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Damage Detection in Beams using Spatial Fourier Analysis and Neural Networks

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DOI: 10.1177/1045389X06066292

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 Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and
Structures
http://jim.sagepub.com

Damage Detection in Beams using Spatial Fourier Analysis and Neural Networks
Prashant M. Pawar, Kanchi Venkatesulu Reddy and Ranjan Ganguli
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 2007; 18; 347 originally published online Dec 19, 2006;
DOI: 10.1177/1045389X06066292

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 Damage Detection in Beams using Spatial Fourier
Analysis and Neural Networks
PRASHANT M. PAWAR, KANCHI VENKATESULU REDDY AND RANJAN GANGULI*
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore 560012, India

ABSTRACT: This study investigates the effect of damage on beams with fixed boundary
conditions using Fourier analysis of mode shapes in the spatial domain. A finite element model
is used to obtain the mode shapes of a damaged fixed–fixed beam, and the damaged mode
shapes are expanded using a spatial Fourier series and the effect of damage on the harmonics
is investigated. This approach contrasts with the typical time domain application of Fourier
analysis for vibration problems. It is found that damage causes considerable change in the
Fourier coefficients of the mode shapes, which are found to be sensitive to both damage size
and location. Therefore, a damage index in the form of a vector of Fourier coefficients is
formulated. A neural network is trained to detect the damage location and size using Fourier
coefficients as input. Numerical studies show that damage detection using Fourier coefficients
and neural networks has the capability to detect the location and damage size accurately.
Finally, the performance of the method in the presence of noise is studied and it is found that
the method performs satisfactorily in the presence of some noise in the data.

Key Words: spatial Fourier analysis, harmonics, mode shapes, neural network.

INTRODUCTION to local damage than changes in natural frequency.

AMAGE detection methods using the dynamic
D response of the structure have received significant
attention in the past two decades. The basic idea behind
these vibration-based methods is that the changes in
physical properties of the structure such as mass,
stiffness, and damping causes a change in dynamic
characteristics such as the natural frequency, damping
ratio, and mode shape of the structure. Therefore,
by measuring these damage indicators one should be
able to predict the changes in physical properties
resulting from damage.
There are three broad classes of dynamic damage
detection methods. The first class of damage detection
methods uses changes in natural frequency for damage
detection (Salawu, 1997; Viola et al., 2001). However,
these frequency-based methods are insensitive to minor
damage. The second class of dynamic damage detection
methods use changes in damping ratio. The changes
caused in the damping ratio due to damage are often
small (Peroni et al., 1991; Lai and Young, 1995). The
third class of dynamic damage detection methods uses
changes in mode shapes of the structure. Typically,
changes in mode shape are much more sensitive
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
E-mail: ganguli@aero.iisc.ernet.in
Figures 7–11 appear in color online: http://jim.sagepub.com
The different methods which use mode shapes
basically differ in terms of the methodology adopted
for magnifying the changes in mode shape caused
by damage. Rizos and Aspragathos (1990) used changes
in mode shapes for damage detection in beams
by measuring displacements at two points. Wang and
Deng (1999), Chang and Lien-Wen (2005), and Douka
et al. (2003), applied wavelet analysis for detecting
damage from mode shape changes. Some researchers,
like Ratcliff and Bagaria (1998) and Yoon et al. (2005)
used algorithms such as the gapped polynomial to
magnify changes in mode shapes due to damage.
Pandey et al. (1991) used modal curvature to
amplify the effect of damage. Damage detection using
rotation mode shapes was considered by Abdo and
Hori (2002). Some other works on mode shape-based
damage detection are due to Parloo et al. (2003)
and Ratcliff (1997). A detailed review of vibration-
based damage detection methods is provided by
Dimarogonas (1996).
Using mode shape changes for damage detection
also has some drawbacks due to errors caused by the
variation in sensor positions and errors due to noise.
In recent years, major advances have been realized in
the field of structural dynamics and mechanical
vibration measurements. For example, Laser
Doppler Vibrometers (SLDV) (Khan et al., 2000),

JOURNAL OF INTELLIGENT MATERIAL SYSTEMS AND STRUCTURES, Vol. 18—April 2007 347
1045-389X/07/04 0347–13 $10.00/0 DOI: 10.1177/1045389X06066292
ß 2007 SAGE Publications
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348
have revolutionized dynamic testing and analysis due to
its fast scanning capability and its noncontacting
feature. Mode shape measurement and data analysis
methods have therefore become well developed and
accurate.
In this study, a new damage index is formulated in the
form of a vector of Fourier coefficients obtained by
spatial Fourier analysis of mode shapes of damaged
beams. The rationale for the present work is as
follows. Many important structures can be represented
as a beam that is fixed or pinned at one or both
ends. For such structures, boundary conditions
lead to a mode shape which satisfies the condition
w(x)|x¼0 ¼ w(x)|x¼L ¼ 0, where w(x) is the lateral dis-
placement of mode shape. One can therefore assume
that the mode shape for such structures is a periodic
function in the spatial domain with period p ¼ L.
Therefore, the mode shape can be expanded in a spatial
Fourier series. Since damage in the beam causes a
change in mode shape, there will be a corresponding
change in Fourier coefficients. Therefore, these
Fourier coefficients form an effective method to
quantify and amplify changes in mode shape caused
by damage. Most often Fourier analysis is carried out in
the time domain and it seems to the authors that
no work has looked at spatial Fourier analysis of
damaged beams in which Fourier coefficients are used
to magnify the changes in mode shape caused by the
damage.
In this study, it has been shown that damage in a
fixed–fixed beam leads to a finite and definite change in
the spatial Fourier coefficients of mode shapes. A neural
network with Fourier coefficients of the first three mode
shapes of a fixed–fixed beam as input data is developed
for damage detection and estimation.
ANALYTICAL MODEL FOR MODE SHAPES
The equation of motion of an Euler–Bernoulli beam is
@4 wðx, tÞ @2 wðx, tÞ
EIðxÞ þ mðxÞ ¼ fðx, tÞ:
@x4 @t2
For a uniform beam, the above equation can be solved
for exact solution to obtain frequencies and mode
shapes. Setting f(x,t) ¼ 0 for free vibration and assuming
w(x, t) as w(x,t) ¼ W(x)e(i!t), Equation (1) yields
d4 W m Solving Equation (3) with these boundary conditions
4

!2 W ¼ 0:
dx EI
The above is an ordinary differential equation of fourth
order in space. The general solution of this equation is
of the form
WðxÞ ¼ A sinð
xÞ þ B cosð
xÞ þ C sinhð
xÞ þ D coshð
xÞ
ð3Þ
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P.M. PAWAR ET AL.
where
¼ ðm!2 =EI Þ1=4 and ! is the natural frequency.
Solving Equation (3) with appropriate boundary
conditions gives the frequency equation. Substituting
the roots of this frequency equation, ðÞi , i ¼ 1, 2, . . . , n,
in
¼ ðm!2 =EI Þ1=4 , where
¼ =L, the ith frequency
can be obtained. Substituting
in Equation (3) gives
the mode shape corresponding to the ith mode.
FINITE ELEMENT MODEL FOR MODE SHAPES
Damage in a uniform beam leads to a reduction in
stiffness at the damage location thereby making it
nonuniform. For free vibration analysis of nonuniform
beams the finite element method is used. The beam
is discretized into a number of beam elements, with
displacement and slope as nodal degrees of freedom
and cubic interpolation functions.
For an n degree of freedom system, the equation of
motion in discrete form is obtained after assembly
of element matrices and application of boundary
conditions.
M€q þ Kq ¼ 0: ð4Þ
Here M is the n  n mass matrix of the system, K is the
n  n stiffness matrix of the system, q is the n  1 vector
of nodal degrees of freedom. The authors aimed at
obtaining a solution of the form q ¼
eði!tÞ , which
results in the eigenvalue problem.
K
¼ !2 M
: ð5Þ
Solving this eigenvalue problem, n eigenvalues can be
obtained, which represent the n natural frequencies of
the system. The associated eigenvectors along with
shape functions give the mode shape corresponding
to that mode.
SPATIAL FOURIER ANALYSIS
As an example, consider the case of a beam fixed
ð1Þ at both ends as shown in Figure 1. The boundary
conditions for a fixed–fixed beam are given by
dWð0Þ dWðLÞ
Wð0Þ ¼ 0, WðLÞ ¼ 0, ¼ 0, ¼ 0:
dx dx
ð6Þ
ð2Þ gives the frequency equation and equation for
mode shape as Equation (7) and Equation (8),
respectively.
cosð
LÞ coshð
LÞ ¼ 1: ð7Þ
The first, second, and third roots of the transcenden-
tal equation (Equation (7)), which corresponds to first,
second, and third modes of vibration are obtained
 Damage Detection in Beams 349

Center line of the beam

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

L
Figure 1. Typical fixed–fixed beam.

1.5
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3
Normalized modal displacement 1

0.5

−0.5

−1

−1.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Figure 2. First three mode shapes of an
undamaged fixed–fixed beam. Beam length (m)

as 4.73, 7.85, and 10.99 respectively. Substituting this in where ai , i ¼ 0, 1, 2, . . . , m and bj , j ¼ 1, 2, 3, . . . , m are
Equation (8) gives the corresponding mode shapes Fourier coefficients. To obtain Fourier coefficients
as shown in the Figure 2. for exact and finite element mode shapes, they are


   uniformly sampled at a number of discrete points.
x x cosðÞ
coshðÞ
WðxÞ ¼ cos
cosh
The sampled data are normalized with respect to the
L L sinðÞ
sinhðÞ


 highest value and by fitting a curve similar to that in
x x Equation (9), one can obtain the Fourier coefficients.
sin
sinh :
L L
ð8Þ
DAMAGE DETECTION USING
It can be observed from Figure 2 that W (x)|x¼0 ¼ NEURAL NETWORKS
W(x)|x¼L ¼ 0. Therefore, the mode shapes are periodic
in space(x) with period p ¼ L. Since the mode shapes The multilayer perceptron trained with the back-
are periodic, they can be expressed in the form of a propagation algorithm has been widely used in
Fourier series as in Equation (9), taking the linear engineering applications and is used in this study.
transformation  ¼ 2x=L, which transforms the Some of the recent works using neural networks for
problem from x 2 ½0, L to  2 ½0, 2. damage detection are given in (Chang et al., 2000; Lopes
et al., 2000; Sung et al., 2000; Suresh et al., 2004;
X
m   Su and Ye, 2005). The back-propagation network learns
WðÞ ¼ a0 þ ai cosðiÞ þ bi sinðiÞ ð9Þ
i¼1
by propagating errors in the backward direction from
output neurons to input neurons.

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350 P.M. PAWAR ET AL.

The multilayer perceptron network comprises an
input layer, an output layer, and a number of hidden
layers. The input layer receives input data for the
network and the output layer gives the computed
output. The hidden layers are required to allow the
network to represent and compute more complicated
associations between input and output.
The appropriate number of neurons in each layer
depends on the type of problem. The basic structure of a
feed-forward, back-propagation network based on the
multilayer perceptron is shown in Figure 3. Propagation
takes place from the input layer to the output layer and
there is no connectivity between neurons of the same
layer. This type of neural network is trained using a
process of supervised learning in which the network is
presented with a series of matched input and output
patterns and the connection strengths or weights of
the connections are automatically adjusted to decrease
the difference between actual and desired outputs.
A gradient search technique is used to minimize a cost
function which is equal to the mean square difference
between desired and actual network outputs. The
training of the network is carried out through a large
number of training sets and training cycles (called
epochs). The criterion for convergence is determined
by the root mean square error.
Since the mode shapes obtained from experiments
are bound to have some noise, training and testing
of the neural network with noisy data are necessary.
The experimental results are numerically simulated by
Hidden layer
adding some noise to the ideal noise free mode shapes
as follows.

ðnoisyÞ ðiÞ ¼
ðidealÞ ðiÞð1 þ   randðÞÞ ð10Þ
Here  is an arbitrary constant and function rand()
represents a random number in [
1 1].
In the present study the inputs of the neural network
are Fourier coefficients and outputs are the center of the
damaged part (l / L) and damage level D. The number of
inputs (n) of the neural network is equal to the number
of modes times the number of Fourier coefficients.
NUMERICAL RESULTS
Consider the beam shown in Figure 1 with the
following properties; E¼200 GPa, I¼2000 mm4,
2 3
A¼240 mm , ¼7800 kg/m , and L¼600 mm. The natural
frequencies and mode shapes are computed using the
methodology described in previous sections. The beam
is divided into 20 finite elements of equal length.
Numerical results for finite element (FE) analysis are
validated with the exact solutions. Figure 2 shows the first
three mode shapes for the selected example.
Spatial Fourier Analysis of Undamaged Beam
The Fourier analysis of different mode shapes of an
undamaged fixed–fixed beam are considered in this
section. Fourier coefficients for modes 1, 2, and 3 of an
undamaged fixed–fixed beam obtained using analytical
as well as FE model are given in Tables 1–3, respectively.

Input layer Output layer Table 1. Fourier coefficients for the first mode of the
1
fixed–fixed beam.
Analytical Normalized Order of
1 2 Coefficient value value magnitude FE value

a0 0.52316 1.00000 1 0.52316

a1
0.49505
0.96420 1
0.49505
2 3 b1 0.00000
a2
0.02143
0.04097 2
0.02143
1 b2 0.00000
a3
0.00416
0.00796 2
0.00416
b3 0.00000
a4
0.00131
0.00251 3
0.00131
b4 0.00000
2 a5
0.00054
0.00103 3
0.00054
b5 0.00000
a6
0.00026
0.00049 3
0.00026
n −1 b6 0.00000
a7
0.00014
0.00027 4
0.00014
m−1 b7 0.00000
n a8
0.00008
0.00016 4
0.00008
b8 0.00000
a9
0.00005
0.00010 4
0.00005
b9 0.00000
m
a10
0.00003
0.00007 4
0.00003
b10 0.00000
Figure 3. Neural network architecture.

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 Damage Detection in Beams 351

Table 2. Fourier coefficients for the second mode of the Table 3. Fourier coefficients for the third mode of the
fixed–fixed beam. fixed–fixed beam.
Analytical Normalized Order of Analytical Normalized Order of
Coefficient value value magnitude FE value Coefficient value value magnitude FE value

a0
0.00000 a0 0.24056
0.35294  0.24055

a1 0.00000 a1 0.53853
0.79013 1 0.53852
b1
0.91494 1.00000 1
0.91494 b1 0.00000
a2
0.00000 a2
0.68157 1.00000 1
0.68155
b2 0.19439
0.21246  0.19439 b2
0.00000
a3
0.00000 a3
0.06303
0.09247 
0.06303
b3 0.05033
0.05501  0.05033 b3
0.00000
a4
0.00000 a4
0.01832
0.02688 2
0.01832
b4 0.02079
0.02272 2 0.02079 b4 0.00000
a5
0.00000 a5
0.00735
0.01079 2
0.00735
b5 0.01058
0.01157 2 0.01058 b5 0.00000
a6
0.00000 a6
0.00353
0.00518 2
0.00353
b6 0.00611
0.00668 2 0.00611 b6 0.00000
a7
0.00000 a7
0.00191
0.00280 3
0.00191
b7
0.00385
0.00420 3
0.00385 b7
0.00000
a8
0.00000 a8
0.00113
0.00165 3
0.00113
b8
0.00257
0.00281 3
0.00257 b8
0.00000
a9 0.00000 a9
0.00071
0.00104 3
0.00071
b9 0.00181
0.00198 3 0.00181 b9
0.00000
a10
0.00000 a10
0.00047
0.00069 3
0.00047
b10 0.00132
0.00144 3 0.00132 b10
0.00000

The FE solution matches exactly with the analytical
solution to five decimal places. Therefore, the developed
FE model represents the mode shape with sufficiently
good accuracy. The following points can be noted from
Tables 1–3.
1. From Tables 1 and 3 it can be observed that, since
all bj, j ¼ 1, 2, . . . , m, are zero, the first and the third
mode shapes are cosine functions.
2. From Table 2 it can be observed that, since all ai,
i ¼ 1, 2, . . . , n, are zero, the second mode shape is a
sine function.
3. In general it is observed that all odd number of mode
shapes are cosine functions and all even number of
mode shapes are sine functions.
4. It is also observed that the steady and the first
harmonics are most dominant and other harmonics
decrease rapidly for higher harmonics as shown
by  in Tables 1–3. Here  is a small number of
magnitude 0.1.
Spatial Fourier Analysis of Damaged Beam
Any structural damage can be modeled by appro-
priately reducing the stiffness of the cross section at
the location of damage using continuum damage
variable D ¼ 1
ðE=E0 Þ, which varies from 0 for an
undamaged case (E ¼ E0 ) to 1 for complete damage
(E ¼ 0). A percent damage value of D is used in this
study, where D ¼ 0% stands for no damage and
D ¼ 100% stands for complete damage. For numerical
results in this study, a maximum value D of 50% is
considered.
The FE model developed is used to examine the
impact of damage in the beam on the Fourier
coefficients of the mode shapes. The Fourier
coefficients, for damage locations varying from element
numbers 1 to 20 and damage size as characterized by D,
varying from 0 to 50% are computed using the FE
model. Figures 4–6 show the variation of different
Fourier coefficients for the first three modes of a
fixed–fixed beam as damage size varies from 0% to
50% and damage locations from element numbers 1
to 20. The following points can be noted from
Figures 4–6.
1. Fourier coefficients are sensitive to damage and there
is a clear increase in magnitude of all coefficients
as damage increases from 0 to 50%.
2. The higher harmonics show the considerable
influence of damage location.
3. For mode 1 and mode 3, aj coefficients are symmetric
and bj are antisymmetric with respect to the beam
center line. For mode 2, aj coefficients are antisymmetric
and bj are symmetric with respect to the beam
center line.
4. In general, for all odd number of modes, aj are
symmetric and bj are antisymmetric and for all even
number of modes aj are antisymmetric and bj are
symmetric.
5. The antisymmetric coefficients are useful for locating
damage between two symmetric locations of the
beam (for example x ¼ 0.2L and x ¼ 0.8L), where

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352 P.M. PAWAR ET AL.

a0 a1 b1
0.55 0.46 0.05

0.525 0.48 0

0.5 0.5 −0.05

50 40 50 50 40
40 30 20
30 20 20 20 10 30 20 20
Dam 10 10 10 10 10
age 0 0 on 0 0 0 0
size e locati
Damag

b2 a3
a2 0.01 0
0

0
0 −0.005

a
−0.02 −0.01 −0.01
50 50
−0.04 40 30 20 40 30
20 10 20
50 40 10 20 10 10
30 20 20 0 0 0 0
10 10
0 0
× 10−3
× 10 −3 × 10−3
b4
b3 a4 5
5 5
0
0 0
−5
50 40
−5 5 30 20 20
50 40 50 40 10 10
30 20 20 30 20 20 0 0
10 10 10 10
0 0 0 0
× 10−3
−3
× 10 × 10−3 a6
2
a5 b5
2 1 0

0 0 −2
50 40
−2 30 20 20
−1 10 10
50 40 50 40 0 0
30 20 20 30 20 20 × 10−3
10 10 10
0 0 10 0 0
b6
1

−1
50 40
30 20 20
10 10
0 0

Figure 4. Variation of Fourier coefficients for mode 1 of the fixed–fixed beam.

the symmetric coefficients show the same Fourier It has also been found that each location-damage
coefficients. Thus at least one symmetric and one size pair has a unique vector of Fourier coefficients,
antisymmetric mode are needed to uniquely locate which can be considered as a unique damage index
damage in fixed–fixed beam. for that particular damage location and damage size.
6. Fourier coefficients which are zero for the Since the damage index is unique for each damage
undamaged beam (bj for mode 1 and mode 3, location and damage size pair, one can create a neural
aj for mode 2) in Tables 1–3, now attain network such that, given the Fourier coefficients of
nonzero values due to the presence of damage. a mode shape, the network is able to predict both
These nonzero values increase monotonically with damage size and damage location. This forms the
damage size. rationale for the next section on damage detection
7. The occurrence of sine harmonics in Fourier using neural networks.
coefficients of modes 1 and 3 and cosine harmonics
in Fourier coefficients of mode 2 are therefore Development of Neural Network for Damage Detection
indications of damage in the beam. In general,
the occurrence of nonzero sine harmonics in odd A neural network model is developed using
number of mode shapes and the occurrence input data produced from spatial Fourier analysis of
of nonzero cosine harmonics in even number of the damaged beam. The input data is obtained for
mode shapes are indications of the presence of the damage at 10 different parts of the beam for 5
damage. damage levels. The beam is divided into 10 parts with

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 Damage Detection in Beams 353

a0 a1
0.02 b1
0.1 −0.85
0 0 −0.9
−0.02
50 40 −0.1 −0.95
20 50 50 40
Dam 30 20 15 40 30 20
age 10 10 20 15 30 20 15 20
size 0 0 5 10 5 10 10
n 10
e locatio 0 0 0 0 5
Damag

b2 a3
a2
0.25 0.02
0.05
0.2 0
0
0.15 −0.02
−0.05 50 40 50 40
50 30 20 20 20
40 30 20 15 30 20 15
20 10 0 15 10 5 10 10
10 0 0 10 0 5
0 5 0

b3
b4
0.06 a4
0.03
0.01
0.04
0.02
0
0.02
50 40 0.01
30 20 20 0.01 50 40
10 15 50 40 30 20 20
10 5 20 15
0 0 30 20 15 10 5 10
10 5 10 0 0
0 0 × 10−3
× 10−3
a6
a5 b5
5
5 0.015
0
0 0.01
−5
−5 0.005 50 40
50 40 50 40 30 20 20
20 30 20 20 10 15
30 20 15 15 10 5
10 10 10 5 10 0 0
0 0 5 0 0

b6
0.01

0.005

0
50 40
30 20 15 20
10 5 10
0 0

Figure 5. Variation of Fourier coefficients for mode 2 of the fixed–fixed beam.

the centers of the damaged parts as 0.05, 0.15, 0.25, . . . sections, 11, 15, and 21 Fourier coefficients correspond
0.95 times the beam length. Damage levels are divided to the first 5, 7, and 10 harmonics, respectively.
into five parts as 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50%. Thus, However, the number of outputs remains at two. A
inputs to the neural network are Fourier coefficients and detailed study is carried out for a few
outputs are centers of the damaged part and damage sets of simulated data to understand the influence of
levels. various network parameters on the training and
The number of inputs for the neural network is the prediction capabilities of the network. The network
number of modes selected times the number of Fourier parameters such as hidden layers, number of neurons
coefficients selected for damage detection. It is easy in the hidden layers and the scaling of input–output
to measure the first three mode shapes experimentally data are obtained by varying each parameter within
though some noise may be present. For higher modes prescribed limits and the network is trained to arrive
the noise level may increase in the measured at the best possible set that leads to the minimum mean
data, which makes it difficult to predict the damage. square error (MSE) for the given data. After
Therefore, in this study, mode shapes of the first three doing the numerical experiments, one hidden layer is
mode are used to predict the damage. selected. The number of neurons for the hidden
The neural network is trained and tested for a noise layers(m) are selected as 50 for 33 inputs, 75 for 45
level of 1% with 11, 15, and 21 Fourier coefficients inputs and 100 for 63 inputs. The transfer functions
i.e., neural network inputs(n) of 33, 45, and 63 for (axons) between input and hidden layers are taken to
demonstrating the damage level and location prediction be tan h and a linear activation function is used
capability of the network. As can be seen in the previous between hidden and output layers. The architecture

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354 P.M. PAWAR ET AL.

b1
a0 a1
0.3 0.6 0.05
0.25 0.55 0
0.2 0.5 −0.05
50 50 40 50 40
40 20
Dam 30 20 15 30 20 15 20 30 20 15 20
age 10 10
size 10 0 0 5 cation 10 5 10 10 0 5
a g e lo 0 0 0
Dam

a2 b2 a3
0.6 0.1 0

0.65 0 −0.05

0.7 −0.1 −0.1

50 40 50 40 50 40
20 30 20 15 20 30 20 15 20
30 20 15 10 10
10 10 10 0 5 10 0 5
0 0 5 0 0

b4
b3 a4 0.02
0.05 0
0
0 −0.02
−0.02
−0.05 −0.04 50 40
50 40 50 40 30 20 15 20
30 20 15 20 30 20 20 10 5 10
10 10 15 0 0
10 5 10 5
0 0 0 0
a6
a5 0.01
b5
0 0.01 0

−0.01 0 −0.01
50 40
−0.02 −0.01 30 20 15 20
50 40 50 40 10 5 10
30 20 20 0 0
30 20 15 20 10 15
10 10 10 5
0 5 0 0
0
× 10−3

b6
5

−5
50 40
30 20 15 20
10 5 10
0 0

Figure 6. Variation of Fourier coefficients for mode 3 of the fixed–fixed beam.

of the neural network used in this study is shown

in Figure 3.
The prediction capability is tested for 10 random Table 4. Deviation of damage value using the neural
independent data sets of each example. All results network with 11 Fourier coefficients at various
are expressed in terms of the highest deviations (positive damage locations and various damage levels for the
or negative) of output predicted by the neural noise level of 1%.
network from the actual value out of the 10 data sets. l/L "Dn10 "Dn20 "Dn30 "Dn40 "Dn50
For example, if the actual damage is Da ¼ 10 and the
0.05 0.14 1.97 1.32 2.09 1.40
predicted damage by the neural network is Dp ¼ 10.464, 0.15 0 2.72 0.66 1.55 0.50
then the result of deviation of damage value is expressed 0.25 0 1.14 0.79 0.47 0
as Dn10 ¼ Dp
Da ¼ 0:464. Similarly, if the actual 0.35 0.50 2.89 2.10 1.06 0.10
location of the center of the damaged part is La ¼ 0:05 0.45 0.88 2.68 1.52 1.20 0.57
0.55 0.32 2.31 1.54 1.68 1.03
and the predicted location by neural network
0.65 0.30 1.82 1.32 0.70 0
Lp ¼ 0:0584 then the result of deviation of center of 0.75 0 2.02 1.23 0.94 0.38
damaged part is expressed as L ¼ Lp
La ¼ 0:0084. 0.85 0 3.30 1.07 1.25 0.65
Tables 4–6 show the deviation of damage value 0.95 0 1.47 1.67 1.35 0
using the neural network with 11, 15, and 21 Fourier Average 0.21 2.23 1.32 1.23 0.46
Maximum 0.88 3.30 2.10 2.09 1.40
coefficients at various damage locations and various

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 Damage Detection in Beams 355

Table 5. Deviation of damage value using the neural Figures 7–9 show the deviation of the center of
network with 15 Fourier coefficients at various damaged part value predicted using the neural network
damage locations and various damage levels for the
noise level of 1%. with 11, 15, and 21 Fourier coefficients at various
damage locations and damage levels for the low noise
l/L "Dn10 "Dn20 "Dn30 "Dn40 "Dn50 level of 1%. The maximum allowable deviation of the
0.05 0.41 0.99 1.09 0.53 0.20 center of the damaged part value is up to both edges of
0.15 0 1.20 1.27 1.33 0.37 the damaged part. As the total length of each damaged
0.25 0 0.94 1.52 0.66 0 part is 0.1 times the beam length, the maximum
0.35 0.15 0.94 1.07 0.77 0
allowable deviation from the center of the damaged
0.45 1.00 1.23 0.65 1.04 0
0.55 0.46 1.30 1.20 1.23 0.77 part will be 0.05 times the beam length on both sides of
0.65 0 0.86 1.20 0.47 0 the center of the damaged part.
0.75 0.93 0.89 0.90 0.83 0 From Figures 7–9, it is observed that all deviations
0.85 0.58 0.82 0.64 1.01 0 are within the maximum allowable limit. Deviations
0.95 0 1.41 0.50 0.68 0.04
of the center of the damaged part are very small and less
Average 0.35 1.06 1.01 0.86 0.14
Maximum 1.00 1.41 1.52 1.33 0.77 than 0.01 times the beam length. Therefore, the neural
network system with Fourier coefficient is useful to
predict the damage location successfully.
The neural network system with 21 Fourier
Table 6. Deviation of damage value using the neural coefficients is trained and then tested for higher
network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various noise levels of 5 and 10%. Tables 7 and 8 show the
damage locations and various damage levels for the
noise level of 1%. deviation of the damage value predicted by the neural
network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various damage
l/L "Dn10 "Dn20 "Dn30 "Dn40 "Dn50 locations and various damage levels for the higher
0.05 0 0.72 0.55 0.32 0.06 noise levels of 5 and 10%, respectively. From Table 7,
0.15 0 0.81 0.83 0.83 0.27 it is observed that the highest average deviation of
0.25 0.20 1.51 0.73 0.72 0 damage value is 0.73 and the highest maximum
0.35 0.13 0.45 1.24 0.43 0.24
deviation of damage value is 1.03 for a noise level of
0.45 0.11 0.45 1.00 0.52 0.53
0.55 0.90 0.81 1.38 0.53 0.50 5%. From Table 8, it is observed that the highest
0.65 0.42 1.02 0.72 0.34 0 average deviation of damage value is 0.91 and the
0.75 0.48 0.95 0.96 0.47 0.70 highest maximum deviation of damage value is 1.55
0.85 0.08 1.36 0.45 0.67 0.26 for a noise level of 10%.
0.95 0.15 0.53 0.59 0.50 0.39
Similarly, Figures 10 and 11 show the deviation
Average 0.25 0.86 0.84 0.53 0.33
Maximum 0.90 1.51 1.38 0.83 0.70 of the center of damaged part value using the neural
network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various
damage locations and damage levels for the higher
damage levels for the low noise level of 1%. From noise levels of 5 and 10%. From these figures, it is
Table 4, it is observed that for 11 Fourier coefficients observed that even at high noise levels of 5 and 10%,
(i.e., for 33 inputs(n) to NN), the highest maximum the neural network gives quite accurate results i.e.,
deviation of damage value is 3.30 and highest average all deviations are within the maximum allowable limit
deviation of damage value is 2.23. From Table 5, it is value.
observed that for 15 Fourier coefficients (i.e., for 45 The importance of the algorithm developed in this
inputs(n) to NN), the highest maximum deviation of work can be brought out by comparing its advantages
damage value is 1.52 and the highest average deviation over other vibration-based damage identification
of damage value is 1.06. From Table 6, it is observed methods given in Doebling et al. (1998). The main
that for 21 Fourier coefficients (i.e., for 63 inputs(n) to drawback of the frequency-based method is that
NN) the highest maximum deviation of damage value is frequencies generally cannot provide spatial information
1.51 and highest average deviation of damage value is about structural changes. Higher modal frequencies
0.86. It is observed, from the sample results with a noise and multiple frequency shifts can provide spatial
level of 1%, that the neural network with 21 Fourier information about structural damage because
coefficients (63 inputs) gives better results for the changes in structure at different locations will
prediction of damage level. All three neural networks cause different combinations of changes in modal
are trained and tested with random data sets. Therefore, frequencies. However, there are often an insufficient
comparison of the performance of the three networks number of frequencies with significant changes to
is difficult. However, overall performance and damage determine the location of the damage uniquely. It is
location and level prediction capability can be judged found that the mode shape can be a more sensitive
independently. indicator to damage. However, most of the methods

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356 P.M. PAWAR ET AL.

0.05
0.05
0.15
0.045 0.25
0.35
0.45
0.04 0.55
0.65
0.75
0.035 0.85
0.95

0.03
∆L

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
Figure 7. Deviation of center of damaged part value using the neural network with 11 Fourier coefficients at various damage locations and
various damage levels for a noise level of 1%.

0.05
0.05
0.15
0.045 0.25
0.35
0.45
0.04 0.55
0.65
0.75
0.035 0.85
0.95

0.03
∆L

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
Figure 8. Deviation of center of damaged part value using the neural network with 15 Fourier coefficients at various damage locations and
various damage levels for a noise level of 1%.

which use mode shape are based on graphical from the spatial Fourier analysis of the mode shapes of
comparisons of relative changes in mode shapes. damaged beams. It can also be noted that only three
The method developed in this study gives an algorithm mode shapes are sufficient for accurate prediction of
to formulate an automatic damage detection system damage using the current method. This method gives

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 Damage Detection in Beams 357

0.05
0.05
0.15
0.045 0.25
0.35
0.45
0.04 0.55
0.65
0.75
0.035 0.85
0.95

0.03
∆L

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
Figure 9. Deviation of center of damaged part value using the neural network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various damage locations and
various damage levels for a noise level of 1%.

Table 7. Deviation of damage value using the neural Table 8. Deviation of damage value using the neural
network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various
damage locations and various damage levels for the damage locations and various damage levels for the
noise level of 5%. noise level of 10%.
l/L "Dn10 "Dn20 "Dn30 "Dn40 "Dn50 l/L "Dn10 "Dn20 "Dn30 "Dn40 "Dn50

0.05 0 0.56 0.52 0.20 0.04 0.05 0.47 0.71 0.60 0.64 0.01
0.15 0 0.87 0.89 0.50 0.57 0.15 1.00 0.69 1.08 1.19 0.58
0.25 0 0.59 0.47 0.48 0.46 0.25 1.10 0.45 1.04 0.79 0.64
0.35 0.22 0.77 0.75 0.92 0.56 0.35 1.34 1.21 0.72 0.82 0.32
0.45 0 1.03 0.51 0.44 0 0.45 1.19 0.78 1.02 1.55 0.10
0.55 0 0.67 0.67 0.64 0.26 0.55 0.62 0.88 1.05 1.24 0.42
0.65 0.05 0.64 0.89 0.69 0.22 0.65 0.63 0.82 0.76 0.70 0.43
0.75 0.02 0.54 0.65 0.36 0.08 0.75 0.62 1.12 0.60 0.71 0.35
0.85 0 0.74 0.78 0.61 0.28 0.85 0 1.11 1.16 0.62 0.14
0.95 0 0.89 0.39 0.45 0.42 0.95 0.05 0.94 0.87 0.86 0
Average 0.03 0.73 0.65 0.53 0.29 Average 0.70 0.87 0.89 0.91 0.30
Maximum 0.22 1.03 0.89 0.92 0.57 Maximum 1.34 1.21 1.16 1.55 0.64

good results even with noisy data. It is therefore a new CONCLUSIONS

contribution to the literature in structural health
monitoring.
Although, the algorithm is demonstrated using a
simple beam, this algorithm can be demonstrated to
realistic and complicated structures such as composite
plates (Qu et al., 2006) and concrete bridges (Huth et al.,
2005) as an alternative to or along with other vibration-
based damage identification methods. This algorithm
can also be used for predicting life consumption of the
structure using phenomenological damage models
(Roy and Ganguli, 2005). These are subjects for
future work.
A new method for damage detection and isolation
using a damage index in the form of a vector of
Fourier coefficients is developed in this study. The
method uses Fourier analysis of mode shapes in the
spatial domain. Finite element (FE) analysis of a
damaged beam is used to study the effect of damage
location and size on spatial Fourier coefficients.
It is found that Fourier coefficients are sensitive
to both damage size and location. In particular,
higher harmonics are quite sensitive to damage
location indicating that Fourier coefficients in the

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358 P.M. PAWAR ET AL.

0.05
0.05
0.15
0.045 0.25
0.35
0.45
0.04 0.55
0.65
0.75
0.035 0.85
0.95

0.03
∆L

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
Figure 10. Deviation of center of damaged part value using the neural network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various damage locations and
various damage levels for a noise level of 10%.

0.05
0.05
0.15
0.045 0.25
0.35
0.45
0.04 0.55
0.65
0.75
0.035 0.85
0.95

0.03
∆L

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0
Figure 11. Deviation of center of damaged part value using the neural network with 21 Fourier coefficients at various damage locations and
various damage levels for a noise level of 10%.

spatial domain can be used as damage indicators. and quantify even small damage levels in the
In addition, results from the neural network devel- presence of noise. The method is therefore well-suited
oped and trained to detect damage location and size for automation and can be used for online damage
prove that this method can successfully locate detection.

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 Damage Detection in Beams 359

NOMENCLATURE Huth, O., Feltrin, G., Maeck J., Kilic, N. and Motavalli, M. 2005.
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Prestressed Concrete Bridge,’’ Journal of Structural Engineering-
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Ai ¼ a value of Fourier coefficient ai, above Khan, A.Z., Stanbridge, A.B. and Ewins, D.J. 2000. ‘‘Detecting
Damage in Vibrating Structures with a Scanning Ldv.,’’ Optics and
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Ai ¼ a value of Fourier coefficient ai, below Lai, J.Y. and Young, K.F. 1995. ‘‘Dynamics of Graphite/Epoxy
undamaged value Composite under Delamination Fracture and Environmental
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undamaged value Lopes, V., Park, G., Cudney, H.H. and Inman, D.J. 2000.
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Damage on the Modal Damping of a Sandwich Panel,’’ In:
L ¼ length of the beam Proceedings of 9th International Modal Analysis Conference, Vol. 2,
m ¼ mass per unit length of the beam pp. 1617–1622.
M ¼ mass matrix Qu, G.M., Li, Y.Y., Cheng, L. and Wang, B. 2006. ‘‘Vibration
Analysis of a Piezoelectric Composite Plate with Cracks,’’
n ¼ number of dof in FE model Composite Structures, 72(1):111–118.
p ¼ period in spatial domain Ratcliff, C.P. 1997. ‘‘Damage Detection using a Modified Laplacian
q ¼ vector of nodal dofs Operator on Mode shape Data,’’ Journal of Sound and Vibration,
w(x, t) ¼ transverse displacement of the beam 204(3):505–517.
W ¼ modal transverse displacement Ratcliff, C.P. and Bagaria, W.J. 1998. ‘‘A Vibration Technique for
Locating Delamination in Composite Beams,’’ AIAA Journal,
x ¼ length measured along the axis of the beam 36(6):1074–1077.
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i ¼ ith root of frequency equation Location and Magnitude in a Cantilever Beam from the Vibration
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Roy N. and Ganguli, R. 2005. ‘‘Helicopter Rotor Blade Frequency
 ¼ linear transformation  ¼ 2/L Evolution with Damage Growth and Signal Processing,’’ Journal
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! ¼ natural frequency Salawu, O. S. 1997. Detection of Structural Damage Through Changes
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Su, Z. and Ye, L. 2005. ‘‘Lamb Wave Propagation-based Damage
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