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Composition of Matter

Matter is made up of tiny particles:


Atom – the smallest particle of an element that has all the properties of the element.
 The size of an atom is measured in angstroms. (One angstrom – a unit of length equal to one ten millionth of a
mm)
 Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) – a microscope used to view and scan the surface of very small particles
like atoms and it can magnify an image 10 million times.
Molecule – a particle consisting of two or more atoms combined together in a specific arrangement (an electrically
neutral particle).
 The smallest particle of an element or compound that can exist independently. (Example: a molecule of water
consists of an oxygen atom combined with 2 atoms of hydrogen).
 Atoms of the same element can also combine to form a molecule. (Example: oxygen in the air consists of oxygen
molecules which are made up of 2 oxygen atoms.
Note: A good analogy to consider related to matter being composed of tiny particles is the pointillist style of painting,
(pointillism – a method of painting using dots to come up with various effects).

History of Atom
Leucippus and his disciple (Democritus) – Greek philosophers, proposed ideas about what matter were made of. They
believed on the ff:
 Nature consisted of two things, “atoms and the void that surrounds them”.
 Atoms are physically, but not geometrically, indivisible.
 There are many different kinds of atoms and each of them had specific shape and size and that all atoms move
randomly around in space.
Democritus – a Greek philosopher, first to use the term “atomos” (a Greek word meaning indivisible) to describe
the ultimate, indestructible, completely full, no empty space and smallest particles of matter.
John Dalton (1808) – an English chemist was able to provide indirect evidence for the existence of atoms.
Dalton’s ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER: (based on knowledge at that time)
1. All matter is made of atoms. These indivisible and indestructible objects are the ultimate chemical particles.
2. All the atoms of a given element are identical, in both weight and chemical properties. However, atoms of
different elements have different weights and different chemical properties.
3. Compounds are formed by the combination of different atoms in the ratio of small whole numbers.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the combination, separation, or rearrangement of atoms; atoms are neither
created nor destroyed in the course of ordinary chemical reactions.
TWO MODIFICATIONS HAVE BEEN MADE TO DALTON' S THEORY
1. Subatomic particles were discovered. (Atoms are divisible).
2. Isotopes were discovered. (Atoms of same element are having different mass number).

States of Matter
 distinct forms that different phases of matter take on.
A. Solid – have definite shape and volume.
 The particles are packed closely together in fixed positions.
 The particles are held together by strong forces that’s why particles cannot move around
and they vibrate a little in their fixed positions.
B. Liquid – no definite shape but have definite volume.
 The particles move and change positions but not freely as the particles of gases.
 The particles are closer to one another
 The attraction between particles is stronger than in gas that’s why liquids can flow
out and can be poured into another while maintaining the volume.
Note: Both solid and liquid are incompressible.
C. Gas – no definite shape and volume.
 The particles move at random directions very quickly and travel in straight-line
paths. (They collide with one another and with the walls of the container).
 They change direction only when they rebound from the collisions.
 The distance between particles is large compared to the size of the particles.
 The attraction between particles is negligible because of the large distance between them.
Compressibility - the ability of something to be "squashed" into a smaller space.
 Gases take the shape of the container because the particles are able to move freely to all parts of the container.
 They move freely because they are far apart, lot of empty space and there is negligible attraction between them.

Particle Model of Matter


 Matter is made up of tiny particles.
 Particles of matter are moving all the time (perpetual motion).
 These particles have spaces between them.
 The particles of matter attract each other.
Changes in Matter/Phase Change
 the reversible physical change that occurs when a substance changes from one state of matter to another.
 During a phase change, E is transferred between a substance and its surroundings
 Energy is either absorbed or released during a phase change
 Endothermic change: system absorbs energy from surroundings (heat enters)
 Exothermic change: system releases energy to its surroundings (heat exits)
1. Melting - a phase transition from the solid phase to liquid phase. (solid to liquid)
 When a solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed. This causes the particles to gain kinetic energy and to
vibrate faster.
 At a certain temperature (melting point), the vibrations become so violent that the particles are able to
overcome some of the attractive forces between them and break away from each other.
 Examples:
 Ice to water - Ice melts back into water when it is left out at temperatures above the freezing point of
32 degrees.
 Rocks to lava - Rocks in volcanoes can be heated until they are molten lava.
 Metal to molten liquid - Metals such as steel and bronze can be molten down. They can also be
reformed as solids.
2. Freezing – a phase transition from the liquid phase to solid phase. (liquid to solid)
 When a liquid is cooled, heat energy is released. This causes the particles to lose kinetic energy and to vibrate
slower.
 At a certain temperature (freezing point), the vibrations become so slow that the particles are unable to overcome
the attractive forces between them and are drawn towards each other in orderly and fixed positions.
 Examples:
 Water to ice - Water becomes cold enough that it turns into ice. In fact, every known liquid (except
for helium) is known to freeze in low enough temperatures.
 Liquid to crystals - Most liquids freeze by a process that is known as "crystallization," whereby the
liquid forms into what is known in the scientific world as a "crystalline solid."
3. Vaporization - a phase transition from the liquid phase to gas phase. (liquid to gas)
• endothermic (absorbs energy)
vapor – molecules that escape from the liquid and go into the gaseous phase.
Types:
a. Evaporation
• Takes place at the surface of a liquid and occurs at temperatures below the boiling point
• The molecules near the surface are moving fast enough to escape the liquid and become water vapor.
• Example:
 Water evaporates - Water evaporates from a puddle or a pool during a hot summer’s day.
b. Boiling
• When a liquid is heated, heat energy is absorbed. This causes the particles to gain kinetic energy and move
faster.
• At a certain temperature (boiling point), the vibrations become so violent that the particles throughout the
liquid are able to break away from the forces holding them together.
• Example:
 Water to steam - Water is vaporized when it is boiled on the stove to cook some pasta, and much of it
forms into a thick steam.
Note: Both involve the change of state from liquid to gas.
4. Condensation - a phase transition from gas phase to liquid phase
 exothermic (heat energy is released)
 Examples:
 Water vapor to dew - Water vapor turns from a gas into a liquid, such as dew on the morning grass.
 Water vapor to liquid water - Water vapor fogs up glasses when moving into a warm room after being in
the cold
 Water vapor to liquid water - Water vapor forms water droplets on the glass of a cold beverage.
5. Sublimation – a phase transition directly from a solid phase to gas phase. (solid to gas)
• When the solid is heated, heat energy is absorbed. Particles gain kinetic energy and move faster.
• At a certain temperature the vibrations become so violent that the particles break free completely from each
other, and move randomly.
• Examples:
 Dry Ice - Solid carbon dioxide is known as "dry ice" and sublimates at room temperature.
 Freeze-drying - Water can be sublimated in a food product by using a vacuum.
6. Deposition - a phase transition directly from a gas phase to solid phase. (gas to solid)
 To occur, thermal energy must be removed from a gas (exothermic).
 Example:
 Water vapor to ice - Water vapor transforms directly into ice without becoming a liquid, a process that
often occurs on windows during the winter months.
 Frost forms on a leaf - When the leaf becomes cold enough, water vapor in the air surrounding the leaf
loses enough thermal energy to change into a solid.

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