ELECTRICAL DRIVES

Drive:
 Drives are nothing but a system which is adapted to speed control is called as drives.
Electric drive:
 If the system which is adapted to speed control for an electrical input or the
electrical motors are employed as a prime movers means than it is called as electrical
drives. (or)
 An electric drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy to impart motion of different machines and mechanism
for various kind of process control.
Examples;
 Driving fans – Ventilators – Compressors – Pumps – Cranes – Conveyors - Lifts, etc.,
Advantages:
 Availability of electric drive over wide range of power.
 Ability to provide a wide range of torque over wide range of speeds.
 Variety of design to make compatible of any type of loads.
Disadvantages:
 Always power supply should be present.
 Without supply we can’t drive the load in a system.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:

 Motion control is required in large number of industrial and domestic application.

 The basic elements or components of electrical drives are
1.Power Source
2.Power modulator / Converter
3.Motor
4.Load
5.Sensing Unit
6.Control Unit
Power source :
 It provides energy to motors.
 For high efficiency operation, power obtained from sources need to be regulated using
converters.
 There are two types of power supply
1. AC power supply
2. DC power supply
 AC supply is also called as time variant power supply.
 AC source can either be three phase (440V) or single phase (230V).
 DC supply is also called as time invariant and unidirectional power supply ((230V).
Power modulator:
 Power modulator modulates the flow of power from source to motor
 It is used to select the mode of operation of the motor
 Since electrical source are normally uncontrollable, therefore it is necessary to be able to
control the flow of power to the motor using modulator
 With controllable sources , the motor can be reversed, break or can be operated with
variable speed
 The power converters are used to convert and possibly regulate the available source to
suit the motors
 Converters are of several types
1. AC to DC(rectifier)
2. DC to AC(inverter)
3. DC to DC(chopper)
4. AC to AC(regulator)
Motors :
 Motors obtain power from electrical sources
 Motor is an electro-mechanical device, used to convert electrical energy into
mechanical energy
 There are several types of motor based on power supply
1. AC motors – induction , synchronous , wound rotor , permanent magnet .
2. DC motors – shunt, series and compound(long shunt & shot shunt )
Load:
 Load is the end part of drive system.
 When load is high motor goes to blocking state to avoid that always maintain moderate
load which is drive in by a motor.
Sensing Unit:
 The most common sensing device is transducers, which convert non-electrical
quantities into electrical signals.
  Sensors are used to sense the output and feedback to the input to get the controlled
output
 Types- speed sensor , current , voltage , temperature, position etc.,
Control unit :
 It will compare the output signals obtained from the sensor and desired control
signal can be generated to control the power to the motor
 It matches the motor and power converters to meet the load requirement.

TYPES OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:

 If the system which is adapted to speed control for an electrical input or the electrical
motors are employed as a prime movers means than it is called as electrical drives.
 Based on utilization of motor to load, it is classified into three types.
1. Individual Drive
2. Group Drive
3. Multi-motor Drive
Individual Drive:
 If a single Electric motor is given to drive a Single load.
 Directly connected with help of Shaft
 Only one task at a time.
Example: Fan,Mixer,Grinder
Advantages:
 Easy install
 Speed control is easy
 High Efficiency
Disadvantages:
 High initial cost
 Regular maintenance.
Group drive :
 Single motor will drive a multiple load
 It has a common shaft with multi stepped pulleys and belts for connection to individual
loads
 Single motor for multiple task
Examples: Mills, Factory etc.
Advantages:
 Less initial cost
 Less maintenance
 Can stop all work at a time
Disadvantages:
 Less efficiency
 Cant control speed individually
 Regular maintenance

Multi – motor drive:

 Multi motor will drive single or several loads
 Continuous operation is taking place
 Separate motors are used to operate separate parts.
 More efficient
Examples: robotics, cranes, conveyor belt etc.
Advantages:
 Continuous work is possible
 Can drive load even if other motor gets damaged
Disadvantages:
 Cost is very high
 More space

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:

Choice of electrical drive depends on a number of factors. Some of important factors are,
1. Steady state operation requirement
 Speed torque characteristics
 Speed regulation
 Efficiency
 Duty cycle
2. Transient operation requirement
 Value of acceleration
 Deceleration
 Starting
 Braking
 Reversing
3. Requirement related to power supply
 Type of source
 Magnitude of voltage
 Power factor
 Load factor
4. Capital cost and running cost
5. Space and size
 6. Environmental effects
7. Reliability of operation
8. Mechanical characteristics
 Type of enclosure
 Type of bearing
 Transmission
 Noise level
 Type of cooling

Heating and cooling curve:

 All electrical elements will produce heat, while working with drive how long it takes for
the motor to get heated up and how much time it will take to cool down can be
discussed here.
 When the motor supply is turned ON it will come to heating condition, and after
turning OFF the supply of motor it will come to cooling condition from heating,
projection of heating and cooling is called as heating and cooling curve.
Heating curve:
 During operation of motor various losses take place, due to losses heat is produced inside
the motor which increase the temperature of the motor.
 When motor temperature is greater than ambient(room) temperature, part of heat
flows to surrounding medium.
 A machine is a homogeneous body, heat is developed internally at uniform rate and
dissipated as heat proportional to temperature rise.
 Here temperature rise or heat generated is equal to that of heat stored and heat dissipated.

Assumption made for heating and cooling time constant derivation:

Let, W - Power loss or heat generated or developed, joules/sec or watts
G - Weight of the active part of the motor in kg
S - Specific heat of the material of the body, J / kg / °C
λ - Specific heat dissipation or emissivity, J/s / m2 / °C
S - Area of cooling surface, m
θ - Temperature rise, °C
θm - Final temperature rise, °C
t - Time, seconds
τ - Heating time constant, seconds
τ’ - Cooling time constant, seconds

Total heat generated = heat dissipated to surrounding medium + heat stored in a body
Heat developed = W. dt
Heat dissipated = A λ θ dt
 Heat stored = Gh dθ
Therefore,
Wdt = Aλθdt + Gs dθ.............................(1)
By rearranging equation (1), we get
Wdt - Aλθdt = Gs dθ

(W- Aλθ)dt = Gs dθ

W 
Aλ  - θ  dt = Gs dθ
 Aλ 

W  Gs
 - θ  dt = dθ
 Aλ  Aλ

dt dθ
= .........................(2)
 Gs  W 
   - θ
 Aλ   Aλ 

Temperature rise reaches its maximum value, then the body is said to have reached the
maximum temperature rise θm. Therefore the equation (1) becomes,

Generated heat = Heat dissipated

Wdt = Aλθmdt
W
θm  .........................(3)
Aλ
Substitute equation (3) in (2), we get

dt dθ
= .........................(4)
 Gs  θ - θm 
 
 Aλ 

Integrating both sides of above equation, we get

Aλ
t = - ln(θ m - θ) + K.....................(5)
Gs
At t = 0, θ = θo

0 = - ln(θm - θo ) + K
 K = ln(θm - θo ) ...........................(6)

Equation (6) is substitute in equation (5), we get

Aλ
t = - ln(θ m - θ) + ln(θ m - θo )
Gs

Aλ θ -θ 
t = ln  m o 
Gs  θm - θ 

 Aλ 
 t θm - θo
e  Gs 
=
θm - θ

 Aλ 
 t
θm - θ e  Gs 
= θm - θo

 Aλ 
  t
 θm - θ  =  θm - θo  e  Gs 

 Aλ 
 t
θ = θm -  θm - θo  e  Gs 
................(7)

 Gs 
Where   = τ = Thermal heating time constant
 Aλ 

Heating Time Constant( τ ) is defined as time taken to reach 63.2% steady state temperature θm .

In other words, this happen to be at the time taken by the motor to reach the final steady
state temperature rise if the initial rate of rise of temperature continues.

Now, the equation (7) becomes

t
θ = θ m -  θ m - θ o  e τ ................(8)
-

 - 
t
-
t

Or θ = θ m - 1  e   θ oe
τ τ

 
Motor starts from cold condition (Ambient temperature)

θ m = 0o C

It is substitute in equation (8)

  - 
t
θ = θm - 1  e  .................(9)
τ

 
Based on the equation (8) and (9), we can draw the heating curve of the machine.

Temperature

Time (t)

Cooling Curve:
 When a machine is switched OFF from mains or when load is reduced, the motor
cools.
 It cools to ambient(room) temperature when it is switched OFF.
 When the motor is switched OFF, there is no heat generation and all the heat stored in
motor is dissipated to the surrounding.
 If rate of heat generation is less than the rate of heat dissipation then cooling will take
place.

Total heat generated + heat stored in a body = heat dissipated to surrounding medium

Wdt + Gs dθ = Aλ'θdt.............................(1)

By rearranging equation (1), we get

Wdt + Gs dθ = Aλ 'θdt

(Aλ'θ - W)dt = Gs dθ

 W 
Aλ '  θ - dt = Gs dθ
 Aλ ' 
  W  Gs
θ - ' 
dt = dθ
 Aλ  Aλ '

dθ decrease in temperature [Include negative sign in left side of equation 2]

 W  - Gs
θ - ' 
dt = dθ...............(2)
 Aλ  Aλ '

- dθ dt
= .........................(3)
 W   Gs 
θ -
 Aλ   Aλ 
When final temperature drop (θf) is reached, then the heat generated is equal to heat
dissipated.
Generated heat = Heat dissipated
Wdt = Aλθf dt
W
θf  .........................(4)
Aλ
Substitute equation (3) in (2), we get

- dθ dt
= ........................(4)
 θ - θf   Gs 
 ' 
 Aλ 

Integrating both sides of above equation, we get

Aλ '
- ln(θ - θf ) = t+ K
Gs

- Aλ '
ln(θ - θf ) = t-K
Gs

- Aλ '
ln(θ - θf ) = t + K1 ................(5)
Gs
At t = 0, θ = θm

The equation (5) become

K1 = ln(θm - θf ) ...........................(6)

Equation (6) is substitute in equation (5), we get

 - Aλ '
ln(θ - θf ) = t + ln(θm - θf )
Gs

- Aλ '
ln(θ - θf ) - ln(θm - θf )= t
Gs

 θ - θf  - Aλ'
ln  = t
 θm - θf  Gs

θ - θf - Aλ
t
= e Gs
θm - θ f
- Aλ
θ - θf =  θm - θf 
t
e Gs

- Aλ
θ =θ f   θ m - θ f 
t
e Gs

 Gs 
Where  ' 
= τ ' = Thermal heating time constant
 Aλ 

Cooling time constant( τ ' ) is defined as time required cooling the machine to 36.7% of initial
temperature rise above ambient temperature.

- Aλ
θ =θ f   θ m - θ f 
t
e Gs

 - Aλ
t 
- Aλ
t
θ =θf 1  e Gs   θm e Gs
...............................(7)
 
The above equation is suitable only when the machine is switched off , diagram shows
the cooling curve of the machine
 θm

Temperature

Time (t)

LOADING CONDITIONS:

 In load condition of drive ,Torque is the main factor on speed variation – temperature
rise – time constant.
Total Torque (TTotal) = actual torque(TL) + Opposing Torque(Tm) + Dynamic
Torque(TDyn).
(TTotal) = (TL) + (Tm) + (TDyn).

CLASS OF DUTY:

The Various classes of motor duties are

1. Continuous duty
2. Short time duty
3. Intermittent periodic duty
4. Intermittent periodic duty with starting
5. Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking
6. Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
7. Continuous duty with starting and braking
8. Continuous duty with periodic speed changes

Continuous Duty:
 Motor will run under constant load torque for longer
duration.
 It is enough for motor temperature to reach steady state
value.
 Eg: fan – compressor – centrifugal pump
Short Time Duty:
 Motor is operated for a particular time period at
constant load.
 Then motor is allowed to cool off for sufficient time.
 Eg: logic gates – cranes – bridges.

Intermittent Periodic Duty:

 Sequence of periodic duty cycle, each consist of period
running at constant load and period of rest.
 Heating is negligible
 Eg: lifts – pressing – cutting – drilling.

Intermittent periodic duty with starting:

 Heat loss during starting cannot be ignored.
 So it consist of period of starting , period of running at
constant load , and period of rest.
 Eg: metal cutting – drilling tools.

Intermittent periodic duty with starting and braking:

 Heat loss during starting and braking cannot be
ignored.
 It consist of period of starting, period of running,
braking period, and rest period.
 Eg: Electric suburban train – billet mills drive.

Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading:

 It consists of continuous period of running at constant load and period of running at no
load.
 Both are short period.
 Eg: Pressing – Cutting.
Continuous duty with starting and braking:
 It consist of period of starting, period of running,
period of braking.
 There is no period of rest.
 Eg: Blooming Mill drive.

Continuous duty with periodic speed changes:

 It consist of period of running at one speed & load and another period of running at
different load & speed.
 Both are short period.
 There is no period of rest.

SELECTION OF POWER RATING FOR DRIVE MOTORS WITH

REGARDS TO THERMAL OVERLOADING AND LOAD VARIATION
FACTORS:
 The horse power rating of motor to drive a particular load is selected on the basis of thermal
loading of the motor.
 The capacity of the motor must match
 The requirement of the load
 Temperature rise of the motor should be within the permissible limit.
 Economy and maintenance.
 If the motor power selected is insufficient,
 It is difficult to drive the load
 It would get damaged due to frequent loading.
 If the motor with high power rating is selected
 The capital cost and the running cost will be high
 Because the motors are designed to have maximum efficiency on their full load.
 The output of the electric motor is given by torque multiplied by its speed.
 The input of the motor is given by sum of output and losses.
 Iron losses in electric motor remains constant and copper loss is proportional to the square of the
current taken by the motor.
 Therefore losses are a function of motor current.
 The torque produced by the motor is a function of flux and current.
 Motor current depends on the magnitude of the load and losses produced by this current produce
heat inside the motor.
 The amount of heat produced depends on the magnitude and duration of current applied.
  The dissipation of heat to the atmosphere is directly proportional to temperature rise of
motor above ambient values
 Selecting of power rating depends on magnitude of load and duration of loading.

Continuous duty load.

 Selection of motor power rating is simple.
 Magnitude of the load is constant.

P = power, N = speed, T= torque.

NT
P= η KW
975
In case of fan,
Qh
P= KW
102η
Q= volume of air in m3 /sec , h = pressure in kg/m2 and Ƞ = efficiency of the fan.
 If magnitude of the load does not remains constant and the motor has to operate continuously, the
rating of the motor can be determined on the basis of average losses.

 For the calculation of average losses, Wav, the losses at different periods of loading are multiplied
by their respective time period and the products are added to get the total losses.
 This is divided by the total time of running of the motor to get the average losses as follows.
WL1 t1 +WL2 t 2 +.......+WLn t n
Wav =
t1 +t 2 +..........+t n
If the speed of the machine remains more or less constant, the motor power rating can be obtained as
follows
Teq N
Pr =
975
The equivalent power is given by,
 P 21 t1 +P 2 2 t 2 +.......+P 2 n t n
Peq =
t1 +t 2 +..........+t n
Where P1, P2, P3 etc are instantaneous powes.
Short time duty load:
 There are certain applications in which the machine is run for a short time only.
 It is switched off for a sufficiently long time before starting.
 For such loads, the motor with a smaller power rating may be selected so that the temperature rise
during the working period may reach the permissible value.
The temperature rise of the motor during the period is given by,
-t -t
θ = θ (1-e ) + θ e
m
τ
o
τ

θo =0, then
-t
θ = θm (1-e τ )
 Since during the period ton or t the temperature rise of the motor can be equal to θoper,
-t
θoper θ m (1-e τ )
'

 The heating over load ratio Ph can be written as

'
θ 1
Ph = m
θoper 1 - e -t τ

Pm = Ph
1
Pm =
-t
τ
1- e
 Since the heating of the motor is proportional to the losses occurring in the motor which in turn is
proportional to square of the current or power, the mechanical overload ratio.
Intermittent duty load:
 There are certain loads which require motors to be run for a certain period of time and then
switched off for a small period.
 This cycle is repeated indefinitely.
 Thus the motor is heated up when it is loaded and cools down when not running.
 The motor temperature will start rising and after a number of cycles, steady state will be reached.
 The motor temperature will fluctuate between θmax and θmin
 So the motor capacity may be selected that the maximum temperature θ max has the same value as
the permissible value of temperature rise.
-t -t
θ max = θ (1- e ) + θ e
m
τ
min
τ

-t
θ min = θ max e τ'

 Since the motor is started and stopped in quick succession, the heating time constant and the
cooling time constant can assumed to have the same values.
Thermal Overloading:
 When a motor operates, heat is produced due to losses inside motor.
 Losses are form of work done, energy inside is wasted as heat.
 When temperature is beyond ambient(room) temperature them heat is produced
around surrounding medium.
 Steady state temperature depends on power loss.
Load variation factor:
 It is depends upon weight and time.
 It is available in two factors - continuous load change & sudden load change.
 Based on load applied on motor for a particular period of time is called sudden load
change.
 If load is applied continuously and changing load on drive without any interval is
called continuous load change.