Chapter 2: An Introduction to Electric Chapter 3: Resistance Variation

Circuits Summary
Resistance of conductor depends on:
Electronic system – group of
1. Length
components connected together to
perform a desired function. 2. Cross Sectional Area
Sub-system – part of a system which 3. Type of material
performs an identified function within 4. Temperature
the whole system.
Temperature coefficient of resistance
Component or Element – simplest part
of a system which has a specific and Conductors: T increase, R increase
well- defined function. Insulators: T increase, R decrease
Drift – movement of free electrons that Resistance Color Codes
constitutes an electric current flow.
Conductors – materials that contain
electrons that are loosely connected to
the nucleus and can easily move
through the material from one atom to
another.
Insulators – materials whose electrons
are held firmly to their nucleus.
Primary Effects of Electric Current
1. Magnetic Effect – motors,
generators, transformers, telephones
etc.
2. Chemical effect – Primary and
secondary cells. Electroplating
3. Heating effect – cookers, water
heaters, soldering iron etc. Resistance Letter Code:
Fuse - Protects the circuit from R: Decimal F: 1% K: 10%
excessive current flow.
K: Thousand G: 2% M: 20%
M: Mega J: 5%
Chapter 4: Batteries and Alternative
Sources of Energy
Introduction: Batteries store electricity
in chemical form. They can be
recharged and reused as a power source
for small appliances. Batteries store dc
electrical energy.
Battery – device that converts chemical
energy to electricity.
Primary Cell – non rechargeable and
disposable
Secondary cell – rechargeable
From manganese to alkaline battery.
1.5 V
Current is carried by:
Electrons for solids
Ions for liquids
Electrolysis – decomposition of liquid
compound by the passage of electric
current through it.
Electrolyte – compound which will
undergo electrolysis.
Electrodes – two conductors carrying
current to the electrolyte (Anode and
Cathode)
Electroplating – applying a thin coat of
one metal to another metal.
Electric cell – to convert chemical
energy into electrical energy.
Simple cell – compromises two
dissimilar conductors in an electrolyte
Electrochemical series – way of listing
elements in order of electrical
potential.
2 faults in a simple cell:
Polarization – Formation of hydrogen
bubbles on the copper anode thus
decreasing current rapidly. Fix: use
depolarizing agent.
Local Action – Iron impurities in zinc
causes short-circuits resulting to
localized current flow and corrosion.
Fix: Rubbing mercury on zinc as
protective layer.
Corrosion – gradual destruction of a
metal in a damp atmosphere.
Electromotive force (e.m.f / E) –
potential difference between its
terminal when it is not connected to a
load.
Battery – combination of more than
one cell. May be connected in series or
parallel.
Primary Cells:
1. Lechlanché cell – emf of 1.5V. Most
commonly used primary cell. Cheap.
Requires little maintenance. Shelf life
of 2 years.
2. Mercury cell – emf of 1.3V. Smaller
size and longer shelf life.
Secondary Cells: Alternative energy – refers to energy
sources which could replace coal,
1. Lead-acid cell – terminal p.d. of 2V
natural gas, and oil.
2. Nickel cadmium and nickel-metal
Renewable energy – source which is
cells – aka Edison cell or nife cell.
automatically replenished.
1. Solar Energy – uses photovoltaic
cells to convert sunlight to electricity.
2. Wind power – uses windmill to
rotate and convert mechanical to
electrical energy. Highly dependent on
weather and location.
3. Hydroelectricity – uses the potential
energy in water. When released, the
kinetic energy is transferred to turbine
blades to generate electricity. High
initial costs. Low maintenance sots.
Provides power cheaply.
4. Tidal power – uses natural motion of
tides to fill reservoirs.
5. Geothermal energy – uses internal
heat of the earth to generate steam.
Geothermal spots are areas that
transmit excess internal heat.
Cell Capacity – measured in ampere-
hours (Ah)
Fuel cells – an electrochemical energy
conversion device. Produces electricity
from an external source of fuel and
oxygen. Designed for continuous
replenishment of reactants consumed.
Reactants used: Hydrogen on the anode
side and oxygen on the cathode side.
Chapter 5: Series and Parallel 5. Plastic capacitors – operate well
Networks under high temperatures. Precise value
of capacitance. Very long life and high
Puro formulas/solving check formula
reliability
notebook
6. Titanium oxide capacitors – very
Chapter 6: Capacitors and capacitance
high capacitance with small physical
Introduction: Capacitors are widely size at low temperatures.
used electrical component. A capacitor
7. Electrolytic capacitors – always used
can store energy, used for timing, for
in DC circuits and must be used with
smoothing, for coupling, for filtering,
correct polarity.
for tuning. A capacitor has voltage that
is proportional to the charge stored in Chapter 7: Magnetic Circuits
the capacitor.
Introduction: Practically all
Capacitor – electrical device used to transformers and electric machinery
store electrical energy. Most uses magnetic material for shaping and
commonly used after resistor. Used to directing magnetic fields which acts as
smooth rectified ac outputs. a medium for transferring and
connecting energy.
Electrostatic field – where an electric
charge experiences force.
Practical Types of Capacitors
1. Variable air capacitors – consists of
two sets of metal plates, one fixed and
one moving. The meshing of the plates
determines the capacitance. Very low
losses.
2. Mica capacitors – Thin sheets. Good
insulator. Expensive. Stable
capacitance.
3. Paper capacitors – used where loss is
not important. shorter life. Hysteresis and Hysteresis loss

4. Ceramic capacitors – very high

permittivity, capacitance, voltage
rating with small physical size.

Saturation flux density – by
Remanent flux density/remanence oc
Hysteresis – the flux density changes
lag behind the changes in the magnetic
field strength.
Hysteresis loss – Heat or Energy loss
associated with the hysteresis is
proportional to the area of hysteresis
loop.
Magnetic materials:
Hard material – high remanence, large
coercivity.
Soft steel – large remanence, small
coercivity.
Ferrite – ceramic-like magnetic
substances. Hysteresis of ferrite is very
small.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Introduction: Hans Christian Oersted-
showed that a compass needle was
deflected by a current-carrying
conductor.
Andre Ampere – showed that current-
carrying conductors attract or repel
each other like magnets.
Michael Faraday – magnetic field as a
collection of flux lines in space that
represent the intensity and direction of
the field.
Screw Rule:
“If a normal right-hand thread screw is
screwed along the conductor in the
direction of the current, the direction of
rotation of the screw is in the direction
of the magnetic field.”
Grip Rule:
“If the coil is gripped with the right
hand, with the fingers pointing in the
direction of the current, then the thumb,
outstretched parallel to the axis of the
solenoid, points in the direction of the
magnetic field inside the solenoid.”
Electromagnets:
1. Electric bell
2. Relay
3. Lifting magnet
4. Telephone receiver
Fleming’s left-hand rule

Chapter 9: Electromagnetic Induction
Introduction: Michael Faraday’s law of
induction – magnetic field interacts
with an electric circuit to produce
voltage.
Electromagnetic induction – When a
conductor is moved across a magnetic
field so as to cut through the lines of
force (flux), voltage emf is produced in
the conductor.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction:
1. An induced emf is set up when the
magnetic field linking that circuit
changes.
2. The magnitude of induced emf is
proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux.
Lenz’s Law:
The direction of induced emf tends to
set up a current opposing the motion or
the change of flux.
Flemings’s Right hand rule (geneRator
rule)
Inductance - property of a circuit
whereby there is an e.m.f. induced into
the circuit by the change of flux
linkages produced by a current change.
Inductors
Factors that affect the inductance:
1. Number of turns – more turns, high
inductance
2. Cross-sectional area – greater area,
greater inductance
3. Presence of magnetic core
4. Turn arrangement – short, thick coil
has higher inductance.
Iron-cored inductor (choke) – choking
effect, limits current flowing through
it.
Chapter 10: Electrical measuring Moving-coil instrument - Can only
instruments and measurements measure DC
Analogue Instruments:
1. Deflecting or operating device –
Force is produced by current or voltage
causing the pointer to deflect from zero
position
2. Controlling device – controlling
force acts in opposition to the
deflecting force. It prevents the pointer
from going to maximum deflection.
e.g. spring control and gravity control.
3. Damping device – The pointer
comes to rest in its final position
quickly and without oscillation. Three
main types of damping: eddy-current, Shunts and Multipliers:
air-friction, fluid-friction. Ammeter – measures current, low
Types of scales: internal resistance, connected in series.

Linear scale Non-linear scale Voltmeter – measures potential

Moving-iron instrument
1. Attraction type – when current flows
in the solenoid, a pivoted soft-iron disk
is attracted, and the movement causes
the pointer to move.
2. Repulsion type – two pieces of iron
repel each other when current passes
through it.
difference, high internal resistance,
connected in parallel.
Shunt resistor – aids in measuring
current in larger magnitude. It is a low
value resistor connected in parallel
with the ammeter.
Converting milliammeter to voltmeter
– use a high value resistance in series.
Ohmmeter- instrument for measuring
electrical resistance.
Continuity tester – an ohmmeter
designed for measuring low values of
resistance.
Insulation resistance tester (Megger) – Chapter 11: Semiconductor Diodes
an ohmmeter designed for measuring
Introduction: Semiconductors are the
high values of resistance
foundation of modern electronics. The
Multimeters/Universal ability of the diode to conduct current
instruments/Multirange instruments - easily in one direction, but not in the
Avometer, DMMs opposite direction is very useful. They
are widely used in power supplies.
Fluke Digital Multimeter – industry
leader in DMMs. These instruments Resistivity of common materials:
measure d.c. currents and voltages,
resistance and continuity, a.c. (r.m.s.)
currents and voltages, temperature, and
much more.
Wattmeter – used for measuring
electrical power
Coils inside a wattmeter
1. Current coil – connected in series
2. Voltage coil – connected in parallel
Oscilloscope – graph-displaying
device that draws an electrical signal. The P-N junction
Function of an oscilloscope:
1. Determines time and voltage
2. Calculates frequency of oscillating
signal
3. see the moving parts of a circuit
4. tell if a malfunctioning component is
distorting the signal
5. tells how much of a signal is dc or At the junction, the donated electrons
ac. in the n-type material, called majority
carriers, diffuse into the p-type material
6. tells how much noise there is in a
and the acceptor holes in the p-type
signal.
material diffuse into the n-type
material. After a short while, the
movement of electrons and holes stops
due to the potential difference across
the junction, called contact potential or
barrier potential.
Depletion-layer – the area in the region
of the junction becomes depleted of
holes and electrons due to electron-
hole recombination.
N-type impurities (PAA)
1. Phosphorus 2. Antimony
3. Arsenic
P-Type impurities (BIG)
1. Boron 2. Indium
3. Gallium 4. Aluminum
Doping – Process of introducing an
atom of another element (impurities)
into a pure material.
Pentavalent impurity – when a pure
material is doped with an impurity
having five electrons in its valence
shell. It will become a n-type
semiconductor material
Trivalent impurity – when a pure
material is doped with an impurity
having three electrons in its valance
shell. It will become a p-type
semiconductor material.
Intrinsic semiconductors – pure
semiconductors with no doping atoms.
Silicon and Germanium.
Thermal Generation of electron-hole
pairs – at room temp, electrons acquire
energy for them to break the covalent
bond and they become free mobile
electrons.
Diffusion – process of holes pass into
n-type material and electrons into p-
type material.
Forward biased – The applied voltage
opposes the contact potential, in effect,
closes the depletion layer. Holes and
electrons can now cross the junction
and current flows.
Reverse biased – The applied voltage is
now in the same sense as the contact
potential and now opposes the
movement of holes and electrons due to
opening up the depletion layer.
Peak inverse voltage (PIV) or
maximum repetitive reverse voltage –
ranges from 50V to over 500V. If this
voltage is exceeded the junction may
break down and the diode may suffer
permanent damage.
Semiconductor diodes
1. Rectifier diodes – used in power
supplies. Process of obtaining
unidirectional currents and voltages
from AC is called rectification.
2. Zener diodes – used as voltage
reference sources. Ideal for voltage
regulator due to its constant voltage
(Zener nominal voltage) regardless of
current flowing.
3. Silicon controlled rectifiers
(thyristors) – Three terminal devices
which can be used for switching and
AC power control. Has very little
power loss.
At off state: exhibits negligible
leakage current.
At on state: exhibits very low
resistance.
4. Light emitting diodes – can be used
as indicators. Operates in small
voltages and currents.
5. Varactor diodes – Provides 50pF to
10pF capacitance. Varying the width
of the depletion region is equivalent to
varying the plate separation of a very
small capacitor.
6. Schottky diodes – Operate with
high efficiency in SMPS at
frequencies at 1Mhz. It is extensively
used in integrated circuits designed for
high-speed digital logic applications.
Chapter 12: Transistors
Introduction: Transistors are three
terminal semiconductor device that
can perform amplification and
switching. It is a device for controlling
a relatively large current between or
voltage across two terminals by means
of a small control current/voltage
applied at a third terminal.
Transistor classification (2 classes)
1. Bipolar 2. Field Effect
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
n-p-n transistor:
(a) Majority carriers in n-type emitter
material are electrons
(b) Base-emitter is forward biased to
these majority carriers.
(c) Base region is very thin and lightly
doped with holes. Many electrons are
left in the base.
(d) Base-collector is reverse biased to
holes in the base region and electrons
in the collector region, but is forward
biased to electrons in the base region;
these electrons are attracted by the
positive potential at the collector.
(e) Electrons in the base region cross
the base-collector junction into the
collector region, creating collector
current.
p-n-p transistor:
(a) Majority carriers in the emitter p-
type material are holes.
(b) Base-emitter is forward biased to
the majority carriers.
(c) Base region is very thin and lightly
doped with electrons. Many holes are
left in the base.
(d) Base-collector is reverse biased to
electrons in the base region and holes
in the collector region, but is forward
biased to holes in the base region;
these holes are attracted by the
negative potential at the collector.
(e) Holes in the base region cross the
base-collector junction into the
collector region, creating collector
current. Conventional current flow is
in the direction of hole movement
Leakage Current – Small leakage
current, ICBO, flows from the collector
to the base due to thermally generated
minority carriers (holes/electrons in
the collector and electrons/holes in the
base) being present. Base-collector is
forward biased to these minority
carriers.
Field Effect Transistors (FET)
1. Junction Gate Field Effect
Transistor (JFET) – effectively reverse
biased p-n junction.
2. Insulated Gate Field Effect
Transistor (IGFET) – insulated from
the channel and charge is capacitively
coupled to the channel.
Transistor Amplifiers (for BJT and
FET applicable)

Load lines – line used to predict the

AC performance of a transistor
amplifier.
Chapter 13: DC Circuit Theory
Introduction: Circuit theorems: Ohm’s
Law, KCL, KVL, Superposition,
Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Maximum
Power Transfer.
Puro solving lang. See notes in DC.
Chapter 14: Alternating voltages and
currents
Introduction: With AC, the flow of
electric charge periodically reverses
direction. The resultant voltage is
always ‘alternating’ by virtue of the
magnet’s rotation. It is easier and
cheaper to generate AC than DC. AC is
more conveniently distributed than
DC.
Unidirectional Waveforms:
Although they vary with time, they
flow in one direction only. They do not
cross the time axis and become
negative.
Alternating Waveforms:
Their quantities are continually
changing in direction (alternately
positive and negative)
Instantaneous values – Values of
alternating quantities at any instant of
time.
Peak value or maximum value or
amplitude – Largest value reached in a
half-cycle. (Vm)
Peak-to-peak value – The difference
between the maximum and minimum
values in a cycle.
Average or mean value – Average
value measured over a half cycle.
Rectification - Process of obtaining
unidirectional currents and voltages
from AC.
Half-wave rectification – Uses only a
single diode. It is unsuitable as a DC
power supply but satisfactory as a
battery charger.
Full-wave rectification using a center-
tapped transformer – Two diodes are
used. Output is better than half-wave
rectifier, but center-tapped
transformers are expensive.
Full-wave bridge rectification – Four
diodes are used to form a square.
Smoothing – Process of removing the
worst of an output waveform to
maintain the output voltage at a level
which is very near to the peak voltage
of output waveform.
Reservoir capacitor – stores and
releases charge between the peaks of
the rectified waveform
Solving of peak factor, form factor,
SEE NOTES IN AC
Chapter 15: Single-phase series AC
circuits
Solving of RC RL RLC series circuits.
Power triangle. SEE NOTES IN AC
Series resonance – XL = XC, V and I
are in phase.
Series resonance circuit or acceptor
circuit – minimum impedance
maximum current.
Q-factor (series) – measure of voltage
magnification
Chapter 16: Single-phase parallel AC
circuits
Parallel resonance - V and I are in
phase.
Parallel resonance circuit or rejector
circuit – minimum current maximum
impedance.
Q-factor (parallel) – measure of
current magnification
Chapter 17: Single-phase parallel AC
circuits
Introduction: A filter alters the
amplitude or phase characteristics of a
signal with respect to frequency. Often
used to emphasize and reject certain
signals.
Attenuation – reduction in the
magnitude of a voltage or current.
Filter – network designed to pass
signals with certain bands (pass-bands)
and greatly attenuates signals within
other bands (stop-bands or attenuation
bands)
Passive filter – a filter containing no
source of power
Active filter – a filter containing one or
more power sources.
Four basic types of filter sections:
1. Low-pass filter - designed to pass
signals at frequencies below a specified
cut-off frequency.
2. High-pass filter - designed to pass
signals at frequencies above a specified
cut-off frequency.
3. Band-pass filter - designed to pass
signals with frequencies between two
specified cut-off frequencies.
4. Band-stop filter - designed to pass
signals with all frequencies except
those between two specified cut-off
frequencies.
Iterative impedance / characteristic
impedance – A value of load
impedance having the same value as
the input impedance