CHAPTER 1: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

LESSON 1: Origin of the Universe

DEFINITION OF TERMS

A. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons that comprises atoms,
planets, stars, galaxies, and other bodies
B. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not emit light.
C. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a force that counteracts gravity and causes the universe to expand.
D. Protostar - an early stage in the formation of a star resulting from the gravitational collapse of gases.
E. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction responsible for the energy produced by stars.
F. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their cores; outward
pressure resulting from nuclear fusion is balanced by gravitational forces
G. Light years - the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of length used to measure astronomical distance

Structure, Composition, and Age

 Universe - derives from the Old French word univers, which in turn derives from
the Latin word universum.
is all of space and time (spacetime) and its contents, which includes planets, moons, minor
planets, stars, galaxies, the contents of intergalactic space and all matter and energy.
 sometimes called cosmos
 It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter, 24% cold dark matter, and 71.4% dark energy.
 Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies together for the reason that the low total mass is
insufficient for gravity alone to do so while dark energy can explain the observed accelerating
expansion of the universe.
 Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements.
 Stars - the building block of galaxies-are born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies. Instabilities
within the clouds eventually results into gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up, and transformation
into a protostar-the hot core of a future star as thermonuclear reactions set in.
 Stellar interiors are like furnaces where elements are synthesized or combined/fused together. Most
stars such as the Sun belong to the so-called “main sequence stars.” In the cores of such stars,
hydrogen atoms are fused through thermonuclear reactions to make helium atoms. Massive main
sequence stars burn up their hydrogen faster than smaller stars. Stars like our Sun burnup hydrogen in
about 10 billion years.
 A galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of galaxies form superclusters. In between the
clusters is practically an empty space. This organization of matter in the universe suggests that it is
indeed clumpy at a certain scale. But at a large scale, it appears homogeneous and isotropic.
 Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old. The diameter of the universe is possibly
infinite but should be at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km). Its density is 4.5 x
10-31 g/cm3.

ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

Non-scientific Thought
 Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from an infinite
sea at the first rising of the sun.
 The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a
dark and water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
 In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes, and
mind became the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
 The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being created the
universe, including man and other living organisms.

Creationist Theory
 This theory states that God, the Supreme Being created the whole universe out of nothing. The proof
can be read in the Holy Bible stipulating that God created the heaven and the Earth including man.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 1

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
Steady State Model
 The now discredited steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by Hermann Bondi and
Thomas Gould and by Fred Hoyle.
 This theory states that the universe has always been the same since the beginning and will remain in
its present state until eternity. It further claims that the new galaxies appear as a result of the drifting of
other galaxies.
 Its predictions led to tests and its eventual rejection with the discovery of the cosmic microwave
background.

Oscillating Universe Theory

 proposed by a Russian-born US cosmologist GEORGE GAMOW
 he said that the expansion of the universe will eventually come to a halt then it collapses up to the time
that the universe will return to its original form and form another Big Bang will occur. This process will
happen as a cycle.

Big Bang Theory

 Georges Lemaître, a Belgian priest, is considered as the first proponent of the Big Bang Theory.
 As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang Theory
postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and hot mass to its
present size and much cooler state.
 It states that the universe started as a singularity that exploded. This explosion resulted to the formation
of all the matter in universe.
 The Big Bang Theory has withstood the tests for expansion: 1) the redshift 2) abundance of hydrogen,
helium, and lithium, and 3) the uniformly pervasive cosmic microwave background radiation-the
remnant heat from the bang.
 In 1929, Edwin Hubble announced his significant discovery of the “redshift” and its interpretation that
galaxies are moving away from each other, hence as evidence for an expanding universe, just as
predicted by Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.
 He observed that spectral lines of starlight made to pass through a prism are shifted toward the
red part of the electromagnetic spectrum, i.e., toward the band of lower frequency; thus, the
inference that the star or galaxy must be moving away from us.
 Red shift as evidence for an expanding universe. The positions of the absorptions lines for
helium for light coming from the Sun are shifted towards the red end as compared with those for
a distant star. This evidence for expansion contradicted the previously held view of a static and
unchanging universe.
 Cosmic Microwave Background
1. There is a pervasive cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation in the universe. Its
accidental discovery in 1964 by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson earned them the physics
Nobel Prize in 1978.
2. It can be observed as a strikingly uniform faint glow in the microwave band coming from all
directions-blackbody radiation with an average temperature of about 2.7 degrees above absolute zero.

Evolution of the Universe according to the Big Bang Theory

all energy and matter of the universe were compressed into hot and dense state

big bang (nucleosynthesis took place)

great quantities of helium and hydrogen created

3 millions later huge clouds began to condense

100 million years later from time zero formation of galaxies

From 9.8 billion years until the present, the universe became dark-energy dominated and underwent
accelerating expansion. At about 9.8 billion years after the big bang, the solar system was formed.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 2

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
Lesson 2: Origin of the Solar System
SOLAR SYSTEM

Overview

A. The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy - a huge disc- and spiral-shaped aggregation of about
at least 100 billion stars and other bodies;
B. Its spiral arms rotate around a globular cluster or bulge of many, many stars, at the center of which lies a
super massive blackhole;
C. This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km;
D. The solar system revolves around the galactic center once in about 240 million years;
E. The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo super
cluster of galaxies;
F. Based on the assumption that they are remnants of the materials from which they were formed, radioactive
dating of meteorites, suggests that the Earth and solar system are 4.6 billion years old on the assumption
that they are remnants of the materials from which they were formed.

Large Scale Features of the Solar System

1. Much of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated at the center (Sun) while angular momentum is held
by the outer planets.
2. Orbits of the planets elliptical and are on the same plane.
3. All planets revolve around the sun.
4. The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the innermost planet
moves fastest, the outermost, the slowest;
5. All planets are located at regular intervals from the Sun.

Small scale features of the Solar System

1. Most planets rotate prograde

2. Inner terrestrial planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron , and nickel.
They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles - hydrogen,
helium, and noble gases.
3. The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called "gas giants" because of the
dominance of gases and their larger size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, and fluid
interiors rich in hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia, methane).

MODELS OF SOLAR SYSTEM (BEFORE BIG BANG THEORY)

1. GEOCENTRIC MODEL – proposed by PTOLEMY

o The Earth is the center of the System and all planets including Sun revolve around it, it was
accepted until the end of the 16th century.
2. HELIOCENTRIC MODEL – proposed by NICHOLAS COPERNICUS
o The Sun is the center of the System and all planets including Earth revolve around it.
3. HYBRID MODEL OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM – proposed by TYCHO BRAHE
o AKA GEOHELIOCENTRIC MODEL
o Brahe proposed a model of the Solar System that was intermediate between the Ptolemic and
Copernican models (it had the Earth at the center, the sun, moon and the stars revolve around
the Earth, and the other planets revolve around the sun). It proved to be incorrect, but was the
most widely accepted model of the Solar System for a time.

ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

1. Nebular Hypothesis – proposed by IMMANUEL KANT & PIERRE-SIMON LAPLACE

o States that the entire solar system starts as a large cloud of gas that contracted due to self-
gravity
o Conservation of angular momentum requires that a rotating disk form with a large concentration
at the center, which starts as the protosun, while planets began forming within the disk
o 99% of the mass is in the planets
o presumes that the solar system began as a cloud of dispersed interstellar gas called nebula
o gravitational attraction between particles caused them to start moving and colliding
o nebular aggregates became larger and become planets

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 3

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
 2. Encounter Hypothesis – proposed by GEORGES LECLERC AND COMTE DE BUFFON
o A rogue star passed close to the sun and stripped materials (hot gases) from both the sun and
the rogue star
o The hot gases continued to spin in the same direction as the sun, and coalesced into smaller
lumps which formed the planets
o This hypothesis explained why all the planets revolve in the same direction

3. Protoplanet Hypothesis – proposed by CARL VON WEIZSÄCKER AND GERARD KUIPER

o It is a modified version of the nebular hypothesis. The above theorist believed that the solar
system started from a nebula.
o The solar system began with a fragment from an interstellar cloud composed mainly of
hydrogen, helium and trace amounts of the light elements
o The fragments of the interstellar cloud then formed the dense central region of the solar nebula,
which collapsed more rapidly than its outlying parts
o As the solar nebula contracted, it rotated more rapidly, conserving its angular momentum
o It also grew by accretion as material continued to fall inward from its surroundings. The solar
nebula eventually evolved into the sun
o the dense area of the nebula and the gaseous matter surrounding it ceased to rotate uniformly
o the nebula broke into whirlpools of gas within a rotating mass called PROTOPLANETS.

Lesson 3: Earth the Living Planet

Earth is considered as a home of simple single-celled organisms up to the most complex life forms including
humans. It is undeniable that the planet we live in is a rare planet as it is the only planet in our solar system
that permits life. The different characteristics of Earth are responsible for the proliferation of life.

FACTORS THAT MAKE A PLANET HABITABLE

1. Temperature
o Influences how quickly atoms & molecules move
o Life seems limited to a temperature range of – 15 oC to 115 oC. In this range, liquid water can
still exist under certain conditions.
2. Water
o Influences how quickly atoms & molecules move
o Life seems limited to a temperature range of minus 15oC to 115oC. In this range, liquid water
can still exist under certain conditions.
3. Atmosphere
o Traps heat, shields the surface from harmful radiation, and provides chemicals needed for life,
such as nitrogen and carbon dioxide.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 4

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
 Earth & Venus are the right size to hold a sufficient-sized atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere is
o
about 100 miles thick. It keeps the surface warm & protects it from radiation & small- to medium-
sized meteorites.
4. Energy
o Organisms use light or chemical energy to run their life processes.
o With a steady input of either light or chemical energy, cells can run the chemical reactions
necessary for life.
5. Nutrients
o Used to build and maintain an organism’s body.
o All solid planets & moons have the same general chemical makeup, so nutrients are present.
Those with a water cycle or volcanic activity can transport and replenish the chemicals required
by living organisms.

Lesson 4: Earth Subsystem

System - A set of interconnected components that are interacting to form a unified whole.
o Earth system is essentially a closed system. It receives energy from the sun and returns some of this
energy to space.

4 Spheres Of The Earth

1. Hydrosphere
 About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean
water
 Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-third is
present in streams, lakes, and groundwater.

2.Atmosphere
 Thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
 Is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.
 One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is
through atmospheric circulation.
 There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere
through the hydrologic cycle.
 The atmosphere has different layers – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and
exosphere.
 The troposphere extends to about 14.5 km above the Earth's surface. It is the lowest layer
where the weather forms.
 The stratosphere is found 14.5 to 50 km above the Earth's surface. The ozone layer that
protects the Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation is found in this layer.
 The mesosphere extends from 50 to 85 km above the Earth's surface. It protects the Earth from
the impact of space debris.
 The thermosphere is found 85 to 600 km above the Earth's surface. It has charged particles that
are affected by the Earth's magnetic field. The particles create the Auroras or Northern and
Southern lights.
 The exosphere is the farthest layer. It extends to about 10 000 km above the Earth's surface.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 5

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
 3. Lithosphere/Geosphere
 The solid region of the Earth
 It includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner
core.

4.Biosphere
 It is the biological component of Earth.
 Is the set of all life forms on Earth.
 It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the
plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep sea.
 For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic organisms. During
photosynthesis, CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct.
The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore, an important part of the carbon cycle.

Lesson 5: Advancements on the Solar System

Pluto's Status

 In 1930, Clyde Tombaugh discovered Pluto as the ninth planet in the solar system. However, the
discovery of Kuiper Belt (an area after Neptune that contains asteroids, comets, and other celestial
bodies) questioned the status of Pluto as a planet.
 In 2005, Eris, a Kuiper Belt object, was discovered to be 10 percent bigger than Pluto.
 At first, Eris was suggested as the tenth planet in the solar system.
 Its incapability to clear its orbit due to lack of gravity led to classify it as a dwarf planet together
with Pluto. Other dwarf planets are Ceres in the Asteroid Belt and Makemake and Haumea both
in the Kuiper Belt.
 Dwarf planets are celestial bodies that orbit the sun, have enough mass to assume a nearly
round shape, and have not cleared its orbit due to lack of gravity.

Planet X
 However, recent observations by two astronomers, Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin, led to the
speculation that a ninth planet is present in our solar system. They discovered six clustered objects in
the Kuiper Belt and stated that this clustering is due to the presence of a planet enough to put them in
place. Calculations and observations have been done to claim that a Planet X exists. However, other
astronomers stated that until it is seen, the claim for the ninth planet in our solar system is still in
question.

Mars Rover Mission

 Since 1970s, NASA has been deploying Mars Exploration Rovers to examine the nearest planet to
Earth, Mars. They examined materials of Mars’ lithosphere and assessed if the weather condition is
viable for the survival of life.
 Its mission was focused on the physical characteristics of the planet. It aimed to collect data on how the
planet formed its rocks and soil and whether or not water has been responsible for the weathering and
erosion of rocks. The rovers examined the rocks and analyzed that it had sedimentary rocks that can
be formed if rocks are soaked for a long time in the water.
 Based on the data collected, scientists believe that Mars had water in the past, and this water sustained
some microorganisms.
 Since January 2014, rovers started digging for fossilized evidence of ancient life.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 6

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
Mars One Program

 The Mars One Program aims to land the first humans on Mars and establish a human colony on that
planet by 2027.
 In 2014, the program chose astronauts that will be sent to Mars. Plans of landing rovers and
establishing communication satellites were also formulated. The target is that by the year 2022, the first
crew will start its travel to Mars and will reach it after a year, and by 2035, the colony will have twenty
crew and will be able to sustain itself.

Titan’s Water

 Titan is Saturn’s largest moon. Astronomers studying the Titan’s composition lead to the discovery that
liquid substance is present on the moon in the form of liquid methane. Below is an image that was
taken from the shutter-snapping Cassini spacecraft which shows the most detailed look at one of the
famous lakes on the surface of Titan.
 The discovery of Titan has been a breakthrough since it is the only known celestial body in our solar
system that has liquid substance on it, aside from Earth.
 It was also discovered that the Titan is undergoing chemical processes, the same processes that the
Early Earth have undergone. If the Sun became large enough, it will receive the same amount of solar
energy we are receiving, thus, making the possibility for life’s survival possible.

Lesson 6: Contributors in Understanding the Earth Systems

Earth System Science (ESS)

 It is the study of the Earth as a system. It considers interactions between the Earth’s “spheres” –
atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. It is a relatively new field whose foundations are
established long ago by scientists in other fields.
 It is an integration of chemistry, physics, biology, and mathematics. It is the study of the Earth as an
integrated system. It seeks to understand the past, current, and future states of the Earth.

Who are the scientists who contributed to the understanding of the Earth system?

1. James Hutton, the father of modern geology, proposed uniformitarianism, which implies that the present
geological processes are the same as those in the past.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 7

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
2. Alexander von Humboldt laid the foundations for Earth System Science by his holistic observations of
nature.

3. Vladimir Vernadsky, one of the founders of geochemistry, popularized the term noosphere, which is the
sphere of human consciousness.

4. James Lovelock and Lynn Margulis collaborated on the Gaia hypothesis, which postulates that the
Earth works as a self-regulating system.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

 studies components of the Earth system, their linkages, dependencies, and fluxes.
 The major landmark in the formal development of the Earth System Science was the formation of the
Earth System Science Committee in NASA in 1983.

Lesson 7: The Internal Structure of Earth

The Earth consists of three layers: core, mantle, and crust. The solid outer layer is the crust. A semi-molten
rock called magma lies in the mantle below the crust. Beneath the mantle is the core. The outer core is a
liquid mixture of nickel and iron while the inner core is solid.

The Crust

 The crust is a very thin layer that measures between 0 and 60 km.
 It has two layers and is composed of two major kinds of rocks.
o The thick continental crust, about 32 km, makes up the land surface of the Earth and is
composed primarily of dense materials such as granite.
o The thin oceanic crust has a depth of 5–10 km and is made up of basalt which is less dense
than granite.
 The crust can be broken down into plates which produce earthquakes when they move along each
other.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 8

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE
The Mantle

 The mantle is below the crust. It is the thickest layer of the Earth, spanning almost 2900 km and making
up 84% of the Earth’s volume.
 It contains magma. It is primarily solid but behaves as a viscous liquid. This behavior is due to
temperature differences towards the lower mantle. As the depth becomes near the core, the
temperature increases. This is known as the geothermal gradient, the increase in temperature with
depth. In the upper mantle, the temperatures range from 600 to 900 °C. In the lower mantle, the
temperature can reach over 4000 °C.
 Convection currents carry heat from the hot inner mantle to the cooler outer mantle. If the upper part of
the mantle cools down, it becomes part of the crust. Also, this process is responsible for earthquakes
and other geological processes.

 The crust and the upper part of the mantle make up the lithosphere, a zone of rigid, brittle rock. The
layer below it is called the asthenosphere. This part of the mantle is solid in a plastic manner (flows
very slowly), allowing the plates to move on top of it.

The Core

 The core is at the center of the Earth. In this region, the temperature is hotter than the mantle.
 It is divided into two parts: the outer core and the inner core.
o The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick. It is composed primarily of iron and nickel. The
temperature here is around 4000–5700 °C. Due to its high temperature, the outer core
undergoes convection and rotates faster than the planet.
o The inner core is a solid ball with a radius of 1220 km. Like the outer core, the inner core is
made up of iron and nickel, but in solid form. The temperature is quite high at around 7000 °C.
 The difference between the state of matter of the inner and outer core is due to the very high pressure
in the inner core, increasing the melting points of the metals. Scientists believed that the inner core
rotates opposite to the direction of the flow of the outer core, creating an effect that influences the
Earth’s magnetic field.

CLDIMACALE PUBLICATION REFERENCES FROM: EARTH AND LIFE 9

T-II/ NESHS CHED & PNU, 2016. TG; ABIVA; & QUIPPER SCIENCE