝑝(𝑣𝑣) is the probability-density function describing the noise
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is the standard deviation of the noise voltage at the input of the
envelope detector
2. When two random, statistically independent Gaussian noise

signals having the same standard deviation are combined using
this formula, the result is a unipolar noise signal with a Rayleigh
distribution.
3. It is often easier to measure the standard deviation of the noise

at the output of the envelope detector than at the input. The
effective standard deviation at the input can then be determined
by calculation since, for a Rayleigh density, there is a precise
relationship between the two:
𝜎𝜎0 𝜎𝜎0
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 (effective) = =
�2 − (𝜋𝜋⁄2) 0.0655

4. Although the probability of false alarm is very important to the

radar designer, another parameter is of more interest to the
operator of the radar–the average number of false alarms per
unit time, or false-alarm rate (FAR).
a. If the false-alarm rate is very low, say, an average of one

per hour, the false alarms will hardly affect the display of
the radar at all.
b. If it is very high, say, one per second, it may render the

radar useless.
c. What is an acceptable false-alarm rate depends on the

application.
5. The false-alarm time 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 is equal to the reciprocal of the false

alarm rate (𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = 1/𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹) and is the average time between false
alarms (measured from the beginning of one false alarm to the
beginning of the next).
a. The false-alarm time is related to both the probability of

false alarm and the bandwidth 𝐵𝐵 of the receiver, which in
a superheterodyne receiver is the bandwidth of the IF
amplifier.
1
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 =
𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
6. For a radar to be usable, the false-alarm time must be high.
7. Equations (3-7) and (3-9) can be used to determine the threshold

level required to obtain a given false-alarm time:
Since:
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 2 1
𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = exp �− 2
�= (10)
2𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
Therefore:
𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 2 1
= −2 ln 𝑃𝑃𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 = −2 ln � � (11)
a
𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2 𝐵𝐵𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
The notation 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝑎𝑎) is the same as 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎).
8. If the threshold level 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 is fixed, the receiver gain control can be
used to change the effective value of 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 and thus produce the
required ratio.
E. Probability of detection
1. The probability of detection 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 is the probability that the signal-

plus-noise level will exceed the threshold and be detected.

2. Since the threshold voltage affects both of these probabilities, it

is chosen to make a suitable compromise between the
probability of detection and the probability of false alarm.
3. Figure 3-10 of the student manual illustrates the effect of the

threshold voltage on both the probability of false alarm and the
probability of detection.
a. It can be seen from this figure that if 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 /𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 were

increased to reduce the probability of false alarm, the
probability of detection would also be reduced.
b. The ratio 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 /𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 must therefore be set to obtain the best
compromise.
c. In many cases the operator will use the gain control to

manually vary this ratio as required, to reduce the false
alarm rate or increase the detection of targets.
4. Figure 3-11 of the student manual illustrates the relationship

between the probability of detection, the probability of false alarm
and the signal-to-noise ratio. This relationship applies to a single
radar pulse.
a. This figure shows that a high signal-to-noise ratio is

required to obtain a high probability of detection with a
low probability of false alarm.
b. As certain assumptions concerning the type of detector

etc. were made to produce these curves, the do not
apply exactly to all radar systems. They are, however, a
good approximation.

Exercise 3-2 Pulse Integration
Instructional plan
A. The role of pulse integration in radar detection
1. The purpose of the threshold detector in a pulsed radar is to

decide whether the output of the receiver is due to the reception
of a signal combined with noise, or to noise alone.
a. A false alarm occurs when the threshold detector

assumes that a target is present when only noise is
present.
b. A miss occurs when the signal from an actual target fails

to exceed the threshold and be detected.
2. In most radar receivers, a narrow-band filter (the IF amplifier,

ideally a matched filter), removes some of the noise by passing
only those frequency components near the intermediate
frequency.
a. The bandwidth of the matched filter is approximately

equal to the reciprocal of the radar signal pulse width.
b. The noise that passes through the matched filter will

therefore consist of random pulses whose average width
is approximately the same as that of the signal pulse
width.
c. If the signal-to-noise ratio is very low, a single signal

pulse is virtually indistinguishable from a single noise
pulse, and target detection based on a single pulse is
impossible.
3. The echo signal usually consists of a train of several to several

hundred pulses received from each target.
a. Instead of considering each pulse separately to decide

whether a signal is present, a number of pulses can be
added together and the decision made on the basis of
the sum.
b. This process, called integration, considerably improves

the accuracy of the decision.
c. Noise is a random phenomenon whereas an echo signal

is not. Therefore, the sum of a number of pulses
consisting of noise alone will be considerably different
from the sum of a number of pulses containing a signal
plus noise.

B. Coherent integration
1. In an ideal processing arrangement, the energy from a number

of echo pulses is added together in an integrator before
envelope detection.
a. This effectively multiplies the signal-to-noise ratio by 𝑛𝑛,

where 𝑛𝑛 is the number of pulses integrated.
b. This type of integration is called predetection integration,

since the integration takes place before the detector.
c. This process is also called coherent integration because

it requires that the relative phase of successive echo
pulses be known.
2. If the transmitted radar signal is coherent, the amplitude and

phase of the echo signal from a stationary target is constant from
pulse to pulse.
a. The integrator adds a certain number (𝑛𝑛) of pulses

vectorially.
b. The amplitude of the integrated signal is n times greater

than that of one signal pulse.
c. An integrator can be designed to produce the same

result for a signal whose phase is changing at a known
rate (Doppler filter).
d. Noise signals are of random phase and amplitude. When

noise pulses are added vectorially in the integrator, they
sometimes add constructively, sometimes destructively.
e. After 𝑛𝑛 pulses have been integrated, the amplitude of the

vector sum is usually approximately equal to the mean
amplitude of the individual noise pulses.
3. This process increases the signal-to-noise ratio considerably.
4. Figure 3-19 of the student manual shows the effect of normalized

coherent integration on the probability-density functions.
a. Normalized coherent integration reduces the mean noise

level considerably.
b. For both signal-plus-noise and noise alone, the degree

of fluctuation about the mean (standard deviation) is
reduced.

5. The improvement in signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses are

integrated is the integration-improvement factor 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 .
a. For ideal coherent integration, this is equal to 𝑛𝑛:
(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)1
𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 (ideal integrator) = = 𝑛𝑛 (12)
(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)𝑛𝑛
where 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 is the integration-improvement factor

(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)1 is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio of a single pulse required to
produce a given probability of detection
(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)𝑛𝑛 is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio required to produce the
same probability of detection when n pulses are integrated
6. There are two ways of implementing coherent detection.
a. Coherent predetection integration. This arrangement

requires that the transmitted signal be coherent.
b. Post detection integration. With coherent postdetection

integration, two quadrature baseband, or video, signals
(𝐼𝐼 and 𝑄𝑄) are required.
C. Noncoherent integration
1. Many radars use noncoherent integration to improve target

detection.
a. Noncoherent integration does not require that the phase

of successive echo signal pulses be known.
b. Although it is not as efficient as coherent integration, it is

easier and less costly to implement.
c. Since the integration takes place after the envelope or

magnitude detector, which destroys all phase
information, noncoherent integration is a form of
postdetection integration.
2. Noncoherent postdetection integration consists of averaging a

number of pulses in the video signal.
a. The averaging process does not reduce the mean noise

level because, since the phase is not considered, noise
pulses cannot add destructively as in coherent
integration.
b. However, noncoherent integration reduces the degree of

fluctuation about the mean levels. This increases the
probability of detection and decreases the probability of
false alarm when the appropriate threshold level is used.

3. The effect of normalized noncoherent integration on a radar

video signal is to divide the standard deviation by √𝑛𝑛, where 𝑛𝑛 is
the number of samples, or "pulses" integrated.
a. Since the random variable in this case is a voltage, the

standard deviation is equal to the rms value of the ac
component, which can be measured using an ac-
coupled true rms voltmeter.
4. In the Radar Training System, the video signal at the integrator

output can be clamped to zero volts. This reduces the mean
noise level which further improves performance.
D. Integration efficiency
1. Because noncoherent integration is less efficient than coherent

integration, the integration-improvement factor for the
noncoherent integration of 𝑛𝑛 pulses is less than 𝑛𝑛.
a. This factor represents the effective number of pulses

integrated by a perfect coherent integrator.
b. The integration-improvement factor is a function n and

can be expressed as 𝑛𝑛 times an efficiency factor less
than unity called the integration efficiency 𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛):
(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)1
𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) = = 𝑛𝑛𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) (13)
(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)𝑛𝑛
where 𝐼𝐼𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) is the integration-improvement factor for 𝑛𝑛 pulses

(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)1 is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio of a single pulse required to
produce a given probability of detection
(𝑆𝑆⁄𝑁𝑁)𝑛𝑛 is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio required to produce the
same probability of detection when 𝑛𝑛 pulses are integrated
𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) is the integration efficiency factor for 𝑛𝑛 pulses integrated
c. The loss incurred by integrating a signal noncoherently

instead of coherently is called the integration loss.
𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) = 10 log[1⁄𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛)]
where 𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) is the integration loss for n pulses integrated

𝐸𝐸𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛) is the integration efficiency for n pulses integrated
E. A noncoherent integration processor
1. One common type of noncoherent postdetection integration

processor is the recirculating-delay-line integrator, also called the
feedback integrator.
a. This circuit uses a delay line to sample and store one

complete range sweep (equivalent to one sweep of an
A-scope display).

b. Because the delay produced by the delay line is equal to

the pulse repetition interval 1/𝑓𝑓𝑝𝑝 , each point on the
stored sweep is summed with the corresponding point
on the following sweep.
c. Since target signals are correlated from one pulse-

repetition interval to the next, they produce larger sums
than noise, which is random.
d. To prevent unwanted effects due to positive feedback,

the sum is attenuated after each pass through the delay
line.
e. The effective number of pulses integrated with this type

of circuit is equal to (1 − 𝐾𝐾) − 1, where 𝐾𝐾 < 1 is the gain
of the loop.
2. A feedback integrator produces a small error in azimuth when

targets are displayed on a PPI display.
a. As the antenna rotates, the antenna beam scans each

target. When a target is detected, a pulse immediately
appears in the receiver output, at a place in the range
sweep corresponding to the target's range. As
successive range sweeps are integrated, the output of
the integrator builds up gradually.
b. Once the antenna beam has passed the target, no more

pulses at that range are sent to the integrator. The
contents of the delay line, however, continue to circulate.
The attenuator in the integrator causes the pulse to
decay gradually. This gradual buildup and gradual decay
occurs as the antenna turns and shifts the azimuth of the
target blip slightly in the direction of antenna rotation.
3. Another type of unwanted signal that can be reduced by

integration is interference.
a. Although the pulses of interference are not random, they

can be reduced or eliminated by integration since they
are not synchronized with the PRF of the radar.

Exercise 3-3 Sensitivity Time Control
Instructional plan
A. STC and dynamic range
1. The range of echo-signal power levels that a radar receiver must

deal with is very great, because the power of echoes usually
varies as 1/𝑅𝑅4 .
a. It is not uncommon to have an 80 dB difference between

the strongest echoes encountered and the weakest
detectable echo signals.
2. The dynamic range, the difference in decibels between the

overload level and the minimum detectable signal level, is much
more limited.
a. The minimum detectable signal level in a radar is,

theoretically, equal to the receiver noise level. The
overload level is determined by the saturation level of
the receiver and the display.
b. The dynamic range of a radar system is therefore the

difference in decibels between the saturation level and
the receiver noise level.
c. Depending on the receiver and the type of display, the

dynamic range may only be about 20 to 25 dB.
3. Saturation occurs when the echo signal from a certain region is

so strong that small changes in signal strength go undetected.
a. Saturation is usually caused by clutter.
b. When close to the radar, large cross-section clutter can

saturate part of the display preventing detection of
nearby targets.
4. Sensitivity time control (STC), also called swept gain, is a

technique used to attenuate echoes from nearby targets and
clutter without attenuating echoes from far away targets.
a. This prevents very strong echoes produced by nearby

clutter from saturating the display.
b. With STC, the receiver gain (sensitivity) is programmed

to increase with time (and therefore range) after
transmission of each pulse, until the following pulse is
transmitted.

c. The use of STC should reduce the clutter to the same

level whatever the range, and make the target power
level more uniform with range.
d. On an intensity-modulated PPI display, where the

brightness of the blip varies as the strength of the echo,
STC reduces excessive brightness at the center of the
display.
B. Operation of STC
1. When a radar pulse is transmitted, the sensitivity (gain) of the

receiver is made very low so that strong echoes from nearby
clutter are attenuated.
2. The receiver sensitivity is increased with time, so that the farther

the target or the clutter, the less the echo is attenuated.
3. Ideally, the STC should make the average clutter power always
equal to the noise power. Therefore, the variation of receiver
sensitivity should correspond to the variation of clutter power
with range.
a. Land and sea clutter power varies as 1/𝑅𝑅 4 , where 𝑅𝑅 is

the range. For this type of clutter, the sensitivity for this
clutter should ideally vary as 𝑅𝑅4 .
b. Clutter power from weather effects (rain clutter)

generally varies as 1/𝑅𝑅2 . For this type of clutter, the
sensitivity should ideally vary as 𝑅𝑅2 .
c. A good compromise between the two is to make the

sensitivity vary as 𝑅𝑅3 .
C. Implementation
1. STC can be implemented at the IF stage of a radar receiver. In

many radars, it is implemented at the RF stage using variable-
attenuation microwave diodes.
2. STC can also be implemented in the baseband using a voltage-

controlled amplifier (VCA).
a. The VCA control voltage is synchronized with the PRF.
b. Each time a pulse is transmitted, the control voltage is

reset to minimum.
c. It then rises until a new pulse is transmitted.
d. The voltage gain of the VCA is proportional to the control

voltage. Therefore the VCA power gain is proportional to
the square of the control voltage.

Exercise 3-4 Instantaneous Automatic Gain Control
Instructional plan
A. The linear receiver
1. A linear receiver is one whose input-output characteristic is

linear. Linear receivers are generally used where it is necessary
to preserve phase information in the video signal, such as for
MTI.
2. Since a linear receiver has a limited dynamic range, very strong

input signals cause saturation of the output.
a. STC can partially compensate for this by attenuating

signals from nearby targets and clutter.
b. Other types of clutter, however, such as rain clutter,

often produce a very strong return.
c. If such clutter is not located near the radar, it will not be

attenuated by STC and saturation of the receiver output
can result.
B. Instantaneous automatic gain control
1. Instantaneous automatic gain control (IAGC) is a quick-acting

automatic gain control that responds to variations of the mean
clutter level over different range or angular regions, thus
preventing receiver saturation.
a. It works by temporarily reducing the receiver gain

whenever a long pulse is received.
b. Echo pulses from point targets pass with little

attenuation, but longer pulses such as those from
extended clutter or electronic countermeasures
(jamming) are attenuated.
2. Whether implemented in the IF stage or in the video section of

the receiver, the technique is based on negative feedback
controlling the gain of an amplifier.
3. The response time is set to make the automatic gain control act
within a few pulse widths, that is, almost instantaneously.
4. The effect of IAGC on pulses from point targets and those from
extended clutter is as follows:
a. Because the pulses from point targets are narrow, they

are only slightly attenuated by the IAGC.

b. The width of large pulses from extended clutter,

however, is greatly reduced.
c. This shows that the IAGC circuit acts as a pulse-width

discriminator.
5. IAGC can allow detection of targets which would otherwise be

lost in extended clutter.
a. Without IAGC, the clutter causes saturation of the

receiver. As a result, the increase in amplitude of the
video signal caused by the target echo goes undetected.
b. IAGC attenuates all but the leading part of the clutter,

reducing the saturation to a small area. This allows
detection of the target.
6. On the PPI display, rain clutter appears as patches of saturation.

IAGC can significantly reduce the size of these patches allowing
targets within the clutter to be detected.

Exercise 3-5 The LOG-FTC Receiver
Instructional plan
A. Detection of targets in rain clutter
1. Rain and other forms of precipitation reflect radar waves and, in

certain cases, can seriously limit the performance of microwave
radars.
a. The strength of the echoes greatly depends on the radar

frequency. In general, radars operating at lower
frequencies are less affected by rain or other
precipitation, whereas at higher frequencies, echoes
from precipitation can be strong enough to mask the
desired targets or saturate the display.
b. When it is inconvenient to operate at a low transmit

frequency, various techniques can be used to either
reject some of the rain clutter or to prevent the clutter
from saturating the display.
B. The use of circular polarization to reject rain clutter
1. When a circularly polarized wave is reflected by a spherical

object, such as a raindrop, the direction of rotation is reversed.
a. Under ideal conditions, the circularly polarized antenna

will reject echoes having the reversed polarization.
b. When a circularly polarized wave is reflected by a

complex target such as an aircraft, however, the echo
contains both right-hand and left-hand circular
polarization. In this case, part of the echo will be
accepted by the antenna and the other part rejected.
2. Circular polarization can be used, therefore, to reject echoes

from rain, thus improving the signal-to-clutter ratio. The degree of
rejection depends on how spherical the raindrops are and on
how circular the polarization is, and may range from 15 to 30 dB
or more.
C. The logarithmic receiver
1. Another way of dealing with rain clutter is to design the receiver

to prevent the clutter from saturating the display. Receivers that
accomplish this do not improve the signal-to-clutter ratio, but
they help prevent clutter from masking targets.
2. A receiver can be designed with a logarithmic input-output

characteristic. This increases the dynamic range of the receiver
and often permits the detection of targets in clutter.

a. An IF filter or envelope detector with a logarithmic

characteristic can be used, or the detected video signal
can be passed through logarithmic amplifier.
b. In some radars, the logarithmic conversion is

implemented in a digital computer.
3. The input-output characteristics of a logarithmic and a linear

receiver show how these receivers react to input pulses of
various amplitudes.
a. The logarithmic receiver characteristic has a steeper

slope at low input levels than the linear receiver. As a
result, weak signals receiver more amplification with the
logarithmic receiver.
b. At high input levels, the slope of the logarithmic

characteristic is less than that of the linear characteristic.
This causes the logarithmic receiver to reach the
saturation level later than the linear receiver and gives
the logarithmic receiver a greater dynamic range.
c. Output pulses from strong signals have different

amplitudes with the logarithmic receiver, where they
would have equal amplitudes with the linear receiver
(due to saturation). This allows the logarithmic receiver
to differentiate between clutter and a strong target echo
signal, when the linear receiver cannot.
d. At very low levels, the characteristic of the logarithmic

receiver has a linear portion.
D. The log-FTC receiver
1. The log-FTC receiver has a logarithmic input-output

characteristic followed by a differentiator (highpass filter, or fast-
time-constant circuit). It can be implemented in the video section
of the receiver.
2. A log-FTC receiver, when used in the presence of rain clutter,

adapts itself to the clutter level and maintains a constant false-
alarm rate (CFAR). To accomplish this, it takes advantage of the
statistical characteristics of rain clutter.
a. Since rain consists of a large number of droplets which

scatter the radar wave relatively uniformly, the amplitude
of rain clutter in the unipolar video signal is a random
value which tends to have a probability-density function
of the Rayleigh type.
b. The Rayleigh probability-density function has the

property that the rms amplitude of the fluctuations about
the mean (the standard deviation 𝜎𝜎) is proportional to the
mean m: 𝜎𝜎 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘.

3. When a random voltage whose standard deviation is proportional

to the mean is applied to a logarithmic amplifier, the standard
deviation of the output is constant, regardless of the input level.
a. Except at extremely low input levels, a logarithmic

amplifier has the characteristic
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜
= 𝑎𝑎 log 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 (16)
where 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 is the output voltage

𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 is the input voltage
𝑎𝑎 and 𝑏𝑏 are constants
b. The slope of the logarithmic characteristic as a function

of the input voltage 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 can be determined by
differentiation:
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎
Slope = = (𝑎𝑎 log 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 ) = (17)
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖
c. The slope at the input mean 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 is therefore:
𝑎𝑎
Slope at 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = (18)
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
d. If the input standard deviation 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is small compared to

the total range of the logarithmic characteristic, the
output standard deviation 𝜎𝜎𝑜𝑜 is approximately:
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝜎𝜎𝑜𝑜 ≅ 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 ∙ 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 = 𝑘𝑘𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (19)
𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
e. This shows that the fluctuations at the output of a

logarithmic amplifier are constant and independent of the
input mean, providing that the fluctuations at the input
are proportional to the input mean. Since rain clutter has
a Rayleigh probability-density function, which satisfies
this condition, output fluctuations due to rain clutter are
constant regardless of the input clutter level.
4. Although the output fluctuations are constant, the output mean

(the dc level) is not.
a. The differentiator removes the mean from the video

signal, leaving only the fluctuations due to rain clutter.
b. When the resulting signal is applied to the threshold

detector, the false alarm rate will be constant, since the
amplitude of the fluctuations is constant.

5. If a target signal is present along with the rain clutter, its

amplitude will be reduced by the log-FTC circuit when the
differentiator removes the mean level.
a. This reduces the probability of detection, and is one of

the disadvantages of all CFAR circuits.
b. This is usually a small price to pay, however, since

saturation of the radar display by clutter makes target
detection impossible.
6. Since the logarithmic amplifier amplifies weak signals more than

strong signals, it compresses the range of amplitudes in the
video signal. This can be used to advantage in preventing
saturation when the range of echo signal levels exceeds the
dynamic range of the display.
a. If this compression is not desired, it can be compensated

for by placing an antilogarithmic converter after the log-
FTC circuit.
7. Because of motion inside storm clouds, and movement of the

clouds themselves, rain clutter usually has a non-zero Doppler
frequency.
a. Since this Doppler frequency is relatively low, an

appropriately designed MTI processor can improve the
signal-to-clutter ratio for rain clutter.
b. The capacity of MTI to suppress non-stationary clutter

like rain is limited. For this reason, other techniques such
as log-FTC are often used in conjunction with MTI when
rain clutter is encountered.
c. The combination of log-FTC is more effective than when

either is used separately.

Exercise 3-6 Constant False-Alarm Rate
Instructional plan
A. Adaptive threshold detector
1. The automatic detection system in a radar uses a threshold to

decide whether or not a signal is present. In many radars, the
threshold is preset at a fixed level which provides a certain
probability of detection and probability of false alarm in a specific
environment.
2. The probability of false alarm must be low to assure a low false-

alarm rate.
a. If the false-alarm rate is too high, the display can

become swamped with noise or clutter, making the radar
unusable.
b. If the false-alarm rate is too high, the display can

become swamped with noise or clutter, making the radar
unusable.
3. With a fixed threshold, any change in the environment (the noise,

clutter or interference background) causes a change in the false-
alarm rate.
a. The operator can compensate for this by manually

adjusting the gain control.
b. If the background changes rapidly, however, or if it

varies from one region to another due to the presence of
clutter, manual control is too slow and imprecise.
c. Manual control is also inadequate if an automatic

detection and tracking (ADT) system is used since
excessive false alarms can quickly overload the tracking
computer.
4. With an adaptive threshold detector, the threshold level is not

fixed but is continuously and automatically adjusted to maintain a
constant false-alarm rate (CFAR).
5. The adaptive threshold detector operates by using some sort of

averaging process to estimate the noise or clutter background
level in the vicinity of the target. This local background level is
used to set the detection threshold to maintain a CFAR.

B. Cell-averaging CFAR
1. The cell-averaging CFAR technique is commonly used in radar

systems.
a. A cell-averaging CFAR uses tapped delay lines.
b. Samples of the video signal are shifted along the first

delay line, through the test cell, and along the second
delay line at a constant rate. The output of the test cell is
applied to the threshold detector. The tap outputs of the
delay lines, which correspond to the range cells to either
side of the test cell, are averaged.
c. Averaging the range-cell levels to either side of the test

cell yields a local mean value which is a function of the
local background level. This is used to control the
threshold of the threshold detector.
C. Filter-based CFAR
1. In many analog radar systems, the signal, rather than the

threshold, is altered to keep the false-alarm rate constant.
a. This is generally less efficient than CFAR techniques

that alter the threshold.
2. Some analog CFAR systems alter the signal level in the IF stage
of the receiver.
a. A lowpass filter evaluates the local mean of the video

signal.
b. If the background level increases, the gain of the

IF amplifier is reduced to keep the false-alarm rate
constant.
3. Some analog CFAR systems modify the video signal.
a. The cutoff frequency of the filter determines the time,

and therefore the range, over which the local mean is
evaluated.
b. This range is several times greater than the range

resolution of the radar.
c. Thus, the filter effectively determines the mean of

several range cells.
d. The local mean is subtracted from the input signal, which

has been delayed to compensate for the delay of the
filter.

e. If little clutter is present in a certain region, the local

mean will be low, and the amplitude of the signal will be
reduced very little.
f. If a great deal of clutter is present, the local mean will be

high, and the signal amplitude will be reduced
considerably to maintain the false-alarm rate constant.
4. A CFAR circuit preceded by a logarithmic detector, or by a

logarithmic amplifier is sometimes called a log-CFAR.
a. The log-CFAR is capable of operating over a larger

range of background noise levels than the conventional
cell-averaging CFAR, but is less capable of detecting
weak signals.
b. An antilog. converter can be used after the CFAR circuit

to compensate for the amplitude compression of the
logarithmic amplifier.
5. Several other signal-processing techniques used in radar play a

role in keeping the false alarm rate constant but are not
considered CFAR techniques.
a. One example is STC.
b. Although the effect of STC is to maintain the false-alarm

rate constant, the circuit is unable to react to the clutter
levels actually encountered, since it is preprogrammed.
D. Limitations
1. When the CFAR circuit detects an increase in the local

background level, it increases the threshold, or reduces the gain,
to keep the false-alarm rate constant.
a. It does this, however, at the expense of the probability of

detection.
b. This is the main limitation of the adaptive threshold

technique.
2. Another limitation of the adaptive threshold technique is that no

distinction is made by the CFAR circuit between clutter and
targets of interest when estimating the local background level.
a. If few targets are present, the estimation will be fairly

accurate.
b. The presence of a large number of targets increases the

estimated value and causes the threshold to be
increased excessively. This can cause some targets to
be missed.

3. The CFAR circuit does not measure the noise or clutter level
directly. Instead, it evaluates the local mean of the signal.
a. When the probability density function of the noise or

clutter is known, the level of the noise or clutter can be
determined from the mean, and this used to determine
the optimum threshold.
b. Sometimes, however, the actual probability density

function differs from the assumed one. This can cause
the threshold to be reduced too much, resulting in
missed targets, or not enough, resulting in excessive
false alarms.
4. Some adaptive threshold detectors do not require the probability

density function to be known.
a. These are called nonparametric, or distribution-free

detectors.
b. Although these operate effectively with different types of

noise, clutter and interference, they are not as efficient
as when the probability density function is known and
the optimum threshold can be determined.
Demonstrations
• When the Clutter Generator is used to generate rain clutter in the

exercises, it is adjusted to facilitate observation of the principles involved,
and not to provide a realistic-looking display of rain clutter on the PPI
display. As a demonstration, experiment with the rain clutter settings to
produce a more realistic display.
• If you have a second Radar Training System, use it to generate

interference. Adjust the Radar Transmitter to operate in the FM-CW
mode and direct the antenna towards the first radar.
Presentation Aids
1. Review the NEW TERMS after the unit DISCUSSION OF

FUNDAMENTALS.
2. Explain that although the Gaussian probability-density function is called

"normal", there is nothing abnormal about non-Gaussian phenomena,
and that other probability-density functions are very common.

3. Give the general form of the Rayleigh probability-density function:
2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2
𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = exp �− � , 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
(𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 (𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
where 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is the probability density

𝑥𝑥 is the random variable
(𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the mean square value
If the radar receiver includes a narrow-band (matched) IF filter and an

envelope detector, the mean square value of the noise at the envelope
detector output is 2𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2 , where 𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 is the standard deviation of the
(Gaussian) noise at the envelope detector input. Substituting 2𝜎𝜎𝑖𝑖 2 for the
mean square value (𝑥𝑥 2 )𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 in the above equation yields Equation (6) in
Exercise 3-1.
4. Explain how predetection coherent integration is accomplished using

range gates and Doppler filters.
5. The operation of the recirculating-delay-line integrator can be illustrated

using series of numbers to represent amplitudes in successive range
sweeps. For example, four successive sweeps are given below.
Range cell: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Sweep 1: 0 3 1 0 3 2 0 1 0
Sweep 2: 2 1 0 0 4 1 4 3 1
Sweep 3: 4 0 2 3 2 0 2 1 2
Sweep 4: 0 1 4 0 3 1 0 0 3
Sums after
6 5 7 3 12 4 6 5 6
integration:
Normalized
1.5 1.25 1.75 0.75 3 1 1.5 1.25 1.5
sums:
The numbers in range cell 5 represent target echoes plus noise, the
others represent noise alone. Bold numbers represent returns which
exceed the threshold of 2.5 and are detected. Without integration, false
alarms would occur in each sweep. With normalized integration, no false
alarms occur. (In this example, the loop gain 𝑘𝑘 = 1.)

Unit 4 Troubleshooting
This unit deals with troubleshooting an analog signal processor and with
troubleshooting an entire pulsed radar system. Emphasis is placed on
carefully analyzing the situation and on using a systematic procedure.
In Exercise 4-1 students locate and diagnose instructor-inserted faults in

the MTI Processor. As this processor is fairly complex, troubleshooting
can, in some cases, be rather difficult. It is important that students be
very familiar with each mode of operation.
In Exercise 4-2 students locate and diagnose instructor-inserted faults in

the Display Processor. Since there are usually no RF signals within the
display section of a pulsed radar, signal flow tracing with an oscilloscope
can be used extensively. The importance of determining which part of the
processor is suspected to be defective, in order to orient the choice of
a
which signal must be traced first, is pointed out.
Display faults 1 and 2 only affect the outputs of the 9632 D/A Output Interface
used to connect a conventional PPI display. These faults do not affect the
software Radar Display.
In Exercise 4-3, faults may be inserted in any module of the Radar

Training System that affect the pulsed mode of operation. Faults 1 to 9 in
the Radar Transmitter and faults 1 to 4 in the Radar Receiver, as well as
all MTI and Display software faults can be used (see note above).
In this exercise, careful observation of the symptoms can save a great

deal of time. The PPI display often gives a good indication of where the
problem is located, thus making some verifications unnecessary.
The Procedures of Exercises 4-1 and 4-3 include a guided

troubleshooting of a particular fault, then the troubleshooting of an
unknown fault. For the guided troubleshooting of Exercise 4-3,
fault (FLT) 6 in the Radar Receiver is used, but the fault is not identified
in the student manual. You may wish to activate this fault without the
student seeing in which module the fault is inserted.
Several copies of the Troubleshooting Worksheet have been provided for

each exercise, in case students wish to troubleshoot different unknown
faults. For information concerning the nature and effect of the various
faults in the training modules, refer to Appendix C of this manual. The
software faults are described on the MTI tab of the Faults dialog box.

Exercise 4-1 Troubleshooting the MTI Processor
Instructional plan
A. Troubleshooting the signal processing section of a pulsed radar
1. This requires a sound knowledge of the processor's operating

principles.
2. This also requires that the troubleshooter be very familiar with

the situations in which each processing mode should be
operated as well as with the kind of signals usually displayed.
3. A malfunction of the processor may not be obvious in the case

where it has several modes of operation. In this case:
a. The MTI Processor is first operated using a minimum of

processing functions.
b. Then, each processing mode is selected, while

observing the VIDEO OUTPUT signal, until the defective
mode is found.
c. While doing this, insure that the signals at the INPUTS of

the MTI Processor are appropriate for the verification of
each mode selected.
B. Signal flow tracing
1. Signal flow tracing is commonly used as a troubleshooting

technique once enough information concerning the problem has
been accumulated.
2. A straight-forward, logical approach leads to quicker

identification and correction of a problem.
3. Signal flow tracing can be approached in two ways:
a. Signal flow tracing from input to output.
b. Signal flow tracing from output to input.
c. In this exercise, signal flow tracing from input to output is

used.
4. Once a defective part of circuitry has been located, make sure

that the malfunction discovered plausibly explains the problem
observed. If not, there is most likely another defective part of
circuitry which would complete the explanation of the problem
observed.

C. The troubleshooting procedure
1. The troubleshooting procedure suggested in this manual is the

same as that which was used in Volume 1.
2. This procedure is also summarized on the Troubleshooting

Worksheet at the end of this exercise.
3. The MTI Processor faults are described on the MTI tab of the
Faults dialog box.
D. When the student reaches the Guided Troubleshooting section of the

exercise, insert MTI Fault 6.
1. This inhibits the clock signal of the delay lines for both I and Q
channels, and prevents the cancellation of fixed targets in the
MTI mode.

Exercise 4-2 Troubleshooting the Display Processor
Instructional plan
A. Discuss troubleshooting the display section of a pulsed radar:

Volume 1 is appropriate for troubleshooting the display section of
a pulsed radar.
2. Since there are no RF signals within the display section of most

pulsed radars, signal flow tracing can be carried out using an
oscilloscope.
3. Since the display section of most pulsed radars consist of fairly

complex circuitry, it is very important to carefully observe the
problem and its symptoms to orient the choice of which signal
must be traced first.

Exercise 4-3 Troubleshooting an MTI Radar System
Instructional plan
A. General information
1. Troubleshooting a pulsed radar can be fairly complex because a

great deal of circuitry is usually involved in such a system.
2. When possible, the periodic maintenance procedure of the radar

system should be carried out as frequently as recommended by
the manufacturer of the equipment.
3. Familiarity with the functional block diagram of the radar system

is essential.
B. Using the PPI display
1. When observing the problem and its symptoms, the PPI display
can be a good indicator of the "health" of the system.
2. The symptoms observed on this display may often point to a

single module, or to a specific part of circuitry.
a. For example, when a malfunction affects the markers, or

if the overall aspect of the PPI display is distorted, the
fault is probably located in the display section.
b. If, on the other hand, the aspect of the PPI display is

normal, but the blips are abnormal or absent, the
malfunction is probably located in the circuitry preceding
the display section.
c. If the PPI display is normal and the blips displayed are

normal, it is best to vary the different operation
parameters, while observing the aspect of the signals
displayed on the PPI display, in order to find the fault.
C. Signal flow tracing
1. When the suspected section is large, the divide-in-half method of

troubleshooting is useful to rapidly reduce the quantity of circuitry
that needs to be verified.
a. Basically, this method requires that the input and output

of the suspected circuitry be checked to verify incorrect
operation.
b. Next, the complete circuit path is divided in half and

signals near the center are checked to determine if the
problem is in the first or the second half.

c. Following this, the defective section is again divided in

half to converge towards the problem.
d. This successive divide-in-half approach is applied until

the last remaining functional block is checked and the
fault located.
the Radar Transmitter (this fault is identified and described in the Faults
dialog box of the LVRTS software).
1. This reduces the amplitude of the pulse generator output by at

least 50%.
2. Since the amplitude of the transmitted (and received) radar

pulses is therefore reduced, the sensitivity of the radar will
appear to be lowered. This will decrease the size of blips on the
PPI display and may cause some blips to disappear entirely.
Presentation Aids
1. Review the test points and block diagrams for each module. See
Appendix F of the student manual or Appendix B of this manual.
2. Refer to Appendix C of this manual for descriptions of the faults in the

training modules and to the MTI tab of the Faults dialog box for
descriptions of the software faults.

Volume 3 – Digital MTD Processing

Unit 1 Digital Pulse Radar Systems
This unit is designed to provide an introduction to digital radar systems, and to

familiarize the student with the Radar Training System Digital Pulse Radar.
The unit introduction discusses some basic concepts concerning digital radar
systems. Factors that degrade the performance of radar systems, including
clutter and noise, are presented briefly, as is the use of signal processing to
improve performance. Digital signal processing, and in particular, digital MTD
processing is then presented. These subjects are discussed in detail in Unit 2.
Exercise 1-1 provides an introduction to the Radar Training System in general

and to the Digital Pulse Radar in particular, including the LVRTS software.
As the performance characteristics of the pulse radar part of a digital radar

system are very important, these are discussed in detail. STC, frequently
included in digital radar systems, is also discussed. In this exercise, the Digital
MTD/PPI Processor is operated mostly in the PPI mode.
Exercise 1-2 deals with the PPI display. The Discussion of the PPI display
applies equally well to both digital and analog radar systems. The methods used
for generating the display in the Digital Pulse Radar are explained in this
exercise.

Exercise 1-1 Familiarization with the Digital Pulse Radar
Instructional plan
A. Explain the basic characteristics of the pulse radar used in a digital radar
system:
1. Coherence
a. The role of phase in detecting moving targets
b. The doppler frequency formula
c. Coherent radar
d. Quadrature phase detection
2. Synchronization of the PRF with the antenna azimuth
B. Explain sensitivity time control (STC).
C. Describe the Radar Training System:
1. Modes of operation of the Digital MTD/PPI Processor
2. Operation in the PPI mode
3. The LVRTS software. Encourage students to refer to the on-line

Help for detailed information on the different commands in the
software. For contextual help about an item in the software,
place the cursor over that item and press F1.

Exercise 1-2 The PPI Display
Instructional plan
A. Review the different types radar displays:
1. Conventional PPI displays
2. Scan-converted displays
B. Explain how the PPI display is generated in the Digital MTD/PPI

Processor.

Unit 2 MTD Detection Processing
This unit covers the first stage of MTD processing-- detection processing--and
explains its role in discriminating moving targets from ground clutter.
The unit introduction compares MTD processing to the simpler MTI processing,
and shows how many of the shortcomings of MTI are overcome by MTD. It then
introduces the reasons for sensing Doppler frequencies and the use of range-
gated Doppler filters. The main advantages of MTD processing are also
discussed.
Exercise 2-1 explains how the MTD detection processor divides all parameters
into increments, or cells, and maps target information into these cells. The
following types of increments are discussed: range cells, sectors, coherent
processing intervals, and Doppler cells.
Understanding cell mapping helps to explain the implementation of the clutter

maps, which are covered in more detail in Exercise 2-3. Besides the clutter
maps, the Digital MTD/PPI Processor has FFT maps which contain the outputs of
all Doppler filters. The settings used to visualize these maps on the radar display
are explained in this exercise.
Exercise 2-2 introduces FFT processing. This type of processing allows the
detection processor to form the Doppler filter banks used to sense Doppler
frequencies. The FFT is shown to be a special form the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT), but which requires a significantly smaller computation load than
the DFT. The actual implementation of the FFT is not covered since many
references are available on the subject.
Doppler ambiguities are a very important phenomenon, and this exercise

explains why they exist. The subject of blind speeds, or “dim” speeds as they are
often called in MTD radar, is also covered.
One of the greatest advantages of MTD processing is the ability to perform

CFAR detection on a cell-by-cell basis. Exercise 2-3 explains CFAR detection
and its implementation. The use of time-average CFAR and cell-average CFAR
is discussed, as is the role of the clutter and residue maps in calculating the
detection thresholds.
The Digital MTD/PPI Processor offers two detection modes, the normal CFAR
mode and a fixed threshold mode used for training purposes. The settings used
to select the detection mode and to control the thresholds in the fixed-threshold
mode are explained. The alarm counter, which displays the number of alarms
that occur during each antenna scan, is also explained.

Exercise 2-1 Cell Mapping
Instructional plan
A. Explain the fundamental differences between analog and digital radar.
B. Explain the different types of increments used in the MTD detection

processor:
1. Range cells
2. Sectors
3. Coherent processing intervals
4. Doppler cells
C. Explain the clutter map.
D. Explain the different displayed maps in the Digital MTD/PPI Processor

and their use:
1. Cell map and clutter map
2. Changing the map threshold
3. FFT maps

Exercise 2-2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) Processing
Instructional plan
A. Explain how a digital filter works and the steps involved:
1. Acquiring the data
2. Forming the filters
3. The discrete Fourier transform
4. The fast Fourier transform
B. Explain Doppler ambiguities
1. Spectrum of a coherent pulsed radar signal
2. How ambiguities come about
C. Explain blind (dim) speeds:
1. Use of staggered PRF

Exercise 2-3 Constant False-Alarm Rate (CFAR)
Instructional plan
A. Explain the detection of targets:
1. Using fixed threshold detection
2. Using adaptive threshold detection
B. Explain the implementation of CFAR in the Digital MTD/PPI Processor:
1. Time-average CFAR
2. Cell-average CFAR
3. Residue maps
C. Explain the effect of CFAR on target detection in a noisy environment.
D. Explain the use of the detection modes in the Digital MTD/PPI

Processor.

Unit 3 Alarm Processing
This unit covers the second and third stages of MTD processing. These are,
respectively, correlation and interpolation (C&I) processing, and surveillance
processing. The unit shows the importance of these stages in displaying and
tracking multiple moving targets.
The unit introduction states the purpose of these stages of processing. It also
mentions the different types of reports produced in memory as the different
stages of processing are accomplished.
Exercise 3-1 deals with C&I processing, its purpose, and its implementation. The
roles of clustering and correlation are explained, including range-resolution
testing which determines whether an extended cluster is produced by one or two
targets.
The role of interpolation is also explained. Although interpolation of several

different parameters is possible, only range and azimuth interpolation are
covered.
Exercise 3-2 deals with surveillance processing, also called track-while-scan

processing. This is the third and final stage in MTD processing.
The different processing steps involved in surveillance processing are explained.

Track scoring is also explained. Note that, when in surveillance mode, the Digital
MTD/PPI Processor displays the scores of the available tracks in a window on
the Radar Display.

Exercise 3-1 Correlation and Interpolation (C&I) Processing
Instructional plan
A. Explain clustering and correlation:
1. How it works
2. Range-resolution test
B. Explain interpolation:
1. Range interpolation
2. Azimuth interpolation

Exercise 3-2 Surveillance (Track-While-Scan) Processing
Instructional plan
A. Explain the processing steps required for surveillance processing:
1. Association
2. Correlation
3. Track update
4. Outputting
5. Track initiation
B. Explain the different track states

Unit 4 Troubleshooting
This unit deals with troubleshooting a digital signal processor. Emphasis is

placed on carefully analyzing the situation and on using a systematic procedure.
In Exercise 4-1 students locate and diagnose instructor-inserted faults in the

Digital MTD/PPI Processor. As this module is very complex, troubleshooting can,
in some cases, be rather difficult. It is important that students be very familiar
with each mode of operation.
Faults should be inserted by the instructor after the student has observed the
proper operation of the system. It is recommended that each student be given
faults that correspond to his or her level of knowledge and advancement. Some
faults do not prevent the system from apparently functioning properly and require
a thorough knowledge of the system to diagnose.

Exercise 4-1 Troubleshooting the Digital MTD/PPI Processor
Instructional plan
A. Explain that, since many malfunctions are difficult to detect, and because
the processor is very complex, a sound knowledge of the operating
principles is required before troubleshooting.
B. Explain that practical systems usually include diagnostic software

routines that can guide the troubleshooter. Such routines are not
included in the Digital MTD/PPI Processor.
C. Explain the Troubleshooting Procedure used in this exercise.

Volume 4 – Tracking Radar

Exercise 1 Familiarization with the Tracking Radar
Introductory Information
In this exercise, the student learns how to setup, connect, and calibrate the
Tracking Radar which can be implemented with the Radar Training System. The
student also gets familiar with the O-Scope Display as well as the use of the
hand control to operate the Tracking Radar. A large portion of the exercise is
devoted to the observation of the major elements of the LVRTS software that are
related to the Tracking Radar. Note that the student should have a good
knowledge of the operation of pulsed radars before he or she starts studying
tracking radar.
Instructional plan
• Briefly explain that a tracking radar is a system that provides data (range,
azimuth, elevation, range rate, etc.) about targets.
• Mention the two major types of tracking radars: track-while-scan (TWS)

radars and continuous tracking radars.
1. A TWS radar performs discontinuous tracking of several targets

at the same time. It is used for air traffic surveillance in airports.
2. A continuous tracking radar tracks a single target continuously. It

is used for antiaircraft artillery direction, missile guidance,
satellite tracking, etc.
• Explain that a tracking radar is basically a pulse radar modified to allow

continuous tracking of a target.
• Briefly explain the basic operation of a tracking radar, that is, the target
detection (search), acquisition, and automatic tracking. While doing this,
briefly explain that an O-scope display is an A-scope display modified to
include a range marker (refer to Figure 1-1 in the student manual).
Mention that there are several types of range markers.
• Briefly describe the architecture of the Tracking Radar. Mention that the
RF section of the Tracking Radar is identical to that of a pulse radar,
exception made of the use of the Dual Feed Parabolic Antenna and
some additional RF components located in the Radar Target Tracking
Interface installed in the Reconfigurable Training Module. Highlight the
importance of the RTM which performs the signal processing (MTI
processing), PPI display processing, and target tracking functions.
• Describe the various elements of the LVRTS software that are related to
the Tracking Radar.

Demonstrations
• Calibration and Adjustment of the Tracking Radar
− Appendix B of the student manual consists of six procedures for

calibrating and adjusting the Tracking Radar. It is suggested that
the instructor performs these procedures to show the students
how to calibrate and adjust the Tracking Radar. While doing this,
the instructor should explain the objective of each procedure and
its effect on the operation of the Tracking Radar. This
demonstration should be carried out before the students perform
any one of the exercises in the student manual.

Exercise 2 Manual Tracking of a Target
The objective of this exercise is to give the student an opportunity to track a

target manually using the Tracking Radar, so that he or she understands what a
tracking radar is. The exercise also allows the student to further get familiar with
the use of the hand control to operate the Tracking Radar.
Instructional plan
• Explain that in the early uses of radars, target tracking was performed
manually by manipulating hand wheels or cranks to maintain the radar
antenna aligned with the target and position a mechanical range marker
over the target echo pulse observed on a deflection-modulated display.
• Explain that in modern tracking radars, the mechanical range marker has
been replaced with an electronic range marker, and the positions of the
radar antenna and electronic range marker are controlled through the
lever of a hand control.
• Refer to Figure 2-1 in the student manual to describe the range gate,
range gate marker, and O-scope display.
1. A range gate is an electronic switch that closes during a short

time interval every interpulse period to sample a portion of the
radar video signal. The sampled portion of the radar video signal
is used to perform automatic target tracking.
2. A range gate marker is a rectangular pulse, a vertical band or a

pair of brackets that is added to an A-scope display to indicate
the interval when the range gate is closed.
3. An A-scope display with a range gate marker is called an O-

scope display.
• Using the timing diagram in Figure 2-2 of the student manual, describe
how the position of the range gate can be controlled through a dc voltage
coming from a hand control.
• Explain how to use the hand control in the Tracking Radar to control the
positions of the radar antenna and range gate. Describe the functions of
the buttons on the lever of the hand control. You can refer to Figure 2-3
in the student manual.
• Explain that numeric displays in the O-Scope Display of the Tracking

Radar indicate the azimuth of the antenna axis and the range gate
distance. When the Tracking Radar is locked onto a target, these two
displays provide continuously-updated target coordinates.

Exercise 3 Automatic Range Tracking
In the previous exercise, the student tracked a target in both range and angle,
and found that this becomes much more difficult as the target speed increases.
This showed why automatic tracking systems are required in radars to make
target tracking easier and more accurate. The objective of Exercise 3 is to
explain the operation of automatic range tracking systems (range trackers).
Instructional plan
A. Explain that range tracking is the continuous estimation of the range

which separates the radar from a particular target. Also explain that
automatic range tracking is performed by a device called range tracker.
B. Explain that in most range trackers, range tracking is carried out by

continually readjusting the position of the range gate so that it straddles
the target echo pulse. As a result, the range gate distance equals the
target range when proper range tracking is achieved.
C. Describe applications of range trackers.
D. Explain that before automatic range tracking can take place, a target
must be acquired. Describe how manual target acquisition is performed.
You can refer to Figure 3-1 in the student manual.
1. A target is located by observing blips on a PPI display.
2. The tracking radar antenna is rotated so that it points in the

target direction.
3. The position of the range gate marker is adjusted so that it

straddles the target echo pulse on the O-scope display.
4. The lock button is depressed to lock onto the target (to give
control of target tracking to the radar).
E. Explain the split range-gate tracking technique using the timing diagrams
in Figures 3-2 and 3-3 of the student manual.
F. Explain the leading-edge range tracking techniques (differentiator

technique and threshold technique) using the timing diagrams in Figures
3-4 and 3-5 of the student manual.
G. Describe the block diagram of the range tracker used in the Tracking
Radar (see Figure 3-6 in the student manual). Explain that it acts as
either a split range-gate tracker or a leading-edge range tracker
depending on which signal is sampled by the LATE GATE.

H. Explain the operation of the range tracker in the Tracking Radar as a

split range-gate tracker using the timing diagram in Figure 3-7 of the
student manual.
I. Explain the operation of the range tracker in the Tracking Radar as a

leading-edge range tracker using the timing diagram in Figure 3-8 of the
student manual.
J. Explain that a range tracking rate limiter limits the speed of the range
tracking loop by increasing the time constant of the integrator in this loop.
Explain why range tracking rate limitation is useful against electronic
countermeasures (ECM) in an electronic warfare (EW) environment.
K. Explain that when the Tracking Radar is locked onto a target, the radar
operator can take control of the range gate position (to perform manual
range tracking) by enabling the RANGE LOCK DISABLE function.
Explain that this allows the radar operator to counteract electronic
countermeasures (ECM) in an electronic warfare (EW) environment.

Exercise 4 Angle Tracking Techniques
The objective of this exercise is to explain the principles of the three angle
tracking techniques commonly used in radars: lobe switching, conical scan, and
monopulse. Emphasis is put on the lobe switching technique because it is used
in the Tracking Radar. Another major objective of the exercise is to show how
lobe switching is implemented in the Tracking Radar. The exercise also briefly
discusses the advantages of the monopulse technique over the lobe switching
and conical scan techniques. Note that the way the angular error is estimated
and corrected in a radar using the lobe switching technique should not be
discussed in detail in this exercise, because this will be done in Exercise 5.
Instructional plan
A. Explain that angle tracking is the continuous estimation of the angular

position of a particular target.
B. Explain that automatic angle tracking is usually achieved by estimating

the angular error between the target angular position and the direction of
the antenna axis, and generating an error signal that is used to correct
the angular error as perfectly as possible.
C. Explain the lobe switching angle tracking technique using Figure 4-1 in
the student manual.
1. The main beam of the radar antenna alternately switches

between two angular positions of the same plane, which are
slightly separated from each other and symmetrical with respect
to the antenna axis.
2. When a target is not aligned with the antenna axis, the amplitude
of the target echo pulse obtained with the main beam in one
position is different from that obtained with the main beam in the
other position.
3. The magnitude of the difference in amplitude is a measure of the

angular error whereas the polarity of this difference indicates the
direction in which the radar antenna should rotate to reduce the
angular error.
D. Describe the relative signal loss in lobe switching angle tracking systems
using Figure 4-2 in the student manual.
E. Explain that the relative signal loss in lobe switching angle tracking
systems reduces the S/N ratio at the radar receiver input. This reduction
in S/N ratio is referred to as the crossover loss.

F. Explain the conical scan angle tracking technique using Figures 4-3
and 4-4 in the student manual.
1. The main beam is made to rotate continuously about the

antenna reflector axis (antenna axis).
2. When a target is not aligned with the antenna axis, the amplitude
of the target echo pulse is sinusoidally modulated at a frequency
equal to the rotation frequency of the antenna main beam.
3. The amplitude and phase of the amplitude modulation indicate

the magnitude and direction of the angular error, respectively.
G. Explain the monopulse angle tracking technique using Figure 4-5 in the
student manual.
1. This technique uses an antenna that has two main beams

located at two angular positions of the same plane that are
slightly separated from each other and symmetrical with respect
to the antenna axis.
2. The echo signal received with one beam is subtracted from that
obtained with the other beam to generate a difference pattern
(difference signal).
3. The echo signals received with the two main beams are added
together to generate the sum pattern (sum signal).
4. The magnitude of the difference signal is a measure of the

angular error.
5. Comparing the polarity of the difference signal with that of the

sum signal indicates the angular error direction.
H. Mention that the monopulse technique determines the angular error from
a single target echo pulse, thereby preventing pulse-to-pulse amplitude
fluctuation from affecting the angular error measurement. This is an
advantage over the lobe switching and conical scan techniques which
are sensitive to pulse-to-pulse amplitude fluctuation since they determine
the angular error from several successive target echo pulses.
I. Describe the implementation of the lobe switching technique in the

Tracking Radar using Figure 4-6 in the student manual.
J. Refer to Figure 4-7 in the student manual to explain the operation of the
microwave switch used to route the RF signal to either one of the two
horns of the radar antenna.
K. Refer to Figure 4-8 in the student manual to show how to interconnect

the RF section of the Tracking Radar.

Exercise 5 Automatic Angle Tracking
The objective of this exercise is to explain how the angular error is estimated and
reduced as much as possible in a tracking radar using the lobe switching
technique. The explanations are based on the functional block diagram of the
automatic angle tracking system in the Tracking Radar.
Instructional plan
A. Recall that automatic angle tracking is usually achieved by estimating the

angular error between the target angular position and the direction of the
antenna axis, and generating an error signal that is used to correct the
angular error as perfectly as possible.
B. Explain that the lower the angular error is maintained, the better the
estimation of the target angular position.
C. Explain that the range of the target to be tracked is required to perform

automatic angle tracking because several other targets may be in the
field of view of the antenna. Therefore, automatic angle tracking is
performed in conjunction with a range tracker that provides the range
information necessary to separate the tracked-target echo from the
echoes of other targets in the same direction.
D. Refer to Figures 5-1 and 5-2 in the student manual to explain the
operation of the automatic angle tracking system in the Tracking Radar.
1. The RANGE GATE samples the portion of the radar video signal
which contains the echo pulse of the tracked target. This
separates the tracked-target echo pulse from the echo pulses of
other targets in the same direction.
2. The RANGE GATE output signal is sent to the RIGHT and LEFT
LOBE GATEs.
3. The RIGHT LOBE GATE closes every interpulse period when

the main beam is to the right of the antenna axis whereas the
LEFT LOBE GATE closes every interpulse period when the main
beam is to the left of the antenna axis. This separates the echo
pulses obtained when the main beam is to the right of the
antenna axis from those obtained when the main beam is to the
left of the antenna axis.
4. The LOBE CONTROL CIRCUIT produces complementary

square-wave signals that make the RIGHT and LEFT LOBE
GATEs close during the proper interpulse periods. It also
produces another square-wave signal that is used to make the
antenna main beam alternate between the right and left sides of
the antenna axis.

5. The RIGHT-LOBE HOLD CIRCUIT holds the amplitude of the

echo pulses obtained when the main beam is to the right of the
antenna axis. Similarly, the LEFT-LOBE HOLD CIRCUIT holds
the amplitude of the echo pulses obtained when the main beam
is to the left of the antenna axis.
6. Subtracting the LEFT-LOBE HOLD CIRCUIT output signal from

the RIGHT-LOBE HOLD CIRCUIT output signal and passing the
resulting signal through an amplifier produces the angular error
signal.
7. The magnitude of the angular error signal is a measure of the

angular error, whereas its polarity indicates the direction in which
the radar antenna should rotate to reduce the angular error.
8. The angular error signal is sent to the angular servomechanism

that makes the antenna rotate so as to reduce the angular error.

Exercise 6 Range and Angle Tracking Performance (Radar-

Dependent Errors)
This exercise deals with the sources of errors in tracking radars that limit the
range and angle tracking performance. It also discusses the use of an AGC
circuit in the tracking unit of radars to reduce the variation in the target echo
amplitude that is due to the target range and radar cross section (RCS).
Instructional plan
A. Explain that the performance of a tracking radar is expressed in terms of

resolution, accuracy, and precision. Explain what each of these
parameters is.
B. Explain that a tracking radar, as any other instrument or system, has its
own limitations. Explain that almost any part of a tracking radar can be a
source of tracking error.
C. Explain that any tracking error originating from the radar is referred to as
a radar-dependent error. Refer to Table 6-1 in the student manual to give
a list of common sources of radar-dependent errors.
D. Explain that some sources of errors cause an error that continually

affects the tracking accuracy (bias error) while other sources of errors
produce an error that affects tracking accuracy more or less on a random
basis (noise errors).
E. Mention that the receiver thermal noise and the antenna servosystem
noise and limitations are major contributors to the total tracking error.
F. Explain that the receiver thermal noise limits the signal-to-noise (S/N)
ratio at the radar receiver input. This is because the received signal level
decreases exponentially with range, thereby reducing the S/N ratio at the
receiver input as the range increases. This causes the tracking error to
increase with range, and thereby significantly reduces the tracking
accuracy at long ranges.
G. Explain that the antenna servosystem noise (servo noise) is the hunting
action of the antenna due to backlash and compliance of mechanical
components in the antenna mount.
H. Explain that the antenna servosystem limitations are the factors which
limit the velocity and acceleration capability of the radar antenna. Explain
that these factors limit the radar's ability of tracking in angle a target that
moves at high speeds, and cause the antenna to be unable to catch up
with the target (tracking lag error).

I. Using Figure 6-1 in the student manual, show that the amplitude of the
angular error signal, obtained for a given angular error, decreases with
range. Explain that this is due to the decrease of the target echo
amplitude with range.
J. Mention that the STC function of radars is a means of reducing the

variation of the target echo amplitude due to range. Explain that in
tracking radars, an AGC circuit is often added at the input of the tracking
unit to further reduce the variation of the target echo pulse with range,
thus minimizing the variation in the amplitude of the angular error signal
which is due to range.
K. Mention that the addition of an AGC circuit to the tracking unit of a radar
reduces antenna hunting significantly, especially at short ranges where
the target echo amplitude and the target angular rate of change are high.

Exercise 7 Range and Angle Tracking Performance (Target-

Caused Errors)
This exercise deals with the tracking errors caused by the target, which limit
range and angle tracking performance. Tracking errors due to the propagation
media are discussed briefly. The exercise also introduces frequency agility as a
means of improving tracking accuracy. The discussion of the exercise ends with
a summary of the various contributors to the angle tracking error and a graph that
shows how the angular error varies with range.
Instructional plan
A. Explain that any tracking error resulting from changes in the aspect of
the tracked target with respect to the radar is referred to as a target-
caused error.
B. Mention that the amplitude scintillation and the angular scintillation are
two types of target-caused errors.
C. Explain that the amplitude scintillation is the fluctuation of the target echo
amplitude due to the fact that the target RCS fluctuates as the target
aspect with respect to the radar changes.
D. Explain that the angular scintillation is the wandering from one point to
another of the apparent center of radar reflections due to changes in the
target aspect with respect to the radar.
E. Briefly explain the mechanism that causes amplitude scintillation and

angular scintillation.
1. The echo of a target is the vector sum of the reflections coming

from various individual scattering centers on the target.
2. When the target moves, the positions of the individual scattering

centers with respect to the radar change. This modifies the
amplitude and phase of the various reflections coming from the
target.
3. As a result, the vector sum of the target reflections is different.

This makes the amplitude of the target echo pulse fluctuate and
makes the apparent center of radar reflection wander from one
point to another.
F. Explain that amplitude scintillation and angular scintillation produce a

random angle tracking error.
G. Mention that monopulse tracking radars are not affected by amplitude

scintillation because the angular error is estimated from a single target
echo pulse.

H. Explain how frequency agility can be used in radars to decrease the

angular tracking error.
1. Frequency agility is the use of different radar frequencies.
2. When the radar frequency is changed, the phases of the

reflections coming from the various scattering centers of the
target change.
3. This changes the vectorial sum of the target reflections and gives
independent angular measurements that differ slightly from each
other. Averaging these measurements is a means of minimizing
the angular tracking error caused by angular scintillation.
I. Give examples of tracking errors caused by the propagation media:

changes in the atmospheric conditions, multipath propagation, etc.
J. Explain that random changes in the atmospheric conditions introduce a

random variable in the operation of tracking radars that can cause
tracking errors.
K. Explain that multipath propagation is the reception of the energy

reflected by a target through several different paths. The target echo is
the vector sum of these multipath reflections. This may cause additional
fluctuations of the target echo, and thereby, increase the angular tracking
error.
L. Using Figure 7-1 in the student manual:
1. Mention that the angular tracking error mainly depends on

angular scintillation at short ranges, receiver thermal noise at
long ranges, and amplitude scintillation and servo noise at
medium ranges.
2. Mention that the angular tracking error is minimal at medium

ranges and increases at short and long ranges.
3. Mention that monopulse tracking radars provide an angular

tracking error lower than that provided by lobe switching and
conical scan tracking radars. Explain that this is because
monopulse tracking radars are unsensitized to amplitude
scintillation.

Exercise 8 Troubleshooting a Radar Target Tracker
This exercise shows how to troubleshoot a radar target tracker. Emphasis is

placed on the use of a systematic procedure to make troubleshooting quick and
efficient. The exercise also discusses difficulties inherent to the troubleshooting
of radar target trackers.
Twelve faults can be inserted in the range and angle tracking loops of the Radar
Target Tracker of the Tracking Radar, through the Faults dialog box in the
LVRTS software. This allows the student to perform hands-on troubleshooting of
a radar target tracker. In the first portion of the hands-on exercise, the instructor
is asked to insert fault 4 in the Radar Target Tracker. Guided manipulations help
the student in locating this fault so that he or she becomes familiar with the
systematic troubleshooting procedure. In the second portion of the hands-on
exercise, the instructor is asked to insert another fault in the Radar Target
Tracker and the student performs the troubleshooting procedure without help to
locate the fault.
Instructional plan
A. Explain that troubleshooting a radar target tracker is basically the same

as troubleshooting any other electronic device.
B. Explain the various steps in the systematic troubleshooting procedure.
1. Observe the problem symptoms to identify the module (or portion

of circuitry) which may be defective.
2. Check the power supplied to the module suspected to be

defective.
3. Use signal flow tracing to locate a defective part of circuitry.
4. Verify any other branches of circuitry meeting at the point where

defective operation has been detected.
5. Make sure that the defective part of circuitry plausibly explains

the problem observed in step 1.
6. Diagnose the problem.
C. Mention that the major difficulty when troubleshooting a radar target

tracker is to determine whether range tracking or angle tracking is the
source of the problem.
D. Explain that this difficulty is due to the fact that range and angle tracking
are intimately linked to each other, that is, range tracking requires the
antenna to be aligned with the target, and angle tracking requires target
range information.

E. Explain how a target moving either along or perpendicular to the antenna

axis can be used to determine whether the range tracker or the angle
tracker is defective.
F. Show how to use the Troubleshooting Worksheet provided at the end of

the exercise.

Volume 5 – Radar in an Active Target
Environment

Volume 5 – Radar in an Active Target Environment
Unit 1 Noise Jamming
This unit provides an introduction to the electronic attack and electronic

protection countermeasures related to noise jamming.
The unit introduction begins with a definition of electronic warfare (EW) in the
context of modern conflicts. The three subdivisions of electronic warfare, which
are Electronic warfare Support (ES), Electronic Attack (EA), and Electronic
Protection (EP), are presented briefly, as is the relationship between these
subdivisions. An overview of the Electronic Warfare Trainer courseware is
provided. This courseware is centered on active EA against, and EP for search
and tracking radars. It is highly recommended that the students have a good
knowledge of the operation of tracking radars before they begin studying radars
in an active target environment.
Exercise 1-1 provides an introduction to the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer used in
the Electronic Warfare Trainer (EWT). The Radar Jamming Pod properties and
jamming signal capabilities are discussed. The remote controller and the various
controls, input/output connectors, and accessories on the Radar Jamming Pod
are also presented. The Procedure of this exercise allows students to get familiar
with the operation of the Radar Jamming Pod and its remote controller. Students
observe the low-amplitude, natural radar echo produced by the two horn
antennas mounted in front of the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer. They also observe
the repeated echo signal which the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer can produce.
Students learn how to provide the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer with a suitable
natural radar echo by installing a metal plate on the target positioning arm of the
Radar Jamming Pod Trainer. They lock the Tracking Radar onto the natural
radar echo of the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer. They then use the Radar
Jamming Pod Trainer to produce a spot noise jamming signal that causes the
Tracking Radar to lose target track.
Exercise 1-2 demonstrates the use of spot noise jamming as an electronic

countermeasure (ECM) against radar detection. It also presents the concept of
radar burn-through range. In the Procedure of this exercise, students observe the
effects of spot noise jamming on angle and range tracking of the Tracking Radar.
Spot noise jamming is produced by the Radar Jamming Pod for self-screening.
Students then use the Radar Jamming Pod and Tracking Radar to demonstrate
the existence of the burn-through range.
Exercise 1-3 demonstrates how frequency agility can be used as an ECM against
spot noise jamming. It explains the use of barrage noise jamming against
frequency-agile radars. It demonstrates why it is advantageous for a frequency-
agile radar to force a spot noise jammer into barrage noise jamming mode. In the
Procedure of this exercise, students demonstrate the efficiency of frequency
agility as a radar EP against spot noise jamming. They compare the effect of
barrage noise jamming and spot noise jamming on the radar receiver video
signal.

Exercise 1-4 explains the importance of signal discrimination (signal processing

techniques) used as radar EP against noise jamming. It demonstrates the
benefits of video integration when used by a radar confronted with noise
jamming. It also discusses the jammer strobe and the angle track-on jamming
capability of certain radars. In the Procedure of this exercise, students observe
the effects of video integration on the radar receiver video signal S/N power ratio
when the radar is confronted with noise jamming. Students measure the
integration-improvement factor for the Tracking Radar's noncoherent integration
circuit. Finally, students demonstrate the effect that track-on-jamming has against
a barrage noise jammer.
Exercise 1-5 presents the difference between mainlobe and sidelobe jamming. It
describes the effects of effective sidelobe noise jamming. It also presents certain
antenna space discrimination techniques used as radar EP against stand-off
noise jammers. In the Procedure of this exercise, students demonstrate, from a
radar operator's point-of-view, the difference between sidelobe and main lobe
jamming. Students also demonstrate the use of track-on-jamming protection by a
radar confronted with sidelobe noise jamming.

Exercise 1-1 Familiarization with the Jamming Pod
Instructional plan
A. Introduce the Radar Jamming Pod.
1. The Radar Jamming Pod is an electronic device used to

generate jamming signals, that possesses controls, input/output
connectors, and accessories.
2. Using Figure 1-3 in the student manual, explain that the Radar
Jamming Pod allows EW techniques to be learned and perfected
the same way full-scale EW jamming pods do in peacetime.
B. Explain that the Radar Jamming Pod can transmit various types of noise
jamming signals.
1. A Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is used to generate a

noise jamming signal with an adjustable carrier frequency.
2. The level, carrier frequency, and bandwidth of the jamming

signal can be adjusted, using a hand-held remote controller.
3. Amplitude modulation of the noise jamming signal allows

deception jamming to be performed.
C. Explain that the Radar Jamming Pod has two horn antennas, one for
transmission, and one for reception. Using Figure 1-4 in the student
manual, explain that the horn antennas are positioned in such a manner
that the radar signals reflected off of them add destructively, causing the
natural radar echo produced by the Radar Jamming Pod when it faces
the radar antenna to have a low amplitude.
D. Using Figure 1-5 in the student manual, explain that the Radar Jamming
Pod contains a repeater circuit which, when enabled, redirects the radar
signal received through the reception horn antenna back toward the
radar antenna via the transmission horn. This creates a repeated echo
signal that allows the Radar Jamming Pod to be detected and tracked by
the radar system.
E. Mention that without the use of the repeater circuit or the addition of a
reflector to the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer, detection and tracking can
hardly be performed because the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer's frontal
radar echo is of very low amplitude.
F. Mention that the repeated echo signal is delayed with respect to the
natural radar echo (echo from the two horn antennas) of the Radar
Jamming Pod Trainer. Explain that this is due to the fact that the signal
received from the radar is delayed when it propagates through the
repeater circuit. The result is that the repeated echo signal has a
significant radar range difference compared to the Radar Jamming Pod
Trainer's natural radar echo.

G. Mention that in most exercises, a natural radar echo from the Radar
Jamming Pod Trainer is required. Explain that a natural radar echo can
be produced by installing a reflector (metal plate target) on the target
positioning arm of the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer. Mention that the
range of the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer's natural radar echo (echo from
the metal plate target) can be adjusted to match that of the repeated
echo signal by adjusting the length of the target positioning arm.
Highlight the fact that this is a desirable exercise setup that realistically
reproduces the situation of a jammer aboard an aircraft.
H. Explain that depending on the jamming technique to be implemented, the

Radar Jamming Pod Trainer can be installed on its support at two
different heights as well as in horizontal or vertical position.
I. Explain that a remote controller is used to select the type of jamming and
adjust the jamming parameters of the Radar Jamming Pod.
1. The remote controller sends commands to the Radar Jamming

Pod in the form on infrared signals.
2. The infrared command signals are received by an infrared

receiver located on the Radar Jamming Pod [see item 5 in
Figure 1-3 (b) of the student manual]. The Radar Jamming Pod's
microcontroller decodes these signals and executes the
commands, through control circuitry.
3. Using Figure 1-6 in the student manual, explain that the remote
controller has an intuitive menu through which commands can be
selected and sent to the Radar Jamming Pod.
4. Mention that a single remote controller can be used to control

more than one Radar Jamming Pod. To do so, each Radar
Jamming Pod must be assigned a different identification number
(ID), using a command of the remote controller.
J. Describe the components found on the Radar Jamming Pod rear panel,
using Figure 1-7 in the student manual:
1. A power switch allows the Radar Jamming Pod to be turned on

and off.
2. Status LEDs indicate the type of jamming signals being

produced by the Radar Jamming Pod.
3. Two external control inputs can be used to modulate the

frequency of the Radar Jamming Pod's VCO signal and to
control the internal SPDT RF switch found within the Radar
Jamming Pod.
4. A complementary RF output allows the Radar Jamming Pod's

signal to be redirected toward an antenna other than the Radar
Jamming Pod's transmitting horn antenna, with the aid of the
internal SPDT RF switch.

Instructional plan
Recall students how to adjust and calibrate the Tracking Radar by performing the
six procedures found in Appendix B of the EW student manual. The instructor
should explain the objective of each procedure and its effect on the operation of
the radar. The demonstration should be carried out before the students perform
the first exercise in the EW student manual.

Exercise 1-2 Spot Noise Jamming and Burn-Through Range
Instructional plan
A. Present spot noise jamming.
1. An electronic countermeasure used against search (surveillance)

and tracking radars.
2. Consists in inserting an interference signal into the receiver of

the victim radar to disturb radar target detection and tracking.
3. Very little needs to be known about the parameters of the victim

radar for the jamming to be effective.
B. Explain how spot noise jamming is generated.
1. The jammer directs a narrowband signal toward the antenna of

the victim radar.
2. The frequency of the noise jamming signal is tuned to the

operating frequency of the victim radar.
C. Explain how spot noise jamming affects the performance of the victim
radar, using Figure 1-11 in the student manual.
1. The jamming signal, once received by the receiver of the radar,

causes the receiver's background noise level, against which the
jammer echo signal is detected, to increase.
2. The noise thus added to the radar receiver lowers the signal-to-
noise ratio (S/N ratio), masking the jammer echo signal.
3. A low S/N ratio in the radar receiver causes imbalance in the

tracking servo systems. This leads to rapid fluctuations in the
range-gate position control signal and results in random range
gate drift. However, this does not affect angular tracking because
the rapid fluctuations in the angular error signal are filtered out in
the antenna servosystem.
D. Explain that there are four basic EA mission classifications for a platform:
the stand-off EA, escort EA, self-screening (self-protection) EA, and the
mutual-support (cooperative) EA mission.
E. Compare the four types of missions, using Figure 1-12 in the student
manual.
1. The escort, self-screening, and mutual-support EA platforms are

found within the interception range of hostile weapon systems.
They usually direct their jamming through the radar antenna's
mainlobe.

2. Stand-off EA platforms are usually outside the interception range

of hostile weapon systems. They transmit their jamming through
both the radar antenna's main and sidelobes.
3. The self-screening jammer is a lone platform that uses ECM,

usually spot noise jamming, to protect only itself.
F. Explain that, whenever a self-screening jammer transmits spot noise

jamming toward a victim radar, an energy battle occurs between the
jammer and the radar.
1. In order to prevent platform detection by the radar, the jammer

must induce in the radar receiver a noise level that exceeds the
amplitude of the platform's skin return and that overcomes any
processing advantages held by the radar.
2. However, radar ECCM put aside, the true advantage belongs to

the jammer, because the jamming signal undergoes less
attenuation before it reaches the radar than the jammer's
returned radar signal (refer to Figure 1-13 in the student
manual).
3. Mention that at a certain range, the power of the radar return

exceeds the jamming signal power received at the radar. This
range is referred to as the burn-through range.
G. Define the burn-through range.
1. The minimum range from a radar at which a target is obscured

by jamming.
2. The maximum detection range for a radar that is being jammed

by a particular platform.
H. Explain that a radar wants the burn-through range to be maximized, in

order for the energy received from a target to be maximized and the S/N
ratio to be increased.
I. Give the equation used to calculate the burn-through range of a radar

[equation (1) in the student manual].
J. Based on this equation, explain how a self-screening platform can

minimize the burn-through range and, to the contrary, how a radar can
maximize it.
1. To minimize the burn-through range, the platform needs a small

radar cross section (RCS) and needs to direct as much jammer
power as possible toward the radar.
2. To maximize the burn-through range, the radar can increase its

average transmitter power or increase its antenna gain. It can
also decrease its operating frequency.

Exercise 1-3 Frequency Agility and Barrage Noise Jamming
Instructional plan
A. Explain that a radar receiver system is made to discriminate to an extent

against all signals but the one it transmits and is meant to receive.
1. A directional antenna limits the locations of the possible sources

of desired echo signals.
2. The receiver is designed to accept only signals present within a

certain frequency range known as the radar receiver passband.
B. Using Figure 1-19 in the student manual, discuss the passband of a

radar receiver.
1. The passband is centered on the radar's operating frequency.
2. Its width is adapted to the transmitted radar pulse width.
3. The narrower the transmitter pulse width is, the wider the
receiver passband will be. For example, our radar receiver
system has a wide passband of approximately 1.3 GHz due to
the narrow pulse transmitted by the radar.
C. Explain why spot noise jamming signals can pass unhindered into the
receiver system of the victim radar.
1. Since these jamming signals are tuned to the operating

frequency of the victim radar, they are within the passband of the
radar receiver system, and so are accepted by it.
2. Since these jamming signals have a narrow bandwidth (∼30

MHz in the case of the Radar Jamming Pod Trainer, they are
contained entirely within the radar receiver passband limits,
which permits nearly all jamming signal power to enter the radar
receiver system.
D. Use Figure 1-20 in the student manual to explain frequency agility.
1. The capability of certain radars to change their transmitted

carrier frequency on a pulse-to-pulse or burst-to-burst basis.
2. It takes the form of abrupt, random frequency changes over the

entire radar frequency tuning range.
E. Explain that frequency agility is as an effective countermeasure against

spot noise jamming for coherent radars that use MTI processing.
1. By constantly changing its operating frequency, a frequency-

agile radar does not permit a spot noise jammer to have the time
to detect the new radar's operating frequency, and so to change
its own jammer signal frequency.

2. Consequently, the spot noise jammer cannot settle its

narrowband signal frequency within the radar passband and
induce noise in the radar receiver system.
F. Explain that, to defeat frequency-agile radars, potential spot noise

jammers must spread their jamming signal power over a wider
bandwidth. This is referred to as barrage noise jamming.
G. Using Figure 1-21 in the student manual, explain that it is advantageous

for a frequency-agile radar to force a spot noise jammer into barrage
noise jamming mode.
1. A radar submitted to barrage noise jamming has a greater radar

burn-through range than when submitted to spot noise jamming.
2. This is because a barrage noise jammer spreads its jamming

power over the entire radar frequency tuning range.
Consequently, only a fraction of the total power of the barrage
noise jamming signal is received by the radar.
3. Thus, the radar has a better chance of detecting and tracking a

barrage noise jammer.
H. Give the equation used to calculate the RF signal power accepted by a

radar receiver from a barrage noise jammer [equation (2) in the student
manual]. Mention the condition required to achieve maximum barrage
noise jamming efficiency.
I. Using Figure 1-22 in the student manual, explain that the Radar
Jamming Pod can produce both narrowband (spot) and wideband
(barrage) noise jamming:
1. A VCO generates a frequency-swept continuous wave (CW)

signal whose frequency is proportional to the voltage level of an
input signal.
2. To produce narrowband (spot) noise jamming, the VCO input

signal is varied over a small voltage range.
3. To produce wideband (barrage) noise jamming, the VCO input

signal is varied over a wide voltage range.

Exercise 1-4 Video Integration and Track-On Jamming
Instructional plan
A. Recall that a tracking or search radar can avoid the effects of a spot
noise jammer by using frequency agility. Frequency agility forces spot
noise jammers into barrage noise jamming mode, which increases the
radar's burn-through range.
B. Explain that, on the other hand, jamming platforms can have reserve
transmitter power that allows the loss in jamming effectiveness due to
switching from spot noise to barrage noise jamming to be fully or partially
recovered.
C. Explain that, to defeat the increased noise level in the receiver, the radar
must use another EP technique, which may be one of the following:
1. Receiver signal processing, such as pulse integration (see other

receiver processing techniques in Table 1-2 of the student
manual). This increases the S/N ratio of the receiver video signal
and, therefore, allow detection of targets which otherwise would
have remained masked by noise.
2. The radar operator can forgo the jamming degraded range

information and instead implement angle track-on jamming
(TOJ).
D. Present pulse integration.
1. Pulse integration is the combination of a number of echo pulses

by a receiver processing circuit called a pulse integrator.
2. Pulse integration enhances the S/N ratio of the video signal,

thereby allowing detection of targets which otherwise would
remain masked by noise.
3. Pulse integration can be either coherent or noncoherent.
E. Explain coherent pulse integration.
1. Consists in transmitting a coherent radar signal and coherently

superposing the received echo signal from a stationary target.
2. The video signal S/N power ratio is increased by a factor equal

to the number of pulses integrated.
F. Explain noncoherent pulse integration, also termed video integration.
1. It consists in adding a number of echo signal pulses in the

absence of pulse phase information.

2. This reduces the intrinsic amplitude fluctuations present around

the mean noise level of the video signal (refer to Figure 1-27 in
the student manual).
3. The video signal S/N power ratio is increased by a factor

(integration-improvement factor) equal to the number of pulses
integrated multiplied by a constant (efficiency factor) that is less
than one.
G. Give the equations used to calculate the integration-improvement factor

and the loss factor (𝐿𝐿𝑖𝑖 (𝑛𝑛)) of a video integration circuit [equations 1-3,
1-4, and 1-5 in the student manual].
H. Present and explain track-on-jamming (TOJ).
1. A mode of operation by which a tracking radar, confronted with

mainlobe noise jamming, transfers its tracking lock from the
target echo signal to the jamming signal.
2. It is used when the jammer signal is not strong enough to

penetrate the antenna sidelobes—causing the angular position
of the jammer to be known to the radar.
3. As the radar antenna mainlobe scans across the jammer in

search mode, a bright wedge called the strobe is produced on
the radar PPI display in the direction of the jammer (see
Figure 1-28 in the student manual).
4. It is the strobe that the radar uses to lock onto the jamming
source.
5. TOJ provides the bearing of the jammer. However, the jammer

range is denied.
I. Explain that passive ranging techniques must be used when operating

fire-control tracking radars in TOJ mode to avoid the blind use of guided
missiles. The jamming platform range must be approximated for two
reasons:
1. To make certain that the target is within the guided missile's

maximum range before missile launch.
2. To make certain that large angular corrections (due to target

range) are not required by the guided missile.
J. Using Table 1-3 in the student manual, briefly describe a few passive
ranging techniques and their limitations.
K. Explain that, by indiscriminately using noise jamming, a self-screening

platform may reveal to the enemy force its approximate position, and
thus, be in danger.

Exercise 1-5 Antennas in EW: Sidelobe Jamming and Space

Discrimination
Instructional plan
A. Explain that, even though antenna radiation patterns can differ

significantly from one antenna to the next, they all have a mainlobe and
numerous sidelobes.
B. Explain that sidelobes are undesired irregularities in the antenna

radiation pattern. Sidelobes may be responsible for as much as 25% of
an antenna's radiated signal power. (See Figure 1-33 in the student
manual).
C. Explain why it is important for an antenna to have a low sidelobe signal

response, especially in radars that are used for military applications.
1. A low sidelobe response reduces sidelobe ground and target

clutter.
2. It also reduces the radar's susceptibility of being detected

through its sidelobe signal emissions.
3. It prevents the radar from being disabled by sidelobe noise

jamming.
D. Present sidelobe noise jamming.
1. Jamming is conducted through the sidelobes of a receiving

antenna, in an attempt to cover, disrupt, or falsify returned radar
signal information received through the antenna mainlobe.
2. The preferred electronic attack used against weapon fire-control

radar (tracking radar) in the denial of target range and bearing
data.
E. Explain how sidelobe noise jamming differs from mainlobe noise

jamming from the point-of-view of a radar operator, using Figure 1-34 in
the student manual.
1. Sidelobe noise jamming, when effectively produced, increases

the radar receiver noise level whatever the angular position of
the antenna. This implies that there is no jammer strobe which is
revealed to the radar operator.
2. Mainlobe noise jamming should be avoided because it provides

the radar with a strobe indicating the jammer approximate
angular position.
F. Explain why sidelobe jamming is usually conducted by a large platform in

a stand-off jamming position.

G. Explain what antenna space discrimination is: the radar ability to

discriminate between signals input through the antenna sidelobes and
the antenna mainlobe.
H. Explain that when the radar has strong sidelobe levels, antenna space
discrimination can be implemented by using one of the following
techniques:
1. Low, very-low, and ultra-low sidelobe antennas can be used to

reduce the sidelobe ground and target clutter (see Table 1-4 in
the student manual). However, achieving sufficiently low
sidelobe levels in practical antenna design can be difficult.
2. Sidelobe cancellation can be used to control, through an

adaptative continuous process, one or many nulls in the
composite antenna pattern at angles corresponding to sidelobe
jammer bearings.
3. Sidelobe blanking, which is less complex than sidelobe

cancellation, can be used to blank the radar receiver when
signals enter the radar system via the antenna sidelobes. This
method is only effective against low duty cycle jamming signals.

Unit 2 Range Deception Jamming
This unit is an overview of common range deception jamming countermeasures

and the corresponding radar EP.
The unit introduction begins with a comparison between noise jamming and
deception jamming. The different categories of deceptive jamming are presented.
The range deception and angle deception jamming techniques are compared.
The advantages and disadvantages of deception jamming are also discussed.
Exercise 2-1 presents the various types of deception jamming techniques

generated by the Radar Jamming Pod. It explains how the Radar Jamming Pod
produces range deception jamming signals, using a delay line repeater circuit. It
also explains how the Radar Jamming Pod produces angle deception jamming
signals, mainly using an on-off modulation switch. In the Procedure of the
exercise, students use the Radar Jamming Pod to generate false target jamming
and range gate pull-off (RGPO) jamming. They observe the characteristics and
performances of the repeater delay line. Students then use the SPDT RF switch
to on-off modulate the Radar Jamming Pod's transmitted signal. They verify that
on-off modulation can be applied to a noise signal, as well as to the repeater
signal.
Exercise 2-2 explains how RGPO jamming is implemented against tracking

radars. It also discusses range-tracking rate limitation and leading-edge tracking
as electronic protections against RGPO. In the Procedure of this exercise,
students use the Radar Jamming Pod to transmit an RGPO jamming signal
toward the Tracking Radar. They observe the four phases of RGPO jamming.
Students then enable the Radar Target Tracker range-rate limiter and the
leading-edge tracking function. They characterize the usefulness of these
countermeasures against an RGPO jammer.
Exercise 2-3 is dedicated to stealth technology, a manipulative electronic

deception used to provide a platform with delayed detection, identification, and
target acquisition by hostile forces. It explains that stealth platform design implies
reducing the platform's radar cross section (RCS), and it discusses two methods
of doing so: hard body shaping and radar absorbent materials (RAMs). It also
discusses countermeasures to stealth. In the Procedure of this exercise, students
plot the RCS pattern of the Radar Jamming Pod with and without stealth
technology applied to it. They use the plotted graphs to analyze the effectiveness
of the Radar Jamming Pod stealth design.

Exercise 2-1 Deception Jamming Using the Radar Jamming

Pod
Instructional Plan
A. Explain that the Radar Jamming Pod can produce various types of
deception jamming signals (see Table 2-2 in the student manual).
B. Explain that, in order for deception jamming to be effective, the jammer

parameters must be set according to the type of jamming generated and
the characteristics of the victim radar.
C. Explain how a deception jamming technique can be selected on the

Radar Jamming Pod, and how the related operating characteristics can
be set.
D. Explain that the programmable delay line of the Radar Jamming Pod is
used to produce range deception jamming. (Refer to Figure 2-1 in the
student manual).
1. The programmable delay line applies a delay to a repeated radar

signal. By doing so, the measured range of the repeated echo
signal from the radar is changed, and the radar's range gate is
affected.
2. The programmable delay line consists of eight different path

lengths. Only one path length can be operational at a time.
3. To generate the Radar Jamming Pod repeated echo signal in the

exercises of Unit 1, the shortest delay line path length was used.
4. False target jamming signals are produced by using longer delay

line path lengths.
5. Range-gate pull-off (RGPO) jamming is produced by

continuously and repeatedly switching through the different delay
line path lengths. The repeated echo signal can be imposed
different range rates (speeds).
E. Explain that the SPDT RF switch of the Radar Jamming Pod is used to
produce angle deception jamming.
1. A square-wave control signal is used to repetitively throw the

switch between its two poles.
2. This causes the switch to alternately and repetitively direct the

generated jamming signal toward the Radar Jamming Pod
transmission horn antenna, and then toward the
COMPLEMENTARY RF OUTPUT on the rear panel.
3. The effect of which is on-off modulation of the jamming signal.

4. The square-wave signal used to control the SPDT RF switch can

be generated either internally or externally.
5. When generated internally, the square-wave signal has preset

switching frequency values.
6. When generated externally, the square-wave signal is to be

applied to the EXTERNAL AM/BLINKING CONTROL INPUT on
the rear panel of the Radar Jamming Pod. The frequency of this
signal sets the switching frequency for the SPDT switch.

Exercise 2-2 Range Gate Pull-Off
Instructional Plan
A. Present range gate pull-off (RGPO).
1. A deception jamming technique used against split range-gate

tracking radars.
2. Consists in capturing the range gate of the tracking radar with a

suitably designed false target signal, and then luring the range
gate away from the actual target echo pulse.
B. Using Figure 2-4 in the student manual, explain the four phases of
execution of RGPO jamming.
1. During phase one, the tracking radar locks onto the jammer's
natural echo signal.
2. During phase two, the jammer generates a strong repeated radar

signal, capturing the range gate.
3. In phase three, the jammer increases the delay applied to the

repeated radar signal, walking the range-gate off of the jammer's
natural radar echo signal.
4. In phase four, the jammer turns the repeated radar signal off.
The tracking radar, therefore, has to reacquire the target lock.
C. Explain that, even though modern radars can reacquire target range in a
very short time, RGPO jamming can drastically reduce the radar's range
tracking accuracy.
D. Using Figure 2-5 in the student manual, explain that the greater the
RGPO distance is, the less accurate the radar's range tracking will be.
E. Explain that RGPO jamming is effective only against certain types of

targets.
1. RGPO jamming can result in significant aiming errors for anti-

aircraft guns, and in guidance errors for missiles such as those
guided via communication from ground-based tracking radar
(command guidance).
2. However, RGPO jamming is ineffective in deceiving active and

semi-active missiles to their true target, because the angle
information provided by the missile's angle tracking circuitry is
sufficient in holding the missile's aim.
F. Explain that, in order for a range deception jamming technique to be

effective against all types of fire-control radars, it must be used in
conjunction with an angle deception jamming technique.

G. Explain that two countermeasures to RGPO jamming are usually

implemented in split range-gate tracking radars: range tracking rate
limitation and leading edge tracking.
H. Explain range tracking rate limitation.
1. It consists in increasing the response time of the radar's range

tracking loop in order to limit the maximum rate at which the
range gate distance can vary.
2. It is useful in avoiding unrealistic false target speeds and

signaling the probable presence of a deception jammer.
3. It provides only partial protection against RGPO jamming. The

reason is that the RGPO jammer needs only lower its false target
speed to a realistic radar target value to make the range rate
limiter ineffective.
I. Explain leading edge tracking.
1. The tracking radar tracks onto the leading edge of the target
echo pulse instead of the peak.
2. This prevents the jammer false target signal from capturing the
range gate.
3. This method can be used together with range tracking rate

limitation to provide a better protection against RGPO jammers.
J. Explain range gate pull-in (RGPI) jamming.
1. It is a jamming technique similar to RGPO, but which requires

that the radar PRF be known to be implemented.
2. It consists in initially making the repeater time delay equal to the

interpulse period of the victim tracking radar, and then gradually
reducing the delay.
3. It thereby effectively captures the range gate, pulls it in (in

range), and renders radar leading edge tracking ineffective.
K. Briefly describe common radar countermeasures used against RGPI:
1. Radar PRF jitter ensures that an RGPI jammer is unable to

predict the next radar pulse and to lead the range gate with the
false target signal.
2. The utilization of multiple range gates allows the radar to track

both the natural radar echo and repeated radar echo of a
jamming platform.

Exercise 2-3 Stealth Technology: The Quest for Reduced

RCS
Instructional Plan
A. Explain that stealth technology refers to the material and design

principles used to make objects stealthy, so that they blend into their
background.
B. Explain the advantage of applying stealth technology to a platform.
1. It provides the platform with a shorter detection range by enemy

radar, and a shorter burn-through range when in a jammed
environment.
2. Consequently, detection, identification, and acquisition of the

platform by hostile forces are delayed.
C. Explain that a stealth platform has several signatures (radar, infrared,

etc.).
1. Each signature is associated with a specific detection range.
2. The detection ranges for each platform signature must be

balanced as closely as possible in order for the platform to be
tactically useful.
D. Explain that the strength of a platform's radar signature is directly

proportional to the platform's radar cross section (RCS). Stealth design
of a platform, therefore, implies reducing the RCS of the platform to the
RCS of its environment.
E. Explain that, of the techniques used to reduce the radar echo of an

object, hard body shaping, and the use of radar absorbent, reflective,
and transparent materials are those that have been of the greatest
tactical use.
F. Explain that the incorporation of stealth technology into a platform often

gives the platform an untraditional appearance (see Figure 2-10 in the
student manual).
G. Explain what a threat sector is.
1. The viewing region from which a platform has a very high

probability of being detected by a radar.
2. This usually coincides to the direction from which it is most likely

that radar signals will originate.
H. Explain geometric shaping.
1. It is the most useful technique used to reduce the RCS of an

object's surface.

2. It consists in orienting the platform surfaces so as to reflect

(scatter) incident radar signals in directions away from threat
sectors (see Figure 2-11 in the student manual).
I. Explain the principles used to select a suitable overall shape for a stealth
platform:
1. The geometric shape of the platform's body lines must be

oriented in as few directions as possible.
2. These orientation directions must be swept away from the

platform's threat sectors.
3. It is acceptable for the platform to have spike echoes (specular

flashes), as long as they are directed toward regions that are not
threat sectors (see Figure 2-12).
J. Explain that radar absorbent materials (RAMs) are used to complement

shaping, or when shaping is not a useful stealth design option.
K. Explain how RAMs are classified: as specular or nonspecular, and as

narrowband or wideband.
1. Specular absorbers are intended to reduce specular reflections

from metallic surfaces, such as those caused by necessary
discontinuities in the body shape of a platform.
2. Nonspecular absorbers are intended to reduce surface currents

caused by specular reflections before they encounter a surface
discontinuity.
L. Explain why RAMs are not used alone but in conjunction with hard body
shaping.
M. Explain that, even if countermeasures can be used against stealth (see

Table 2-4 in the student manual), stealth will always give a wartime
advantage to the platforms that use it.

Unit 3 Angle Deception Jamming
This unit discussion presents certain electronic attacks that cause angular radar
tracking errors (angle deception) and the radar EP used to prevent these errors.
The unit begins with an introduction to the use of angle deception jamming
techniques. It explains why angle and range deception jamming are usually
implemented together against tracking radars. The discussion then deals with the
angular tracking system dependency of angular DECM. It explains that conical
scan and sequential lobing tracking radars are vulnerable to angular DECM
implemented with amplitude-modulated jamming signals. It also explains that
angular DECM that exploit a fundamental weakness or a design weakness must
be used against monopulse tracking radars because these are insensitive to
angular DECM produced with amplitude-modulated jamming signals.
Exercise 3-1 explains the principles of inverse gain jamming as used against
conical scan and sequential lobing angular tracking systems. It describes two
forms of inverse gain jamming: repeater inverse gain jamming and AM noise
jamming. It discusses asynchronous and synchronous inverse gain jamming.
Finally, it explains the common radar EP against inverse gain jamming. In the
Procedure of this exercise, students observe the effects that AM noise jamming
and repeater inverse gain jamming have on the radar's angular tracking.
Students then demonstrate that staggered PRF and PRF agility can be used as
radar EP against AM noise jamming and repeater inverse gain jamming.
Exercise 3-2 introduces the concept of antenna polarization. It demonstrates how

cross-polarization jamming is used to produce angular deception in monopulse
and sequential-lobing tracking radars. In the Procedure of this exercise, students
determine what type of polarization is used by the Tracking Radar and Radar
Jamming Pod antennas. They demonstrate that radar polarization agility is an
effective method to defeat noise jamming. Students then plot the radar's
response to co-polarized and cross-polarized jamming signals, using data they
collect experimentally. This allows them to observe that the angular error
response of the radar to cross-polarized signals is significantly different than its
response to co-polarized signals. Finally, students demonstrate that cross-
polarization jamming, when effective against a tracking radar, creates a
significant angular tracking offset.
Exercise 3-3 is an introduction to the use of multiple-source jamming techniques

in mutual support EA missions. It explains how multiple-source jamming induces
artificial glint onto the jamming signal. It makes the distinction between coherent
and incoherent multiple-source jamming. Finally, it explains two of the most
common forms of incoherent multiple-source (cooperative) jamming: formation
and blinking jamming. In the Procedure of this exercise, students demonstrate
that blinking noise jamming, when conducted against a tracking radar, induces
angular tracking perturbations (radar antenna oscillations). Students observe the
relationship between the amplitude of the induced radar antenna oscillations and
the commutation rate (blinking rate) of the blinking jamming signal. Students then
conduct coherent formation jamming against the Tracking Radar. They observe
the effect that changing the position of one of the jamming sources has on the
apparent angle-of-arrival of the combined repeated echo signal perceived by the
radar and on the behavior of the radar antenna.

Exercise 3-1 Deceptive Jamming Using Amplitude-

Modulated Signals
Instructional Plan
A. Recall that conical scan and sequential lobing radars are vulnerable to
angular errors caused by amplitude-modulated angle deception jamming
signals.
B. Explain that, even when the antenna of a conical scan or sequential

lobing radar points directly toward the tracked target, the amplitude of the
target echo signal may vary over time due to scintillation or a jamming
signal. This results in error and uncertainty in the target's angular
position.
C. Explain inverse gain jamming.
1. It is an angle deception jamming technique used against conical

scan and sequential lobing angular tracking radars.
2. It consists in directing toward the radar antenna, either a false

target signal (repeater inverse gain jamming) or a noise jamming
signal (AM noise jamming) with an amplitude modulation in
phase opposition to that generated by the scanning (or lobing)
radar beam.
3. The amplitude modulation can be implemented either as a direct

inverse of the radar's amplitude modulation, or as on-off
modulation. Both of these methods cause an apparent angular
error in the radar's tracking system.
D. Using Figure 3-2 in the student manual, show how repeater inverse gain
jamming and AM noise jamming affect a sequential lobing radar.
1. The amplitude of the target echo signal, received through one

lobe, is modified by the presence of the jamming signal. With
synchronous inverse gain jamming, for example [Figure 3-2 (a)],
the weaker echo signals are amplified, while the stronger echo
signals are attenuated.
2. Consequently, erroneous angular tracking information is

introduced into the radar angle tracking loop.
E. Explain that inverse gain jamming can be synchronous or asynchronous,

using Figure 3-2 in the student manual:
1. Synchronous inverse gain jamming is when the amplitude

modulation of the jamming signal is synchronized with the victim
radar's lobing (or scan) rate. This introduces a fixed angular error
into the radar's angle tracking loop [see Figure 3-2 (a)].

2. Asynchronous inverse gain jamming is when the amplitude

modulation of the jamming signal is slightly different than the
victim radar's lobing (or scan) rate. This difference creates a beat
frequency in the radar's angular error signal [see Figure 3-2 (b)],
causing the antenna to oscillate about the tracked jammer's
direction.
F. Explain that the Radar Jamming Pod can generate both forms of inverse
gain jamming:
1. Repeater inverse gain jamming is generated through on-off

modulation of the repeater signal.
2. AM noise jamming is generated through on-off modulation of the

noise jamming signal.
3. The on-off modulation frequency can be adjusted by using the

remote controller.
G. Briefly discuss the common radar EP used against inverse gain jamming.
1. PRF agile emitters randomly change the radar's pulse repetition

frequency on a pulse-to-pulse basis. This causes the radar's
lobing rate to change accordingly. Consequently, the beat
frequency is never low enough to pass through the angular
servomechanism's bandwidth, which eliminates errors in angular
tracking.
2. Silent lobing radars transmit an unmodulated beam and impose

the amplitude modulation only on the receive beam (see Figure
3-1 in the student manual). This makes it difficult for jammers to
find the rate at which their jamming signal must be amplitude
modulated so as to produce a significant angular error in the
radar's tracking system.
3. The scan-with-compensation technique uses a secondary

receive-antenna beam. The outputs from the main beam and
additional receive-beam are used to produce the radar's angular
tracking error signal. This reduces the amplitude modulation of
the jammer signal.

Exercise 3-2 Cross-Polarization Jamming
Instructional Plan
A. Present the concept of polarization.
1. Polarization describes how the electric field of an

electromagnetic signal oscillates over time.
2. Polarization can be either linear, circular, or elliptical. The type of

polarization describes the path traced out by the electric field
vector in a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
the signal (see Figure 3-10 in the student manual).
B. Explain what antenna polarization is.
1. It is the direction in which the electric field of the signals

transmitted by the antenna is vibrating.
2. It is also the direction in which the electric field of a signal must

be vibrating to be properly received by the antenna.
C. Explain what a cross-polarized signal is.
1. A signal whose polarization is orthogonal to that of the antenna.
2. Consequently, a cross-polarized signal is greatly attenuated

upon reception.
D. Briefly explain antenna polarization agility.
1. The ability of a radar to change the polarization of its antenna.
2. The radar can thus attenuate jamming signals by adjusting the

antenna polarization so that it is orthogonal to that of the
jamming signals.
3. However, the level of attenuation which can be achieved is not

infinite; it is restricted by antenna design limitations.
E. Briefly explain antenna polarization distortion.
1. A design weakness that makes the antenna able to receive

cross-polarized signals of very strong levels.
2. Can be caused, for example, by curvature of the radome (if any)

and diffraction of the received signal at the edges of the antenna.
F. Using Figure 3-11 (a) in the student manual, show that the typical co-
polarized and cross-polarized responses of a radar antenna differ
markedly.

G. Explain that because of the differences between the co-polarized and

cross-polarized responses of the radar antenna, the relationship between
the actual angle-tracking error and the angular error signal produced by
the radar's tracking servomechanism (difference pattern) of a monopulse
radar is drastically changed.
1. The co-polarized and cross-polarized difference patterns are

somewhat the inverse of each other, especially around the
antenna beam axis (see Figure 3-11 (b) in the student manual).
2. This is the key difference that allows cross-polarization jamming

to produce angular deception in a tracking radar.
H. Present cross-polarization jamming.
1. It is a jamming technique used as self-protection against tracking

radars.
2. It is normally used against monopulse radars that have antennas

exhibiting a significant cross-polarized response [such as that
illustrated in Figure 3-11 (b) of the student manual].
I. Explain the effect that cross-polarization jamming has on a monopulse

tracking radar:
1. Once the cross-polarized repeated signal has captured the

radar's tracking gates, the polarity of the radar's angular error
signal is inverted for small angular tracking errors.
2. The radar responds by rotating the antenna in the wrong

direction until the angular error signal takes on a value of zero
again.
3. This creates a significant angular tracking offset, on the order

of 5̊, between the antenna boresight and the target's angular
position.
J. Briefly describe the requirements for effective cross-polarization

jamming.
1. The jammer must provide a jamming-to-signal (J/S) ratio that is

high enough to overcome the victim radar antenna's low-
response to cross-polarized signals.
2. The orthogonality of the jamming signal to the radar's must be as

perfect as possible. For this reason, cross-polarization jammers
often use a configuration of antennas that enable them to
produce cross-polarized jamming independent of the angle of
the radar and the jammer (see Figure 3-12 in the student
manual).
K. Briefly explain how tracking radars can defeat cross-polarized jammers:

1. When the radar antenna is susceptible to cross-polarized

jamming signals, it can be replaced with a phase-array (flat
panel) antenna, or a polarization screen can be used.
2. Polarization agile radars can change the polarization of their

transmitted signal.
L. Explain the effect that cross-polarization jamming has on a sequential-

lobing tracking radar, using Figure 3-13 in the student manual.
1. Show the differences between the co-polarized and cross-

polarized responses of the radar antenna (see upper part of
Figure 3-13).
2. Explain that, due to these differences, the angular error voltage

obtained with a cross-polarized signal is lower than that obtained
with a co-polarized signal (see lower part of Figure 3-13.)
Moreover, the polarity of the angular error voltage is inverted for
low angular errors.
3. Consequently, when a low angular error occurs, the angular

tracking servomechanism rotates the antenna in the wrong
direction until the error voltage is zero again, thus causing a
significant angular offset.

Exercise 3-3 Multiple-Source Jamming Techniques
Instructional Plan
A. Present the multiple-source jamming technique.
1. This technique involves the use of more than one jamming

source (a source can be a jammer, a decoy, or as simple as a
reflector) transmitting toward the victim radar.
2. The sources function by inducing an artificial glint onto their

combined jamming signal or that of a radar echo, effectively
changing the apparent angle-of-arrival of the signal perceived by
the radar.
B. Mention that, to be effective, multiple-source jamming requires that all

the jamming sources be located within the main beam(s) of the radar
antenna. Otherwise, the jamming signal can become a beacon for the
radar.
C. Mention that multiple-source jamming can be performed either

coherently or incoherently; it is more effective when conducted
coherently.
D. Explain coherent multiple-source jamming.
1. The relationship between the phases of the signals transmitted

by the jamming sources is kept constant over time.
2. By properly adjusting the phase relationship, the apparent angle-

of-arrival of the signal from the jamming sources can be made to
appear as if it were originating outside of the solid angle formed
by the jamming sources.
3. This implies that coherent multiple-source jamming can be

performed with the jamming sources contained within a relatively
small solid angle.
4. Usually, the jamming sources are located on a single platform

because this makes it much easier to maintain the coherence
between the jamming signals.
5. When the jamming sources are spatially distributed, a common

reference signal must be used to maintain coherence.
E. Explain incoherent multiple-source jamming, also known as cooperative

jamming.
1. The relationship between the phases of the signals transmitted

by the jamming sources varies over time.

2. Unlike the coherent technique, the apparent angle-of-arrival of

the combined jamming signal cannot lie outside of the solid
angle formed by the jamming sources.
3. Consequently, the jamming sources must be contained within

the widest possible solid angle to create a large angular error.
However, they must not be located outside of the radar antenna
beam(s), otherwise the jamming signal can become a beacon.
4. The jamming sources are usually located on more than one

platform.
F. Mention that two of the most common forms of incoherent multiple-

source jamming are blinking jamming and formation jamming.
G. Explain blinking jamming.
1. Several closely grouped platforms cooperatively transmit a

repeater or noise jamming signal. (See Figure 3-19 in the
student manual).
2. The jamming signal is turned on and then off, one at a time, by

each platform.
3. The on-off commutation rate, or blinking rate, determines the

effectiveness of blinking jamming.
4. Ideally, the blinking rate should be on the order of the bandwidth

of the radar's angle tracking servomechanism. At that rate, the
radar antenna tends to oscillate in angle erratically.
5. If the blinking rate is too low, the radar antenna will have time to
settle on each of the jammer's angular positions, and each
jamming signal will act as a beacon. If the blinking rate is too
high, the radar angle tracking servomechanism will tend to
average the angular perturbations produced by the jammers,
minimizing the possible tracking errors (antenna oscillation).
6. Mention that a common radar EP used against blinking jamming

is the use of an angle tracking bandwidth limiter circuit (an angle-
rate limiter).
H. Explain formation jamming.
1. Two or more closely spaced platforms transmit a false-target

jamming signal at the same time as all other platforms.
2. The superposition of the phase characteristics of the jamming

signals before radar reception is what induces artificial glint onto
the signal being tracked by the radar.

3. As the radar's looking angle to the jammers changes, and as the

various signal strengths (from one jammer, from another, from
the radar) change, the angle-of-arrival of the composite false-
target signal received by the radar wanders back and forth
between the jammers.
4. Use Figure 3-20 in the student manual to explain the four

important parameters involved in producing the angular error.

Unit 4 Chaff
This unit is an introduction to chaff and to the uses to which chaff is put in
electronic warfare.
The unit begins with an introduction to the fundamentals of chaff physics. It

places chaff within its historical context. It explains the dispensing and uses of
chaff. It also presents and explains the method used in the Electronic Warfare
Trainer to simulate the effect of chaff on radars.
Exercise 4-1 explains corridor chaff as a method of concealing the expected flight
path of infiltrating aircraft from enemy radars. It explains the chaff fielding effect
and its implications on the maximum RCS that a chaff cloud can have. It
discusses the factors determining the dimensions and density of a chaff cloud.
Finally, it mentions anti-chaff techniques. In the Procedure of this exercise,
students observe a sample of actual chaff fibers. They use the Variable-Density
Chaff Cloud (VDCC) included in the Electronic Warfare Trainer to demonstrate
that a chaff cloud can deny a radar information about a target within the chaff
cloud. By varying the density of the chaff cloud, students demonstrate the effect
of chaff shielding. Students also show that MTI processing is an effective anti-
chaff technique.
Exercise 4-2 discusses the use of chaff clouds as decoys for platform self-
protection against radar-guided missiles and fire-control radar tracking. It
presents and explains jammer-illuminated chaff (JAFF) as an EA technique
against monopulse, sequential, and conical scan radars. It explains how MTI
radars can be defeated by imparting a suitable Doppler frequency to chaff clouds
using JAFF. Finally, it introduces terrain bounce jamming. In the Procedure of
this exercise, students demonstrate the use of self-protection chaff against a
tracking radar. They also conduct a jammer-illuminated chaff EA against the
Tracking Radar to demonstrate that this technique is effective in producing large
angular deceptions.

Exercise 4-1 Chaff Clouds
Instructional Plan
A. Using Figure 4-3 in the student manual, present corridor shaff.
1. It is a method of concealing the expected flight path of infiltrating

aircraft from the enemy radar.
2. It consists in dispensing large quantities (bundles) of chaff in

corridor-like formations and over very wide areas within the
surveillance volume of an enemy radar.
B. Mention the conditions required for shaff corridors to effectively deny

information regarding the composition and timing of infiltrating aircraft.
1. Chaff corridors must originate outside the maximum radar

detection range, and be uninterrupted throughout their length.
2. The RCS associated with the chaff must be greater than the
RCS associated with the target.
3. With radars that use moving target detection (MTD) processing,

the return power from the chaff that enters the detection Doppler
filter and competes with the target return must be stronger than
the target return power.
C. Mention that the theoretical maximum RCS that a chaff cloud can have is
subject to degradation because of an effect known as shielding.
D. Briefly explain shielding.
1. Shielding occurs when the density of the dipoles in a chaff cloud

is such that it prevents every dipole from receiving the full
amount of energy incident from a radar.
2. Shielding causes the chaff cloud's RCS to be significantly

smaller than its theoretical maximum. Consequently, the chaff's
radar return is reduced.
3. At one extreme, the dipoles may be so closely spaced that only

the dipoles at the surface of the shaff cloud are responsible for
reflecting a radar return, causing the chaff's radar return to be
markedly reduced.
E. Explain that the chaff cloud RCS is maximal when the average distance
between the dipoles is approximately twice the wavelength of the
incident radar signal.

F. Mention that three factors make a bundle of chaff grow in size when
released into the air after the initial blooming effects attributed to the
turbulence generated by the dispensing platform.
1. The distribution of the fall rates of the elements (partially due to

lack of uniformity in size and coatings).
2. The prevailing winds.
3. Air turbulence.
G. Explain why a chaff cloud characteristically moves much slower than the
aircraft from which it was launched.
1. When the chaff is dispensed from the aircraft, the drag on the
individual chaff dipoles is so great that the chaff cloud comes to
air mass velocity almost instantaneously.
2. Chaff's characteristic lack of motion is exploited by radar Doppler

filtering systems (such as MTI or MTD) to discriminate chaff
echoes from moving target echoes.
H. Explain that, unlike a true chaff cloud, the Variable-Density Chaff Cloud
(VDCC) of the Electronic Warfare Trainer generates a radar echo by
returning many specular reflections, not because the mylar streamers
are excited to resonance by incident radar energy.

Exercise 4-2 Chaff Clouds Used as Decoys
Instructional Plan
A. Explain what self-protection chaff is.
1. Chaff clouds are used as a type of decoy for self-protection

against radar-guided missiles and a fire-control radar's tracking.
2. It involves launching small quantities of chaff in controlled bursts.
3. It is intended to give a platform time to maneuver out of the

beam of a weapon-associated radar.
B. Explain why MTI and pulsed Doppler radars are ineffective at rejecting
chaff echoes launched from a naval vessel.
1. After blooming, there is little difference between the chaff cloud's

motion, and that of the ship.
2. So little difference exists that MTI and pulse Doppler radars

cannot distinguish the two types of echoes based solely on their
relative Doppler shifts.
C. Explain jammer-illuminated chaff (JAFF), also known as chaff

illumination (CHILL).
1. It is an EA technique used against monopulse, sequential lobing,

and conical scan tracking radars.
2. It involves illuminating the dispensed chaff with a noise or

deception jamming signal originating from a moving platform, so
as to impose a suitable Doppler frequency on the chaff's radar
echo (see Figure 4-8 in the student manual).
D. Explain why MTI and pulse Doppler radars are ineffective at rejecting
jammer-illuminated chaff (JAFF) echoes.
1. JAFF lends the radar echo signal of the chaff cloud a proper
Doppler shift.
2. This results in the chaff's echo signal falling outside the anti-chaff
Doppler filter designed into MTI and pulse Doppler radars.
E. Mention that chaff can be illuminated with false-target jamming to induce

an artificial glint onto the jamming signal received by the radar.
F. Briefly explain terrain bounce jamming.
1. It is a technique similar to jammer-illuminated chaff in its effects

on tracking radars.

2. It is used in the elevation plane to illuminate the ground's surface

in front of the aircraft so that, for example, a missile angle tracker
would home-in on the illuminated spot of ground, not the jammer.

Volume 6 – The Phased Array Antenna

Unit 1 Basic Operation
This unit provides an introduction to the basic operating principles of the Phased
Array Antenna.
The Unit introduction briefly describes what a phased array antenna is. It
highlights the fact that a phased array antenna can scan an angular sector
without any movement. The two main components of the Phased Array Antenna,
the True Time-Delay Rotman Lens and the Switching Matrix, are then presented.
It is highly recommended that the students have a good knowledge of the
operation of the Radar Training System before they begin studying the operation
of the Phased Array Antenna.
Exercise 1-1, Familiarization with the Phased Array Antenna, shows how to set
up the Radar Training System with the Phased Array Antenna as well as the
settings required to clearly see target blips on the Radar Display (PPI display).
Exercise 1-2, The True-Time Delay Rotman Lens, gives a global description of
the True-Time Delay Rotman Lens. The advantages and the drawbacks, the
basic operating principles as well as the anatomy of the Rotman lens are also
presented.
Exercise 1-3, The Switching Matrix, describes each of the components of the
Switching Matrix. It also presents how the Switching Matrix is used to select
specific lens ports to produce electronic scanning of the beams.

Exercise 1-1 Basic Principles, Operation, and Adjustments
Instructional Plan
A. Compare phased array antennas with conventional mechanically rotated

antennas.
1. Phased array antennas use electronic means instead of

conventional rotating mechanisms to steer the antenna main
beam.
2. Phased array antennas are lighter and much simpler

mechanically than conventional radar antennas, thereby
requiring less maintenance. This opens up the way to new
applications where conventional radar antennas cannot be used.
3. Phased array antennas can perform agile and inertia-free beam

steering, allowing target motion to be followed in near real time.
This is not possible with conventional radar antennas.
4. Conventional radar antennas can scan over 360̊ while phased

array antennas can only steer their main beam over an angular
sector of less than 180°.
B. Refer to Appendix A of the student manual to show students how to set

up the Radar Training System with the Phased Array Antenna. Use
Figure 1-1 in Exercise 1 to show students how to position the Phased
Array Antenna with respect to the Target Positioning System.
C. Explain how to install targets on the Target Positioning System, using

Figure 1-1 of the student manual.
D. Describe the various buttons and controls found on the Phased Array
Antenna Controller.
E. Refer to Appendix B of the student manual to show students how to set

the I- and Q-channel GAIN and DC OFFSET controls of the Dual-
Channel Sampler as well as the ORIGIN control.
F. If necessary, explain the operation of the target table and the various
buttons and controls found on the target controller.
Demonstration
At the beginning of the lab session, review how to adjust and calibrate the Radar
Training System by performing the procedure in Appendix B of the student
manual.

Exercise 1-2 The True-Time Delay Rotman Lens
Instructional Plan
A. Present the Rotman lens.
1. A microwave lens is a phase-correction device which transforms

a divergent wave front from a point source into a plane wave,
and conversely focuses a plane wave into a single point.
2. The Rotman lens is a device which can form simultaneous

multiple beams from an antenna array, and which can be used
for beam scanning if the input ports are fed in sequence
according to a predetermined scheme.
3. Present the advantages and the drawbacks of the printed circuit

Rotman lens using Table 1-3.
B. Explain the basic operating principles of the Rotman lens.
1. Using Figure 1-3, present the basic operating principles of the

Rotman lens.
2. Rays coming from a distant source in a given direction and

incident on one side of the optical lens are refracted to converge
onto a single point, called the focus, located on the other side of
the lens.
3. Changing the direction from where the rays come from changes
the location of the point where they converge on the other side of
the lens.
4. Inversely, if a point light source is positioned at a focus, a beam

of parallel rays will emerge from the other face of the lens.
Changing the location of the point source on the focal plane will
orient or steer the plane wave in another direction.
C. Present the anatomy of the Rotman lens using Figure 1-4.
1. The lens is divided in four sections: the beam ports, the parallel
plate waveguide, the array ports, and the output delay lines.
2. The array ports and the beam ports are tapered microstrip
transmission lines.
3. The beam ports are used to select the direction of the beam
formed by the antenna array and they are positioned at the foci
of the lens. All beam ports point towards the center of the inner
lens contour.
4. The parallel plate waveguide is used to confine and route the

electromagnetic wave to the array ports, it is etched on the same
side as the microstrip transmission lines.

D. Using Figure 1-5, explain the path of the electromagnetic waves within
the lens.
1. The signal received by the array ports are transmitted through

microstrip lines to the antenna array elements where the power
is radiated.
2. The electromagnetic signal will arrive at array port number 1

before arriving at array port number 2, 3, etc.
3. As other elements progressively start to radiate, all the spherical

waves will add-up to form a planar wave front. By changing to
another beam port, the phase distribution across the antenna
array elements changes, steering the beam to other directions.

Exercise 1-3 The Switching Matrix
Instructional Plan
A. Using Figure 1-7 and Figure 1-8, present the anatomy and the operation
of the switching matrix.
1. A switching matrix is comprised of a combination of several

SPDT and SP3T PIN diode switches.
2. Explain proper biasing of the PIN diodes.
3. The use of DC blocks at both outputs is required in order to block

the bias current and to prevent damage to other external
components.
4. The SPDT PIN diode switch may be considered as an

elementary cell of a more complex arrangement of switches
called a switching matrix.
5. With proper biases applied to each elementary cell, RF signal

can be routed through the switching matrix to the RF output
ports.

Unit 2 Measurement of Useful Phased Array Antenna

Characteristics
This unit focuses on the measurement of the beamwidth, the radiation pattern,
the angular separation, the gain, and the scan angle of the Phased Array
Antenna (PAA) in order for the students to develop a clearer understanding of the
operation of the PAA.
Exercise 2-1, Beamwidth Measurement, presents the measurement of the -3 dB

beamwidth using a reference cylindrical target. Exercise 2-2, Radiation Pattern
Measurement, presents all the specific values that have to be measured in order
to plot the radiation pattern of the PAA. In Exercise 2-3, Angular Separation
Measurement, students will measure the angular separation between each beam
of the PAA. In Exercise 2-4, Phased Array Antenna Gain Measurement, students
will determine the antenna gain using two different methods. In Exercise 2-5,
Maximum Scan Angle Measurement, students will determine the maximum scan
angle of the PAA using a target and they will verify their results using a scale
drawing of the Rotman lens and a protractor.
Exercise 2-6, Target Bearing Estimation, and Exercise 2-7, Target Speed
Estimation, deal with target related considerations. In Exercise 2-6, students will
determine the position of the target relative to a selected beam. In Exercise 2-7,
students will evaluate the speed of the target using the angular displacement
observed on the Radar Display during one scan.

Exercise 2-1 Beamwidth Measurement
Instructional Plan
A. Explain what the beamwidth is.
1. The beamwidth is usually defined by the angles at which the

antenna power pattern falls 3 dB (half power) below the main
beam peak.
2. The beamwidth is also used to describe the antenna's resolution

capabilities, i.e., the ability to distinguish between two adjacent
radiating sources or targets.
3. In a phased array, the beamwidth depends on the number of

elements and on the spacing between these elements.
B. Explain what the crossover point is.
1. In a phased array with a finite number of beams, the antenna

beams are usually separated such that a beam pattern crosses
the adjacent beam at the -3dB point.
2. The crossover point can be varied by increasing the number of

beams within a given scan range or by "widening" each beam
(reducing the number of elements in the array or reducing the
spacing between the elements).
3. If the angular separation between the two targets is smaller than

the HPBW, then the two targets will be recognized as a single
target.
C. Mention that the beamwidth of a phase array antenna depends on the

scan angle.
1. Explain that as the beam is scanned toward the endfire direction,

the beam broadens due to the fact that the effective aperture
presented by the array is progressively smaller than its physical
aperture.
2. State that for a large array, the half power beamwidth increases
as 1/𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃, 𝜃𝜃 being the scan angle.

Exercise 2-2 Radiation Pattern Measurement
Instructional Plan
A. Present the maximum directivity.
1. Assuming that all the complex amplitudes feeding each antenna

array element are equal (same amplitude and same phase) the
maximum directivity that can be achieved is equal to the number
(N) of array elements.
2. In a real array, the amplitude distribution will rarely be uniform

and the maximum directivity will not be realized.
B. Explain the relationship between the beamwidth, the sidelobe level, and
the amplitude distribution.
1. The beamwidth and the sidelobe level of an array antenna are

governed by the chosen amplitude distribution or aperture taper.
2. A uniform distribution will create the narrowest main lobe with the
highest sidelobe level (-13.4 dB). One way to reduce the
sidelobe level is to taper the array excitation, i.e., stronger
excitation at the array center than near the edge.
3. A side-effect of tapering is that the array beamwidth broadens as

the amplitude taper is increased.
4. Explain that the beamwidth and directivity of a phased array

antenna thus depends on the scan angle (𝜃𝜃).
5. Give the equations used to calculate the half power beamwidth

and directivity of a phased array antenna at a particular scan
angle 𝜃𝜃.
C. Explain the actual directivity of an array.
1. In general, the directivity of each element cannot simply be

added together. The area occupied by the antenna element
inside the array will limit its maximum directivity to a fixed value.
2. Due to mutual coupling between the radiating elements, the

radiation pattern of an isolated element may be significantly
different from the radiation pattern of the embedded element.
3. The antenna element radiation pattern may also vary with its
position along the array because the array has a finite number of
elements.

Exercise 2-3 Angular Separation Measurement
Instructional Plan
A. Present the angular separation.
1. The angular separation depends on two factors: the maximum

scan angle and the number of beams formed by the array.
2. If the scan angle is very wide and the number of beams is

relatively low, the angular separation will be high. Conversely, if
the scan angle is small and the number of beams is relatively
high, the angular separation will be low.
3. When designing a conventional array antenna, angular

separation must be such that the crossover level for adjacent
beams is about -3 dB, in order to minimize the crossover loss.
4. A crossover level that is too low will produce blind spots in the
radar scene and some targets will not be detected if they are
located between two consecutive beams.

Exercise 2-4 Phased Array Antenna Gain Measurement
Instructional Plan
A. Present the absolute gain of the antenna.
1. Although the gain of an antenna is closely related to its

directivity, the gain takes into account the efficiency of the
antenna as well as its directional capabilities.
2. Absolute gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the

intensity, in a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would
be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically.
3. The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically radiated

power is equal to the power accepted the antenna divided by 4𝜋𝜋.
B. Present the relative gain of the antenna.
1. The relative gain is defined as "the ratio of the power gain in a

given direction to the power gain of a reference antenna in its
reference direction," the power input being the same for both
antennas.
2. The reference antenna is an antenna for which the gain is known

or can be calculated. It is usually an isotropic radiator (G=0 dB)
or a reference dipole.
3. Gain is expressed in dBi or dBd, depending on the reference

antenna.
C. Explain the gain comparison method of measuring the gain of an

antenna. Present the equations used to calculate the antenna gain from
power levels measured with the antenna under test and a reference
antenna (equations 2-2 and 2-3 in the student manual).
D. Present the RCS method of measuring the gain of an antenna.
1. The RCS is the area of an isotropic radiator that would return the
same power as the target.
2. The radar cross section (RCS) is a far-field parameter used to

characterize the scattering properties of a radar target.
3. In general, the RCS of a target is a function of the polarization of

the incident wave, the angle of incidence, the angle of
observation, the geometry of the target, the electrical properties
of the target, and the frequency of operation.
4. The units of RCS for three dimensional targets are square

meters (m2) or dBm2.

E. Present the RCS method of measuring the gain of an antenna.
1. Explain that the RCS method of measuring the gain of an

antenna relies on the radar equation.
2. Determine the equation that relates the RCS of a target to the

transmitted power, received power, target range, and antenna
gain (see equations 2-4 to 2-8 in the student manual).
3. Explain that since the transmitted power, received power, and

target range can easily be measured, and that the RCS of a
reference target is known, the antenna gain can easily be
determined using equation 2-8 in the student manual.

Exercise 2-5 Maximum Scan Angle Measurement
Instructional Plan
A. Using Figure 2-3, present the maximum scan angle.
1. The maximum scan angle determines the maximum angle

scanned by the array antenna.
2. The maximum scan angle is directly related to the phase shift of

the signal between each of the array elements.
3. The maximum scan angle is given by the angular separation

between the broadside direction (normal to the array) and the
direction of the beam located farthest from broadside.
B. Using Figure 2-3, explain how to geometrically measure the maximum

scan angle.
1. The maximum scan angle is represented by 𝜃𝜃𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 , i.e., two times

the angle formed by the line joining the center of the focal arc to
the center of the array port side of the lens and the line joining
the center of the array port side to center of the last beam port
on the focal arc.

Exercise 2-6 Target Bearing Estimation
Instructional Plan
A. Using Figure 2-5 in the student manual, explain the equation that allows
calculation of the exact bearing of a target (𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 ) using the antenna beam
angular position (𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 ), the half power beamwidth of the antenna (𝜃𝜃𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 ), the
target echo amplitude when it is aligned with the antenna beam (𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ),
and the target echo amplitude when it is located at the bearing 𝜃𝜃𝑇𝑇 (𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇 ).
B. Explain that the adjacent beams of the antenna have to be verified to

determine on which side of the beam the target is located.

Exercise 2-7 Target Speed Estimation
Instructional Plan
A. Explain that the target speed can be evaluated using trigonometry.
B. Give an example of how to calculate the speed of a target moving

perpendicular to the radar line of sight.
1. Suppose that the angular separation between target echoes

(observed on a PPI display) from two consecutive antenna scans
is 7°, the target distance is 3 m, and the antenna scan rate
is 50 scans/min.
2. Using basic trigonometry, show that the distance (d) between the
two target echoes is equal to 2 x 3 m x tan (7°/2), that is, 37 cm.
3. Explain that since the antenna scan rate is 50 scans/min, the

time interval between each scan is 1.2 s.
4. The target speed is obtained by dividing the distance (𝑑𝑑)

evaluated before by the time interval between each antenna
scan. This gives a target speed of 31 cm/s in the present
example.

Appendix A
Hints for Using the Radar Training System

Connecting the Radar Receiver to the Dual-Channel Sampler
Use the limiter cables (36044) to connect the PULSED OUTPUTs of the Radar
Receiver to the PULSE INPUTs of the Dual-Channel Sampler. The limiter cables
serve to clip high-amplitude parasitic echoes which could cause offsets in the
received signals.
Cleaning SMA Connectors
With use, particles of metal may accumulate inside the SMA connectors on the
module front panels and on the SMA coaxial cables, causing attenuation of the
signal. This can be prevented by cleaning all SMA connectors from time to time
with a cotton swab.
Equipment Warm up
The equipment should be allowed to warm up before the beginning of the

exercise in order to reduce drift to a minimum.
Fault Switches
It is the instructor's responsibility to verify that all fault (FLT) switches in the
training modules are in the inactive (0) position before the students begin each
exercise. Software faults are deactivated when LVRTS is started.
The Radar Antenna and Rotating-Antenna Pedestal
The knob that secures the Radar Antenna to the Rotating-Antenna Pedestal
must be tightened firmly. Students should verify this from time to time.
The Radar Antenna is normally oriented using the Antenna Controller. If you wish
to orient it by hand, slightly unscrew the MOTOR POWER INPUT cable
connector on the Rotating-Antenna Pedestal until the antenna stops rotating and
can be rotated freely by hand. Screw the connector cable back in to resume
normal operation.
Using Test Equipment
Several exercises require using standard test equipment, such as a signal

generator, a frequency counter, etc. The instructor should verify that the proper
techniques be applied with such equipment.
Note that oscilloscope probes are always set to x1 (no attenuation), unless
otherwise specified.

Appendix A Hints for Using the Radar Training System
Using the Target Controller
Students may find it somewhat difficult at first to precisely position the target
using the Target Controller in the POSITION mode. This is because the Target
Positioning System has a stabilization time of several seconds. The target can be
moved approximately a millimeter at a time by "punching" and immediately
releasing the POSITION buttons. Students should become skillful at making this
and other delicate adjustments once they have some experience using the Radar
Training System.

Appendix B
Test Points and Block Diagrams
Radar Transmitter, Model 9620
Test Point Description

TP1 Isolator Output
TP2 Directional Coupler Input
TP3 CW/FM-CW RF Output
a
TP4 RF Oscillator Output
Each of these test points consists of an RF detector which uses a microwave

detector diode and an amplifier to indicate if the RF power level is normal (+5
V dc) or abnormal (0 V dc).

Appendix B Test Points and Block Diagrams
Figure 1. Test Point Locations – Radar Transmitter, Model 9620.

Radar Receiver, Model 9621
Test Point Description

TP1 RF Input
TP2 Local Oscillator Input
TP3 1-kHz Low-Pass Filter Input
TP4 CW Doppler Output
TP5 1-kHz High-Pass Filter Input
a
TP6 FM-CW Output
Test points 1 and 2 each consists of an RF detector which uses a microwave

detector diode and an amplifier to indicate if the RF power level is normal
(+5 V dc) or abnormal (0 V dc).

Figure 2. Test Point Locations – Radar Receiver, Model 9621.

Appendix C
Fault Switches
Radar Transmitter, Model 9620
Fault Mode(s)*
Description
Switch affected
Amplitude of baseband pulses is modulated by 60 Hz
FLT1 P
signal before output of pulse generator.
Amplitude of baseband pulses is modulated by noise
FLT2 P
before output of pulse generator.
Pulse generator output has 60 Hz phase jitter with respect
FLT3 P
to the trigger signal.
Pulse generator output has noise jitter with respect to the
FLT4 P
trigger signal.
FLT5 P Pulse Width selector becomes uncalibrated by ±50%.
Pulse generator output amplitude is reduced by at least
FLT6 P
50%.
No signal at RF oscillator output. An RF switch interrupts
FLT7 P/CW/FM
the output of the directional coupler.
No output from RF Power block. The RF switch remains in
FLT8 P/CW/FM
standby mode.
No output from isolator. DC power is interrupted to VCO,
FLT9 P/CW/FM preventing the source from oscillating and producing RF
power.
FM mode of oscillator is disabled. Output of internal
FLT10 FM triangle-wave sweep generator is interrupted. Control
voltage monitor output indicates no signal
* P: Pulsed mode
CW: CW mode
FM: FM-CW mode

Appendix C Fault Switches
Radar Receiver, Model 9621
Fault Mode(s)*
Description
Switch affected
No signal at RF input. An internal RF switch interrupts the
FLT1 P/CW/FM signal immediately after the SMA connector on the front
panel.
No signal at local oscillator input. Internal RF switch
FLT2 P/CW/FM
interrupts signal.
No output from I-channel pulsed output. DC power is
FLT3 P
interrupted to wideband amplifier.
No output from Q-channel pulsed output. DC power is
FLT4 P
interrupted to wideband amplifier.
No output from CW Doppler output. Signal is interrupted at
FLT5 CW
output of Iowpass filter.
No output from FM-CW output. Signal in interrupted at
FLT6 FM
output of 1-kHz highpass filter.
* P: Pulsed mode
CW: CW mode
FM: FM-CW mode

Appendix D
Answers to Unit Test Questions
Volume 1: Radar Principles
Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unit 1 b c c a d d b b d b
Unit 2 a d d a b a b c d b
Unit 3 d b a b c a b c a d
Unit 4 b c b b a c d a a c
Volume 2: Analog MTI Processing
Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unit 2 c b c c b a c b d a
Unit 3 b d a c b a a d b d
Unit 4 b d a d c a b d b d
Volume 5: Radar in an Active Target Environment
Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unit 1 c c a d c a b c b c
Unit 2 c a d d d c a d b d
Unit 3 b d b a a b a d d c
Unit 4 c a a c d a d c b d
Volume 6: Phased Array Antenna
Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Unit 1 a d a c b b c b a b
Unit 2 a a a c d b d b b b

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Radar Training System

By the staff of Festo Didactic

© Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2006

DANGER indicates a hazard with a high level of risk which, if not

WARNING indicates a hazard with a medium level of risk which,

CAUTION indicates a hazard with a low level of risk which, if not

CAUTION used without the Caution, risk of danger sign ,

Caution, risk of electric shock

Caution, hot surface

Caution, risk of danger

Caution, lifting hazard

Caution, hand entanglement hazard

Notice, non-ionizing radiation

Both direct and alternating current

Three-phase alternating current

Earth (ground) terminal

© Festo Didactic 38542-10 III

Protective conductor terminal

Frame or chassis terminal

Equipment protected throughout by double insulation or

In position of a bi-stable push control

Out position of a bi-stable push control

IV © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Volume 1 – Principles of Radar Systems ....................................................... XIII

Unit 1 Fundamentals of Pulsed Radars ................................................. 1

Unit 2 A Pulsed Radar System.............................................................. 13

Unit 3 CW Radars ................................................................................... 21

Unit 4 Troubleshooting Radar Systems .............................................. 31

Volume 2 – Analog MTI Processing ................................................................. 39

Unit 1 Analog Radar Systems ............................................................... 41

Unit 2 Analog MTI Radar ....................................................................... 47

© Festo Didactic 38542-10 V

Unit 3 Target Detection in Noise and Clutter ...................................... 63

Unit 4 Troubleshooting .......................................................................... 91

Volume 3 – Digital MTD Processing ................................................................. 97

Unit 1 Digital Pulse Radar Systems ..................................................... 99

Unit 2 MTD Detection Processing ...................................................... 103

Unit 3 Alarm Processing ..................................................................... 107

Unit 4 Troubleshooting ........................................................................ 111

Volume 4 – Tracking Radar ............................................................................. 113

VI © Festo Didactic 38542-10

Exercise 3 Automatic Range Tracking ................................ 118

Volume 5 – Radar in an Active Target Environment .................................... 131

Unit 1 Noise Jamming ......................................................................... 133

Unit 2 Range Deception Jamming ...................................................... 147

Unit 3 Angle Deception Jamming ....................................................... 155

Unit 4 Chaff ........................................................................................... 165

© Festo Didactic 38542-10 VII

Volume 6 – The Phased Array Antenna ......................................................... 171

Unit 1 Basic Operation ........................................................................ 173

Unit 2 Measurement of Useful Phased Array Antenna

Appendix B Test Points and Block Diagrams ............................................. 191

Appendix C Fault Switches ........................................................................... 195

Appendix D Answers to Unit Test Questions.............................................. 197

VIII © Festo Didactic 38542-10

The speed of propagation of electromagnetic waves (the speed of light) allows

It is in this context that we undertook to develop table-top radar specifically

We invite readers of this manual to send us their tips, feedback, and

Please send these to did@de.festo.com.

© Festo Didactic 38542-10 IX