Rocks and Minerals

Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals
1. Earth Scientists: Nature

Detectives
2. Elements and Atoms:
Basic Building Blocks
3. Minerals
4. Igneous Rocks
5. Sedimentary Rocks
6. Metamorphic Rocks
7. The Rock Cycle and
Mineral Resources
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Earth Scientists: Nature Detectives
Are the rocks on

Mars the same as
rocks on Earth?
The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

• Understanding rocks enables scientists to

• Locate mineral resources (e.g., copper, gypsum)
• Find fossil fuels (e.g., oil, gas, coal)
• Assess the risk from natural hazards such as
volcanic eruptions and tsunami
• Learn about Earth processes such as plate
tectonics
• Discover the history and origins of other planets

Original ideas about how rocks formed

• Neptunism
• Rocks formed in a global ocean when material
sank to ocean floor or was precipitated from
chemical reactions
• Plutonism
• Heat from Earth’s interior melted rocks or
caused them to fuse together

Examination of the production of bricks – manufactured
materials with some of the same characteristics as rocks -
can provide clues to rock formation processes
Bricks are made from raw materials Variations in the composition of raw
such as shale or fireclay found at materials produces different brick colors.
Earth’s surface Red bricks contain more iron.
Where do bricks come from? Resulting particles passed

Raw materials smashed into through a series of screens to
smaller pieces in crusher. sort materials by size.
Crushed materials ground to Sugar- and flour-sized particles
smaller size by grinding wheel. mixed with water and other
ingredients.

Small particles mixed with Excess water removed by
water and other ingredients. passing wet bricks slowly
Wet mixture forced through through long dryers (200oC).
brick-shaped form. Final stage is “firing” of bricks in
Wet “bar” cut into smaller brick- kiln at high temperatures
sized pieces. (1,100oC).

• Brick making, like rock

formation, involves:
− Physical disintegration of
raw materials
− Chemical changes
− Thermal effects
And brick making is

influenced by the
composition of the raw
materials, just like the
formation of rocks

Go back to the Table of Contents
Go to the next section: Elements and Atoms:

The Basic Building Blocks

Elements and Atoms: Basic Building Blocks
• The geosphere
is composed of
rocks and
ATMOSPHERE HYDROSPHERE
related
materials
BIOSPHERE GEOSPHERE

Rocks are made of minerals

• ~20 common minerals
• Example: The rock granite (below) is composed of
4 key minerals - feldspar, quartz, mica,
amphibole - and minor amounts of others.
biotite mica,
amphibole quartz
feldspar

Minerals are made of elements

• 8 common elements compose 98% of continental
crust rocks

Minerals are made of elements

• Some minerals (e.g., quartz) are composed of just
two elements
• Others (e.g., amphibole) are made up of several
elements
• Some elements occur more frequently than others

Atom – smallest particle that retains the

characteristics of an element
• Atoms are made up of

protons, neutrons,
and electrons
• Protons and neutrons
in atomic nucleus
• Electrons in
surrounding “cloud”

Atom – smallest particle that retains the

characteristics of an element
• Atomic number – the

number of protons in
the nucleus
• Each element has a
different number of
protons in the atomic
nucleus
• Example: Neon has
10 protons, Helium
has 2 protons

Atoms may have negative or positive charge if

they gain or lose electrons
• Ions – atoms with different numbers of
protons (positive) and electrons (negative)
− Oxygen can
gain two
electrons to fill
vacant sites
− 8 protons, 10
electrons Æ -2
(negative
charge, O2-)
− Silicon may lose 4 electrons
Æ +4 (positive charge, Si4+)

Rocks and Minerals Checkpoint 7.1

Elements bond together to form minerals
• Ionic bonds – balance of negative and

positive charges of different ions (e.g., rock
salt)
• Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons
between elements (e.g., diamond) to
achieve a stable atomic structure

• Ionic bonds – balance of negative and positive charges
Chlorine ion gains extra electron to

Sodium atom loses extra produce a negative charge (Cl-)
electron to yield a positive
charge (Na+)

Ionic bonds – balance of negative and positive charges
• Sodium and chlorine

bond together to form
rock salt (halite)
− Ionic bond – balance
of positive sodium ions
with negative chlorine
ions (NaCl)

Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons between elements
• Hydrogen and
oxygen bond
together to form
water (H2O)
− Covalent
bond –
sharing of
electrons
between
atoms ions

Multiple bonds – silicon and oxygen join together
by a combination of ionic and covalent bonding
• 4 oxygen and one

silicon atom combine
by covalent bonds to
form a silica
tetrahedron (SiO4)
− Tetrahedron has a
negative charge (4-)
and forms ionic
bonds with atoms of
other elements

Silicate minerals – contain both silicon and oxygen
• Silicon and oxygen

are most common
elements in crust
• Silicates are the
most common
mineral group
− Examples: quartz,
feldspar, mica,
amphibole

Different types of bonds result in

minerals of different strengths
• Type of bonds determine strength of
minerals, rocks
− Ionic bonds – Velcro analogy, weaker bonds
− Covalent bonds – Rope analogy, stronger
bonds
• Minerals formed with covalent bonds are
stronger and more resistant to destructive
forces at Earth’s surface
− Silicates form more resistant rocks than most
other mineral groups

Silica tetrahedra combine

together in different
patterns in different
silicate minerals
• Minerals with low silica

content have simple
structures
− Olivine, amphibole
• Minerals with high silica
content have more
complex structures
− Quartz, feldspar

Rocks and Minerals Conceptest
Which of the following mineral

formulae represents a silicate?
A. FeS2
B. KAlSi3O8
C. Fe2O3
D. CaSO4•2H2O

The total electrical charges of the ions of the

elements in the mineral olivine must balance.
From the data in Table 7.1, which is the most
reasonable formula for the mineral?
A. MgSiO2
B. MgSiO4
C. Mg2SiO4
D. Mg4SiO2

Go to the next section: Minerals

Minerals
• Minerals: Naturally occurring, inorganic solids of one or
more elements that have a definite chemical composition
with an orderly internal arrangement of atoms
Quartz Muscovite Mica Orthoclase Feldspar
Galena Iron Pyrite Halite

Minerals
Mineral Characteristics
Pyramids of calcite
• Crystal form – the
arrangement of the faces
of a crystal to form a
particular shape
Needles of tourmaline
− Common shapes are
Prisms
Pyramids
Needles
Cubes
Sheets

Minerals
• Cleavage – minerals
break along planes of
weakness defined by Mica Æ 1 set of cleavage planes
atomic structure
− Cleavage planes more
likely to occur across
weak bonds between
ions
− Example: mica forms
sheets joined by weak
ionic bonds

Minerals
• Cleavage – minerals
break along planes of
weakness defined by
atomic structure
Feldspar Æ 2 sets of cleavage planes
− Example: feldspar has
2 cleavage planes that
intersect at 90 degrees
− Example: amphibole
has 2 cleavage planes
that are not at 90
degrees to each other
Amphibole Æ 2 sets of cleavage planes


Minerals
• Hardness – minerals
ranked by their relative
hardness using Mohs
Hardness Scale
− Harder minerals can
scratch softer minerals
− Softer minerals more
likely to break down at
Earth’s surface
− More resistant minerals
more likely to be
preserved (e.g., quartz
sand on beaches)
Minerals
• Color – minerals have
characteristic colors
− Dark minerals (black,
brown, dark green)
Olivine, amphibole,
pyroxene, biotite mica
− Light minerals (white,
gray, pink)
Quartz, feldspar,
muscovite mica, calcite
− Careful, some minerals
have many colors

Minerals
• Other – luster, streak
− Streak – color of mark
on unglazed porcelain
− Example: brown streak of
hematite (iron mineral)
− Luster: how light

reflects from mineral
− Example: metallic luster
of iron pyrite

Atoms to rocks: How they fit together

Fill in the concept map to assess your
understanding of minerals
Go to the next section: Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks
Two types of igneous rocks are classified based
on texture and composition
The same magma can form both rock types
1. Volcanic rocks –
form when
magma rises to
Earth's surface
• Produces
volcanoes, lava
flows, tephra
• Molten rock cools
rapidly

Igneous Rocks
Two types of igneous rocks are classified based
on texture and composition
The same magma can form both rock types
2. Plutonic rocks –
form when magma
solidifies below
Earth's surface
• Produces plutons
that remain hidden
until exposed by
erosion
Examples of Plutons • Molten rock cools
Batholith, stock, sill, dike, laccolith slowly

Igneous Rocks
Examine these objects
• On the basis of
observations only,
how could you
classify these
objects into
different groups?

Igneous Rocks
These objects could

be classified on the
basis of their:
• Size
• Color
• Shape
• Materials
• Orientation
• Other?
We can classify
igneous rocks using
similar features

Igneous Rocks
Texture
Rapid cooling in • Size of crystals of
volcanic rocks
minerals in igneous
rocks depends on rate
of cooling of magma
− Rapid cooling produces
microscopic crystals
− Slow cooling produces
large, visible crystals
• Crystal size interpreted
Slow cooling in plutonic rocks to learn where rocks
formed

Igneous Rocks
Color
• Color varies with
silica content
(composition)
− Silica-rich minerals
such as quartz
High silica Intermediate silica Low silica and feldspar are
light-colored
− Silica-poor
minerals such as
amphibole, biotite
mica are dark
colored

Igneous Rocks

Igneous Rocks
Silica-poor
rocks are
composed
Silica-rich mainly of
rocks are feldspar with
composed iron and
mainly of magnesium
minerals rich minerals
quartz and (e.g.
feldspar amphibole,
pyroxene,
olivine)

Geologists sometimes find a type of igneous

rock known as porphyry, which contains both
large and small crystals. Which is the best
explanation for the formation of this rock?
The rock experienced a two-stage cooling process . .
A. . . with initial slow cooling at depth followed

by rapid cooling at the surface.
B. . . with initial rapid cooling at depth followed
by slow cooling at the surface.
C. . . with initial rapid cooling near the surface
followed by slow cooling at depth.
D. . . with initial slow cooling near the surface
followed by rapid cooling at depth.

This rock sample corresponds to . . .
A. A low silica volcanic

rock.
B. A low silica plutonic rock.
C. A high silica plutonic
rock.
D. A high silica volcanic
rock.

Igneous Rocks
Rock Types and Magma Types
3 Magma Types
• Basaltic magma –
partial melting parts of
asthenosphere
3 • Andesitic magma –
1 partial melting of
mantle rocks (with
water)
2 • Rhyolitic magma -
melting of parts of
continental crust
Each magma type may produce two
rocks – one volcanic, one plutonic
Igneous Rocks
Rock Types and Magma Types
• Less viscous, low

silica magma likely to
reach surface to form
volcanic igneous rocks
(e.g., basalt)
Basalt lava, Hawaii
• More viscous, high silica

magma likely to cool
below surface to form
plutonic igneous rocks
Granite batholiths, Sierra Nevada (e.g., granite)
Mountains, California
A B
Name these igneous rocks and explain the reasons for your choices.
C D

Complete the
table by
identifying
which of the
characteristics
are present in
volcanic and/
or plutonic
igneous rocks.

Crystallization of silicate minerals from magma.

Rocks and Minerals
Checkpoint 7.12
Finish the partially filed

in concept map for
igneous rocks by filling in
the blanks with
appropriate terms.
Three of the terms are
magma, basalt and
plutonic rocks.

Go to the next section: Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form as horizontal layers (beds)
− identified based on composition, thickness
− oldest beds at bottom, youngest at top

Sedimentary Rocks
Three types of sedimentary rocks
• Clastic, Chemical, Biochemical
− Identified by materials that make up the rock
and/or the process by which they formed

Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
• Composed of rock and

mineral fragments
− Most common type of
sedimentary rock
• 3 stages of formation
− Generation
− Transportation
− Lithification

Sedimentary Rocks
1. Generation
− Physical and chemical
breakdown of any rock at
Earth’s surface
(weathering) to form
sediment
− Sediment = rock and
mineral fragments
− Sediment classified by
grain size
Clay
Silt Increasing
grain size
Sand
Sediment generated by weathering of Gravel
Himalayas and transported in rivers
Sedimentary Rocks
2. Transportation
− Erosion Æ Sediment
moved from place of
origin by streams, wind,
glaciers
− Size of transported
grains depends on
velocity of transport
medium
− Erosion produces
characteristic
landscapes
Sediment (dust) transported by prevailing
winds from Africa toward the Atlantic Ocean

Sedimentary Rocks
3. Lithification
− Sediment deposited when
velocity of transport
medium decreases
− Larger grain sizes
deposited first, finest
grains remain in
suspension and are
deposited last
− Over time, sediment is
slowly compacted and
grains are cemented
together to form a new
Deposited sediment of
contrasting grain sizes. rock (lithification)

Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic Sediment and Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
− Rock names reflect grain size
Mudstone, Shale made of clay, silt-sized grains
Sandstone composed of sand-sized particles
Conglomerate made of gravel and larger fragments
Sandstone composed of quartz Conglomerate composed of

grains of similar sizes. gravel-sized rock fragments

Sedimentary Rocks
− Rock names reflect grain size (see Table 7.5)
− Transportation process sorts grains so deposits may have
characteristic grain size (e.g., sand on a beach)

Sedimentary Rocks
• Transportation process sorts grains so deposits
may have characteristic grain size (e.g., sand
on a beach)
• Sedimentary rocks hold clues to the
environment where they were formed:
− Example: river channels
High velocity flow in floods - gravels (conglomerate)
Moderate speed flow – sand (sandstone)
Slow flow - muds (shale)

Examine the diagram. Weathering, transportation,

and deposition can occur during steps:
6 1
A. 1, 2, 3
7
B. 3, 5, 7
5 8 2 C. 2, 4, 8
3 D. 4, 5, 6
4

What observations can you make about the grain size
and arrangement of these clastic sediments that would
help determine their origin?

Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks • Form when minerals
precipitate
(crystallize) from a
solution as a result
of changing physical
conditions
− Solutions = fresh
water in lakes,
groundwater or
seawater
− Changing conditions
commonly =
Salt deposited on floor of ancient Lake increased
Bonneville, Utah temperatures
(evaporation)

Sedimentary Rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks • Can be readily
dissolved in water
and transported to
oceans
• Rocks are typically
indicative of shallow,
coastal marine
conditions in
geologic past
− Termed evaporites
as most form by
Salt deposited on floor of ancient Lake precipitation due to
Bonneville, Utah evaporation

Sedimentary Rocks
Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
• Link the biosphere

and geosphere
• Form due to actions
of living organisms
that cause minerals
to be extracted from
solution
OR
• From the remains of
dead organisms

Sedimentary Rocks
• Form due to actions
of living organisms
that cause minerals
to be extracted from
solution
− The mineral calcite
is present in the rock
limestone formed by
coral organisms that
build tropical reefs
Coral reef formed in shallow, tropical sea

Sedimentary Rocks
• May form from the

remains of dead
organisms
Coquina − Coquina Æ limestone
formed from broken
shell fragments
− Coal Æ carbon-rich
rock formed from
compacted plant
remains
Coal seam, Wyoming

Sedimentary Rocks
remains of dead
organisms
− Chalk formed from
billions of coccoliths,
round plates of calcite
from microscopic (clay-
sized) coccolithophore
organisms
− Chalk is a type of
limestone

Sedimentary Rocks
remains of dead
organisms
− Coccolithophores live
in cold oceans
− Reflect sunlight to
change water color
− Chalk indicates
specific marine
conditions in geologic
past

Use the Venn

diagram to
compare and
contrast
chemical and
biochemical
sedimentary
rocks. Identify
at least seven
characteristics.

Sedimentary Rocks and Fossil Fuels
World is heavily dependant on oil and natural gas
− Form from buried organic-

rich sediments.
− Chemical reactions
convert organics with
increased pressures and
temperatures of 50-100
ºC.
− Over time (Myrs), oil and
gas can form.
− Oil and gas may be
trapped to form
hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Sedimentary Rocks and Coal
US has some of the largest coal reserves in the world.
− Form from buried plants.

− Coal type (rank) depends
on organic content of
parent material, burial
depth and heat.
− Over time (Myrs), coal can
form.
− Lignite (low grade);
bituminous (medium);
anthracite (high).

Go to the next section: Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism
• Changes in mineral composition and texture
that can occur in any solid rock
• Changes due to increasing temperature
and/or pressure and/or the presence of
fluids.
− Temperatures high enough to promote chemical
reactions but not high enough to cause melting
Approximately 200oC Æ1100oC, depending on rock
type and conditions
Similar temperatures found deep in crust or near
magma chambers

Metamorphic Rocks
Two types of metamorphism

1. Contact metamorphism
• Changes due to
increases in
temperature where
rocks come in contact
with heat source (e.g.
magma chamber)
− Example: limestone
around a magma
chamber is baked by the Marble (above) and limestone have
similar composition but marble
heat to form marble typically has a larger grain size

Metamorphic Rocks

2. Regional metamorphism
• Increased heat and
pressure associated with
associated with plate
tectonic processes that
form mountains
− Increased pressures and
temperatures cause Foliation is produced when tabular
tabular minerals to take on minerals grow perpendicular to the
a preferred orientation, direction of pressure.
foliation, perpendicular to
direction of pressure

Metamorphic Rocks
Increased pressures and
temperatures cause tabular
minerals to take on a
preferred orientation,
foliation, perpendicular to Unmetamorphosed,
direction of pressure non-foliated original
rock (granite) with
random distribution
of minerals
foliation Metamorphic rock

(gneiss) with
foliation illustrates
parallel alignment of
minerals

Metamorphic Rocks

2. Regional metamorphism − Grain size increases with
degree of metamorphism
• Higher temperatures and (metamorphic grade)
pressures yield more − Rock names vary with
intense metamorphism grain size

The conversion from bread to toast

can be seen as an analog for the
formation of a metamorphic rock by:
A.Contact metamorphism
B.Regional metamorphism

Complete the table

by identifying
which of the
characteristics are
present in rocks
formed by contact
and/or regional
metamorphism.

Contact versus Regional Metamorphic Rocks
Checkpoint 7.19
Use the Venn

diagram to
compare and
contrast
metamorphic rocks
formed by contact
and regional
processes. Add at
least eight items to
the diagram.

Go to the next section: Rock Cycle and

Mineral Resources

The Rock Cycle and Mineral Resources
• Rock cycle links igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic rocks together.
− Any rock can become any other rock under
the appropriate conditions.

Cooking an egg could be seen as

an analog for the formation of :
A. Igneous rock.
B. Sedimentary rock.
C. Metamorphic rock.

Concrete is formed by adding cement

and water to a mixture of sand and
gravel. This could be seen as an
analog for the formation of what type of
sedimentary rock?
A. Clastic rock.
B. Chemical rock.
C. Biochemical rock.

The diagram illustrates

the rock cycle. Match the
letters below to the blank
ovals on the diagram.
(Note: some letters are
used more than once.)
A. Cementation and compaction (lithification)

B. Heat and Pressure
C. Weathering, transportation, deposition
D. Cooling and solidification
E. Melting
Mineral Resources
• Mineral resources result from specific geologic processes
associated with formation of rocks.
− Can result from chemical reactions driven by changing
temperatures and movement of fluids through rocks.

Mineral Resources
− Can result when minerals crystallize at different temperatures.
platinum
Mineral Resources
− Can result from concentration of various types of rocks and
minerals during erosion, transportation and deposition.
View of the Stullwater Mine,

Nye, MT where rocks are
collected for making lunar
regolith simulant.
Credit: U.S. Geological Survey

Department of the Interior/USGS
U.S. Geological Survey/photo.

Rocks and Minerals Concept Map
Complete the
concept map to
evaluate your
understanding of
the interactions
between the earth
system and rocks
and minerals.
Label as many
interactions as
you can using
information from
this chapter.

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Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

1. Earth Scientists: Nature

Are the rocks on

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

• Understanding rocks enables scientists to

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Original ideas about how rocks formed

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Where do bricks come from? Resulting particles passed

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

• Brick making, like rock

And brick making is

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Go to the next section: Elements and Atoms:

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Rocks are made of minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Minerals are made of elements

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Minerals are made of elements

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Atom – smallest particle that retains the

• Atoms are made up of

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Atom – smallest particle that retains the

• Atomic number – the

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Atoms may have negative or positive charge if

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Elements bond together to form minerals

• Ionic bonds – balance of negative and

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

• Ionic bonds – balance of negative and positive charges

Chlorine ion gains extra electron to

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Ionic bonds – balance of negative and positive charges

• Sodium and chlorine

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Covalent bonds – sharing of electrons between elements

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

• 4 oxygen and one

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Silicate minerals – contain both silicon and oxygen

• Silicon and oxygen

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Different types of bonds result in

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Silica tetrahedra combine

• Minerals with low silica

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Which of the following mineral

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

The total electrical charges of the ions of the

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Go to the next section: Minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

Quartz Muscovite Mica Orthoclase Feldspar

Galena Iron Pyrite Halite

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals

The Good Earth, Chapter 7: Rocks and Minerals