CHEM 104AC: Reading Guide to Chapter 15 - ACIDS and BASES (Revised 03/16/18)

1. Read section 15.1 for an introduction to acids and bases.

2. Read section 15.2 to get a general idea of the properties of acids and bases. You should be able to name
some commonly used acids and bases. Make a list of all the commonly used acids and bases in your home.
Which ones are you most familiar with?

3. Section 15.3 – We will first start with the acid base definitions by Arrhenius (see
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1903/arrhenius-bio.html) and Bronsted-Lowry
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Nicolaus_Br%C3%B8nsted) and (see
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lowry). There were definitions for acids and bases prior to Arrhenius, but
we no longer use them. Arrhenius made a rather nice and simple definition for acids and bases but it was a
very narrow definition.

A note about H+ also referred to as a proton. It does not exist in solutions. Infact, when an H+ is formed, it
immediately is bound to two water molecules (which is also called a solvation shell). It’s form in water is
H5O2+. This form of the proton ion is called the Zundel form.

When the proton is bound to a single water molecule, we call it H3O+ (hydronium ion). But the hydronium ion
does not exist by itself in water. The hydronium ion is bound to three other water molecules resulting in the
form H9O4+. All of these forms can be simply represented by H+ (aq) or H3O+ (aq). In class I use H+ (aq) or
H3O+ (aq) interchangeably to mean the same thing. As long as you understand that H+(aq) or H3O+ (aq) is a
representation of the H+ ion or the H3O+ (aq) surrounded by a shell consisting of water molecules, you are fine.

The second definition we will use is the one independently defined in 1923 by Johannes Bronsted (a Danish
scientist. He died in 1947, the same year he was elected to the Danish Parliament) and Martin Lowry (an
English chemist from Yorkshire and a preacher’s kid. He was later the head of a department in a medical
school in London, and was the first physical chemistry professor at Cambridge and died there in 1936). This
definition uses the donor and acceptor nature of a proton as the basis for defining acids and bases. It is the most
widely used definition today for acids and bases. Based on this definition, one could find substances that can
act both as an acid or base. These are known as amphoteric substances. Work through worked examples
15.1, practice problem 15.1, and Conceptual Connection 15.1.

4. Section 15.4 - Know how to write equilibrium expressions for acid-base reactions. Examine Ka, the acid
ionization constant in Table 15.5. What information do you gain from the numerical value of Ka? When
comparing two Ka values, what information do you gather? Know the concept of conjugate acid-bases. They
differ by only a single proton. The substance with the higher number of H is the acid in the conjugate acid-base
pair. Work through the conceptual connection 15.2.

5. Section 15.5 – Know the definition of autoionization of water (Kw). The relationship [H3O+][OH-] = 10-14 at
25 0C is very useful for solving acid-base problems. It is important to understand that the autoionization
process occurs for a very few water molecules. For example in a billion water molecules only about 2 water
molecules will undergo autoionization. Hence the concentration of [H3O+] = 10-7 M and [OH-] = 10-7 M. Work
through worked example 15.2 and practice problem 15.2.

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Know the definition of pH; pH = -log10 [H3O+] (This is the equation we will use in the class; however, in
reality the hydronium concentration is multiplied by another factor called an activity coefficient to get the true
pH of a solution – this will be important in upper-level courses).

Things to remember about pH: pH = 7 is neutral. pH > 7 is known as alkaline (or basic) and pH< 7 is known
as acidic.

At pH < 7, the [H+] concentration is very high and very low [OH-] concentration. Solutions are known as
acidic.

At pH > 7, the [H+] concentration is very low and very high [OH-] concentration. Solutions are known as basic.

See Figure 15.7. Keep in mind that these scales are relative. Note that the pH can be greater than 14 and can be
negative (i.e. less than zero). The most commonly used scale ranges between 0 and 14. For those interested in
life-sciences, the pH of importance ranges from 4-9, hence you will find many buffers made for this pH range.
Work through worked examples 15.3, 15.4 and the practice problems 15.3 and 15.4.

Similar to the pH scale, we could also define a scale for pOH, pKa, and pKb. p here is simply defined as
–log10. These scales are useful to report numbers since the concentration terms and Ka or Kb can be either
very large or very small numbers.

Helpful Note: a small pKa value - strongly acidic a larger pKa value – weakly acidic

6. Section 15.6 – Finding the H3O+ concentration and pH of strong acid and bases and weak acid and bases.

Watch the animations at http://www.chembio.uoguelph.ca/educmat/chm19104/chemtoons/chemtoons2.htm

Once you watch the first animation, click the button Next, to watch what happens when a strong and a weak
acid is added to water. We will not do calculations related to strong and weak acid mixtures.

Strong acids (Ka >>1) completely dissociate to form H3O+ ions. That is HA (aq) + H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq) + A-
(aq) (this ionization is nearly 100% completed, hence we write chemical equations with strong acids or strong
bases in water with a single arrow to show that they are different from equilibrium type reactions).

For weak acids the ionization is very small (Ka < 1). Hence we write the equation as an equilibrium equation,
where the equilibrium is mostly shifted to the left (think about what this means for a weak acid in water):

HA (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)

These problems are solved very similar to equilibrium problems using the ICE tables. See worked examples
15.5 - 15.8. Work through practice 15.5 - 15.8.
[𝐻3 𝑂 + ]𝑒𝑞
Percent ionization for acids = ∗ 100%
[𝐻𝐴]𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡

[𝑂𝐻 − ]𝑒𝑞
Percent ionization for bases = ∗ 100%
[𝐵]𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡
Important point: The percent ionization decreases with increasing concentration of the weak acid.

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See worked example of 15.9 to see how to find the percent ionization of acids. Work through practice problem 15.9.
Work through conceptual connection 15.4.

Strategies for Solving Acid-Base Problems

I. Strong Acids (Ka > 1)

Step 1: Need to know how to recognize a strong acid. You may already be familiar with some strong acids
such as HCl, HBr, HI, H2SO4, HNO3 and HClO4. Memorize these strong acids.

Strong acids (HA) when dissolved in water, dissociates nearly 100% to form H+ (aq) ions. Note, one-way
reactions.

HA(aq)  H+ (aq) + A- (aq) Or HA (aq) + H2O (l)  H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq)

The above two chemical equations are identical equations.

Step 2: Problems with strong acids will involve knowing how to find the pH when the concentration of the acid
is given or finding the concentration of the H3O+ ions when the pH is given.

For monoprotic acids, write the chemical equation for acid ionization (see the above equations).

The concentration of [HA] = concentration of [H3O+]

pH = - log10[H+] or pH = - log10 [H3O+]

If pH is given and you are asked to find the concentration of [H3O+], then [H3O+] = 10-pH

II. Strong Bases (Kb > 1)

Step 1: Typically strong bases are hydroxide compounds such as NaOH, KOH, and Ca(OH)2. Strong bases
ionize to nearly 100% in water. Note, one-way reactions.

B (aq) + H2O(l)  HB+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Step 2: If the base concentration is known, based on the stoichiometry of the ionization reaction, you should
be able to find the concentration of OH-.

Next use the autoionization constant of water (Kw) to find the concentration of [H3O+].

[H3O+][OH-] = Kw = 10-14 (at 25 0C)

Once you find [H3O+], you should be able to find the pH.

Alternatively, you could find pOH, as pOH = -log10[OH-].

Once pOH is known, you can use the following relationship; pH + pOH = 14 to find pH.

For STRONG ACIDS and STRONG BASES DO NOT use ICE TABLES.

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III. Weak Acids (Ka < 1)

HA (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq) (equilibrium reaction)

Step 1: Need to know how to recognize a weak acid. You may be familiar with some weak acids used in
foods such as acetic acid (in vinegar), citric acid (in fruits), carbonic acid (in sodas), and aspirin (taken to
reduce fever and pain or as a blood thinner). However, the best method to identify a weak acid is to look for
the numerical value of Ka. When Ka < 1; the acid is considered a weak acid (i.e. the Ka value is between 0 and
1)

Step 2. The next thing to do with a weak acid is to setup an ICE table and place the information given in the
problem in the ICE table. The concentration of the weak acid is the initial concentration. Use Ka and the
equilibrium expression to find [H3O+]eq. [Note: If pH is given in a problem, then [H3O+]eq = 10-pH; this allows
you to calculate the equilibrium concentration of the hydronium ion].

Step 3: Once [H3O+] is known, pH can be found easily.

Ignore Section on Mixed (strong & weak or weak & weak) Acids.

IV. Weak Bases (Kb < 1)

B (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HB+ (aq) + OH- (aq) (equilibrium reaction)

Step 1: Need to know how to recognize a weak base. You may be familiar with some weak bases such as
sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) and ammonium hydroxide (found in cleaning supplies). However, the best
method to determine a weak base is to find the numerical value of Kb. When Kb < 1; the base is considered
weak (i.e. the value is between 0 and 1)

Step 2: Next, setup an ICE table and place the information that is given in the problem in the ICE table. The
concentration of the weak base is the initial concentration. Use Kb and the equilibrium expression to find
[OH-]eq.

If Ka is given instead of Kb, then use the equation Ka * Kb = 10-14 to find Kb, prior to solving the equilibrium
expression.

Step 3: Once [OH-]eq is known, pOH can be easily found.

Step 4: If pH is desired, then use pH + pOH = 14 to find the value for pH.

Work through worked examples 15.11-15.12 and practice problems 15.11-15.12.

Q) How does one recognize a weak acid or a weak base in a problem?

A) Use the Ka value to figure out a weak acid. If Ka is given and it is < 1, then the molecule or the molecular
ion is an acid. This is important to know as most of the time you may not recognize a weak acid by its name.
The same is true for a weak base. The name might not give you a clue as to whether it is a weak acid or a

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weak base. Look to see if Kb is given and if Kb < 1, if it is, then it is a weak base. When acid and base names
are long, Use B as a short hand name for identifying the base, and HA as the short hand form for identifying
the acid (see III and IV in the previous pages).

A key point about conjugate acid-bases:

An anion that is the conjugate base of a weak acid is a weak base.

An anion that is the conjugate base of a strong acid is pH neutral.

(See Figure 15.12 and work through worked example 15.13 and practice problem 15.13)

A very useful relationship for problem solving: Ka * Kb = Kw

See how this relationship is used in problems – worked example 15.14 and practice problem 15.14

What role does the cation play in acid-bases?

Fact 1: Cations of strong bases are pH neutral.

Fact 2: Cations that are conjugate acids of weak bases (BH+) will act as weak acids. Example:

BH+ (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + B (aq)

When finding the Ka for the weak acid (BH+) in the above equation, you need to find Ka by using the equation
Ka * Kb = Kw. The reason is often the Kb is given for the weak base and not Ka.

Fact 3: Cations that are highly charged metal ions form weakly acidic solutions. (see the bottom of page 690).
The smaller and more highly charged the cation, the more acidic the solution.

Work through worked example 15.15 and practice problem 15.15.

Determining the overall acidity of basicity of salt solutions

Fact 1: Salts in which neither the cation or anion act as acids or bases form pH neutral solutions.

Fact 2: Salts in which the cation does not act as an acid but the anion acts as a base forms basic solutions.

Fact 3: Salts in which the cation acts as an acid but the anion does not act as a base forms acidic solutions.

Fact 4: When Salts contain cations which act as an acid and anions that act as a base, then the relative strength
of the acid or base will determine the outcome of the acidity and the basicity of the solution.

These concepts are very nicely illustrated in worked example 15.16. Work the practice problem 15.16.

8. Section 15-10 Several factors affect the relative strengths of acids and bases. a) bond polarity – an increase
in the bond polarity will increase in acid strength. Bond polarity will result in the electron density between the
H atom and the connecting electronegative atom to be shifted such that the electron density will be closer
towards the electronegative atom, resulting in a H+ ion. If the electron density shifts in the opposite direction
such that H gets a small negative charge, the H- will not be acidic. b) bond length or bond strength – As the
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bond length between the H atom and the connecting atom lengthens, the acidity also increases. In other words
acidity will increase as the bond strength weakens between the H atom and the connecting atom. Acidity
increases as you go down a group in the periodic table (eg. see the halogen series – HF is a weak acid, but HI is
a very strong acid) c) charge – the more negative the charge on an ion, the weaker the acid, and the stronger the
base (i.e. compare H3PO4, H2PO4-, HPO42-, PO43-) d) oxyacids – the greater the number of oxygen atoms on an
acid, the stronger the acid (i.e. H2SO4 is stronger than H2SO3).

9. Section 15.9 – Polyprotic acid. Know how to find the pH and concentration of ions formed in polyprotic
acids. Ionization of polyprotic acids happen step wise with hydronium ions from the first ionization step
primarily contributing to pH. The one exception is sulfuric acid, where the hydronium ions from the first and
second step are equally important, especially at dilute concentrations.

To find pH of polyprotic acids and the concentration of anions in the second ionization step, go over the
worked examples 15.17, 15.19 and practice 15.17, 15.19.

To find pH of the one exception, sulfuric acid, see worked example 15.18.

10. Section 15.11 – Lewis Acids and Lewis Bases – We will not cover this section in this class. This will be
covered in organic chemistry.

11. Section 15.12 – Acid Rain (read this section on your own to get a good grasp of the effects of acid rain). A
nice description of acid rain is given at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_rain

Watch these videos to get an idea of acid rain.

http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/videos/acid-rain-invisible-menace/ (~ 4 min)

http://news.discovery.com/earth/videos/earth-acid-rain-eating-washington-dc.htm (2.3 min)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HE6Y0iEuXMQ (2 min)

http://www.umac.org/ocp/videos/acidRain.html (1 min)

http://www.natgeoeducationvideo.com/film/1233/acid-rain (1 min)

Q) What chemicals are involved in acid rain?

Q) The normal pH of rainfall is 5.6 (weakly acidic). Rain must react with some substance in the atmosphere to
alter the pH. What do you think is the rain water reacting within the atmosphere? (Hint: it is a gas that you
breath out! )

Q) Acid rain is defined as rain with a pH that is < 5.6. Name two gases that significantly cause the pH of
rainwater to dip below a pH of 5.6?

Q) Who is responsible for emitting gases that cause rainfall to acidify? Name both natural causes and manmade
causes.

Q) Which part of the US gets most acidified rain? The pH of rainwater in Grand Rapids was ~ 4.4 (from data
collected in 1996). Can you find what the pH might be today?
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Q) What are “scrubbers”?

Q) Why should Christians be concerned about acid rain?