Volume III

Chapter 17Physical Basics of Magnetobiology

Chapter 17
PHYSICAL BASICS OF MAGNETOBIOLOGY

People are immersed in electromagnetic fields from such sources as power

lines, domestic appliances, mobile phones, and even electrical storms. All living
beings sense electric fields, but the physical origins of the phenomenon are still
unclear. Magnetobiologyconsiders the effects of electromagnetic fields on living
organisms. It provides a comprehensive review of relevant experimental data and
theoretical concepts, and discusses all major modern hypotheses on the physical
nature of magnetobiological effects.
Why do some people feel unwell during a lightning storm?Why is there a
correlation between the level of electromagnetic background and the incidence of
cancer?Why do so many medical centers use electromagnetic exposures to treat a
wide variety of disorders in humans?
The international scientific community is extremely interested in a theory of
magnetobiology. The World Health Organization (WHO) has named electromagnetic
contamination in occupational and residential areas as a stress factor for human
beings.

17.1 Properties of Magnetic Fields. Quantifying Magnetic

Properties

The relationship between a current carrying wire and magnetic fields has
been known since Hans Christian Oersted made the discovery in 1820. Oersted
noted that any electric current causes a magnetic field.
Magnetic fieldis the part of the electromagnetic field that determines
magnetic forces of the charges interaction and appears when charges move.
Magnetic fields can be created in a number of different ways. All of these
ways are based on three elementary ways to create a magnetic field.
1. Electrical currents (moving charges)
2. Magnetic dipoles
3. Changing electric field
These sources are thought to affect the virtual particles that compose the
field.
A magnetic field is found in the area around magnetic materials and current
carrying conductors, and has both a direction and a magnitudeat each point. A
magnetic field can either attract or repel other magnetic objects at a distance.

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
E is dependent on the magnitude and position of the charge.

B is dependent on the magnitude, position and velocity of the charge
Electric charge moving induces magnetism. Magnetic field changing induces
current.E-fields and B-fields induce each other.

Magnetic field sources are essentially dipolar in nature, having two poles
conventionally called North and South; this is where the magnetic field is strongest.
Like poles repel, and opposite poles attract. The poles are not charged! A magnetic
field surrounds a magnet, modifying the space around the magnet.
Note. A bar magnet cut into halves always makes new, complete magnets with both a north
and a south pole. The poles always come in pairs. You can not separate a pair into single poles.
Magnetic fields of a barare described by drawing flux lines that represent the magnetic field. Each
of magnetic flux line travels from the north pole to the south pole thro space.The line returns to the
north pole thro the magnet itself. Magnetic flux lines are invisible, but the effects can be visualized
with iron filings sprinkled in a magnetic field.

In physics, there are two different attributes of a magnetic field:

1. The "magnetic field strength" (or magnetic field intensity) is usually
given the symbol H. Measured in amperes per meter [A/m]. The magnetic field
intensity it is the magnetic field of an electrically charged current (or it is a vector
quantity indicating the ability of a magnetic field to exert a force on moving electric
charges). (A magnetic field strength of 1 ampere/meter is produced at the center of a
single circular conductor with a one meter diameter carrying a steady current of 1
ampere.)
2. The "magnetic flux density" (or magnetic induction field) is usually given
the symbol B. Measured in Newton-meters per ampere [Nm/A], also called teslas
[T].The S.I. units for magnetic induction are the Tesla [T] or weber per square
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meter[Wb·m-2]. The induction field is measures the density of the magnetic field, that
is, the concentration of magnetic flux tubes.
Magnetic field strength and flux density are just two ways of measuring the
same thing. Magnetic induction, as the other answer suggests, is just a process.
In common usage, physicists refer to the magnetic fieldin "empty" space by using the
symbol B and use a second term, H (magnetic field strength), to characterize the magnetic field that
passes through a magnetically responsive material, such as iron, which contributes an internal
magnetic field.
Magnetic field strengthHis one of two ways that the intensity of a magnetic
field can be expressed. The magnetic field can be visualized as magnetic field lines.
The field strength H corresponds to the density of the field lines B. The total number
of magnetic field lines penetrating an area is called the magnetic flux. The unit of the
magnetic flux is the tesla meter squared [T∙m2], also called the weber and symbolized
[Wb].Magnetic flux density diminishes with increasing distance from a straight
current-carrying wire or a straight line connecting a pair of magnetic poles around
which the magnetic field is stable. At a given location in the vicinity of a current-
carrying wire, the magnetic flux density is directly proportional to the current in
amperes. If a ferromagnetic object such as a piece of iron is brought into a magnetic
field, the "magnetic force" exerted on that object is directly proportional to the
gradient of the magnetic field strength where the object is located.
A magnetic field(traditionally called the B-field) can be represented by field
lines. The magnetic induction linesaround a straight current carrying wire are a set
of concentric circles around the wire, running the length of the wire. Magnetic field
lines are closed loops and never cross or intersect. The strength of themagnetic field is
greater where the lines are closer together and weaker where they are farther apart.
The direction of the field B is based on the Right Hand Rule, demonstrated by
grasping the wire with the right hand so that the thumb is in the direction of the
current and the direction of the field is the same as the direction of the fingers. This is
represented in Figure 17.1.

Fig. 17.1Magnetic Field around Current Carrying Wire. The right hand rule

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The number of magnetic lines of flux per unit area passing through a plane
perpendicular to the direction of the lines is called the magnetic field strength
(H).The magnetic field strength is a vector like electric field strength. The weber
[Wb] is the unit used for measuring the number of lines of flux.
Wb
1 2  1 Tesla
m
In electromagnetism theory, it is absolutely clear that these are different
quantities and you need to be precise about which you are measuring.
But for many practical purposes, the two are related by a simple numerical
relationship:
B  0  H (17.1)
where μ0 is a constant - it's called magnetic permeability of the vacuumand has
a value (in SI) μ0 =4π∙10-7.
If a material is present, the relation between magnetic field strength and
magnetic flux density becomes:
B  0  r  H (17.2)
with µr is a relative permeability of the material in complete analogy to the
electrical flux density and the dielectric constant. For non-magnetic materials - for
air, most building materials, the human body, etc - it has a value of very nearly 1.
Which is why it's usually sufficiently correct just to say B=μ0H. Only near iron or
steel or other magnetic materialsμrstarts taking different values.
The element of a conductor with current is used for magnetic field
investigation.
The element of currentis the value that equals to the product of the current
magnitude in the conductor element and the conductor element length: Il .The
current element directioncoincides by the current direction in it.
At any point of the magnetic field it is possible to find such direction at which
no magnetic force acts on the current element direction. This direction is called the
magnetic field directionat given point.

17.2 Magnetic Induction

The strength of a magnetic field is usually measured in terms of a quantity
called the magnetic flux densityB of the field. A definition of B requires a
consideration of the forces produced by electromagnetic fields.
When a wire carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the wire
experiences a force due to the interaction between the field and the moving charges
in the wire.

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The force F on the wire to be proportional to the current on the wire I, the
length of the conductor in the field l, the sine of the angle α that the conductor makes
with the field, and the strength of the field - this is measured by a quantity known as
the magnetic flux density B of the field. The force is given by the equation of
Ampere’s Law:
F  B  I  l  sin  (17.3)
where F is the force on the wire in Newtons [N], I is the current flowing in the wire in
Amperes [A], B is the magnetic induction of the magnetic field in tesla [T], l is
the length of wire in the magnetic field (in meter [m]) α is the angle between a
current element and the magnetic field direction. The quantity Il is known as the
current element.
Ampere’s Law: Electric currents create magnetic fields. Ampere's
lawdetermines the force that acts on a current-carrying conductor in the magnetic field.
The special case is when the wire is at right angles to the field (that is θ = 90 o).
This gives the greatest force (Fmax) on the wire. (See Figure )
Fm ax
B (17.4)
I  l
Magnetic flux density(B), is the force(F), per unit length(l), per unit current (I
), on a current carrying conductor at right angles to the magnetic field. It is otherwise
known as the magnetic field strength. The unit of measurement is the tesla [T].

Fig. 17.2Magnetic Field. The right hand rule

The flux density of a field of one tesla is defined as the magnetic flux density
of a uniform magnetic field when a wire of length 1m, carrying a current of 1A,
placed perpendicular to the field, experiences a force of 1N in a direction at right
angles to both the field and the current.
The direction of magnetic inductionis given by the right hand rule described
above (Fig.17.1).
Lorentz force.Just as current in a wire causes a magnetic field, a magnetic
field passing over a wire also induces a current in the wire. The force F induced by
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the magnetic field B always acts perpendicular to the velocity υ of the particle q and
the magnetic field itself is called the Lorentz force (after the Dutch physicist
Hendrik A. Lorentz) and is given by
F  q    B  sin  (17.5)
where:
F is the force in Newtons [C];
q is the electric charge in Coulombs [C];
υ is the velocity of a positive (+) charge in meters/second [m/s];
B is the strength of the magnetic field in Teslas[T];
sinα is the sine of the angle α (Greek letter alpha) between υ and B.
The direction of the force can be visualized by pointing the fingers of your
right hand in the direction of the velocity of the current, curling your fingers to point
in the direction of the magnetic field, and noting that your thumb now points in the
direction the force will act.
A moving charge will generate a magnetic field relative to the velocity of the
charge.When there is only a magnetic field and the direction in which the charge is
moving is at right angles (α=90) to the magnetic field then the force, F, on that
charge is given by the equation:
F  q   B (17.6)
Derivation of above equation:
Consider a positive charge q moving at constant speed υ at right angles to a magnetic field of
flux density B. Assuming that the charge travels a distance l in time t, its speed is   l . The moving
t
charge can be seen as a current of I  q .
t
Hence, the force on the charge is given by: F  B  I  l ,
q l
F  B   l substituting I, F  B  q   B  q   substituting υ.
t t

17.3Biot-Savart Law and it's Applications

Currents which arise due to the motion of charges are the source of magnetic
fields.
When charges move in a conducting wire and produce a current I, the magnetic
field at any point Pdue to the current can be calculated by adding up the magnetic
field contributions, dB, from small segments of the wired dl (Fig. 17.3).

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Fig. 17.3The magnetic field at point P due to a current--carrying element Idl

(dBin - magnetic vector pointing in of the plane of the paper (is perpendicular directed downwards)
represented by the symbol (×), dBout - directed in upward direction represented by the symbol (•)).

These segments can be thought of as a vector quantity having a magnitude of

the length of the segment and pointing in the direction of the current flow. The
infinitesimal current source can then be written as Idl.
Let r denote as the distance from the current elementto the field point P.
Jean Baptiste Biot and FélixSavart wrote down the magnetic field that would
be induced by a current element.
The field at a point in space must be:
• proportional to the size of the current element,
• proportional to how far you are from it, and
• spread over the surface of a sphere.
The field lines are in the spherical surface, i.e. at right angles to the plane of the
current and the radial direction to the point.
The Biot-Savart law gives an expression for the magnetic field contribution,
dB, from the current source, Idl:
  I (dl, r )  I  dl  sin 
dB  0  or scalar form dB  0  (17.7)
4 r 3
4 r2
where B is the magnetic induction in Tesla and its direction is given by the
right hand screw rule from Idl to r; I is the current in the wire,  0  4  10 7 [T·m·A-
1
] is a constant called the permeability of free space; r - is theradial distance from
the current element(wire) to the point in space where B is calculated.
This definition (theoretically) enables us to calculate the magnetic field from
any shape of current carrying wire.
Applying of Biot-Savart law to calculate field B in some important cases:

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17.3.1 Magnetic Field Around an Infinite Straight Conductor with

Current I
The magnitude of the magnetic flux densityB around (or at any point at a
perpendicular distance r from a long straight wire (is the shortest distance to the wire)
an infinite straight wire I is:
0 I
B  (17.8)
2 r
Since the wire is very long, the magnitude of the field depends only on distance
from the wire r, not on position along wire.

Fig. 17.4Magnetic field lines due to an infinite wire carrying current

Right hand grip rule: (Corkscrew rule)

The direction is found using a slightly different version of the right hand rule:
Point your thumb in direction of current, your fingers show the direction of the field.

17.3.2 Magnetic Field inside a Solenoid

A solenoid is a long coil of insulated or enameled wire (with many turns or
loops, as opposed to a flat loop) wound on a rod-shaped form made of solid iron,
solid steel, or powdered iron. Devices of this kind can be used as electromagnets, as
inductors in electronic circuits (Fig 17.5. a).A solenoid produces a magnetic field
similar to that of a permanent bar magnet. The magnetic field within a solenoid is
very nearly uniform. The direction of the magnetic field can be obtained by using a

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modified version of right hand grip rule (Corkscrew rule). The magnetic flux density
at the ends of a solenoid is half that at the centre.
If the solenoid has N turns, length Land carries a current I, the flux density at a
point O on the axis near the centre of a solenoid, is found to be given by:
0  N  I
B (17.9)
L
Or B  0  n  I

Where n  N / L number of turns per unit length, B thus equals  0 , multiplied

by the ampere-turns per metre.
Note that B is the field strength anywhere in the uniform region of the interior and not
just at the center.
When a current is run through a cylindrical coil of wire, a solenoid, it
produces a magnetic field like the magnetic field of a bar magnet. The solenoid is
known as electromagnet.

17.3.3 Magnetic Field of a toroidal solenoid

A doughnut - shaped solenoid. Finding the magnetic field inside a toroid is a
good example of the power of Ampere's law. The current enclosed by the dashed
line is just the number of loops times the current in each loop.
The magnetic flux densityis confined almost entirely to the space enclosed
by the windings.Amperes law then gives the magnetic field by
0  N  I
B (17.10)
2  r

a) b)

Fig. 17.5Magnetic field for: a) solenoid of n turns, b)toroid

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The toroid is a useful device which good in everything: from tape heads to
tokomaks.

17.4 Flux of Magnetic Induction Vector

About 1831 in England, Michael Faraday (1791-1867) discovered

electromagnetic induction by systematic experimentation of how magnetic fields can
generate electric currents. He introduced the idea of field lines and magnetic flux.
(Joseph Henry also discovered electromagnetic induction at about the same time in
the United States, but Faraday published his results first.) Flux is a Latin word for
"flow".

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Michael Faraday decided that magnetic field lines through the cross-sectional
area of the loops in a solenoid looked like velocity streamlines through a pipe and so
made magnetic induction an analogue of the flow speed in a new concept called
"magnetic flux". Magnetic flux is the magnetic "flow".
Magnetic flux is a measurement of how much magnetic field passes through an
area. Therefore, this quantity depends not only on the magnetic field strength but also
on an area. A simplified explanation for magnetic flux is that the magnetic flux gives
the ―number‖ of magnetic field lines passing through the area.

Fig. 17.6Magnetic flux

Very qualitatively, flux is a measure of how much of a vector field passes

perpendicularly through a given area. A vector field is simply a vector quantity that
has possibly different values (in magnitude and/or direction) at different points in
space.
Magnetic fluxis a measure of how much magnetic field passes perpendicularly
through a given area.The flux of the magnetic field B, denoted B( is the capital
Greek letter phi).
If we choose a simple flat surface with area A as our test area and there is an
angle φ between the normal to the surface and a magnetic field vector (magnitude B)
then the magnetic flux is,
 B  B  A  cos  (17.11)
In the case that the surface is perpendicular to the field then the angle is zero
and the magnetic flux is simply
B  B  A (17.12)
Figure 17.7 shows an example of a flat test area at two different angles to a
magnetic field and the resulting magnetic flux.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (named after German physicist and
co-inventor of the telegraph Wilhelm Weber) [Wb= T×m2].

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Figure 17.7:Magnetic flux through given areas (blue) oriented at an angle (left) and
normal to (right) the magnetic field.

Because the magnetic flux is just a way of expressing the magnetic field in a
given area, it can be measured with a magnetometer in the same way as the
magnetic field.

17.5 Faraday’s Law of Induction. Lenz’s Law.

Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon that explains how emf and current

is or can be induced in a coil when a coil and a magnetic field interact. This
phenomenon ‖electromagnetic induction‖ is explained by Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction. The direction of induced emf in a coil is explained by
Lenz’s law and Fleming’s right hand rule.
After Ampere and others investigated the magnetic effect of current, Michael
Faraday tried the opposite. In the course of his work he discovered that when there
was change in a magnetic field in which a coil was placed, EMF was induced in the
coil.
This happened only whenever he moved either the coil or the magnet he used
in the experiment. EMF was induced in the coil only when there was change in the
field flux (if the coil is fixed, moving the magnet towards or away from the coil
causes EMF to be induced). Thus Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction states
as follows;
Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction states that ―EMF is induced in
a coil when there is a change in the flux linking the coil‖.
Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic induction states that ―the magnitude
of induced EMF in a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linking
the coil‖.
Under certain conditions the magnetic field can be used to produce an
electric current. Faraday began to work at this problem in 1825 and succeeded in
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1831. He ascertained that no current is induced in a loop of wire that is

stationary in a constant magnetic field. However, if the magnetic field changes
with time, or if the wire loop moves across or is rotated in the field, a current is
induced in the wire.
The current in the coil induced by a changing magnetic field or changing the
area of a coil methods is called an induced current. A closed circuit is necessary for
the induced current to flow.
Electromagnetic Inductionis the process of using magnetic fields to produce
voltage, and in a closed circuit, a current.
The Faraday-Henry law states that if an electric conductor, which forms a
closed circuit, is linked by a time-varying magnetic flux Φ a current is observed in
the circuit. This current is due to the electromotive force (emf) induced by the time-
varying flux. The magnitude of emf depends on the rate of change of the magnetic
flux dΦ/dt.
The magnitude of the emf induced in a conducting loop is equal to the rate at
which the magnetic flux through that loop changes with time.
d  final   initial
   (17.12)
dt t
where ε -electromotive force (emf) in Volt [V], Φ - magnetic flux [Wb ],t - time
[s]. The ―-‖ indicates that the induced emf opposes the changes in the magnetic flux
(The minus sign denotes Lenz's law.).
If we change the magnetic flux through a coil of N turns, an induced emf
appears in every turn and the total emf induced in the coil is the sum of these
individual induced emfs.
d  final   initial
  N   N (17.12)
dt t
Faraday’s Law of Induction: A changing magnetic field creates an electric
field. The induced voltage in a coil is proportional to the product of the number of
loops and rate at which the magnetic field changes within the loops.
 
Corresponding to a magnetic field B the flux  , linking the circuit is given by
  
   B  dS ,
where the integral is taken over any surface whose periphery is the circuit loop.
If the flux is due to a coil's own current I, the flux is defined as: Φ = LI, where L is
the inductance of the coil and the emf can be written;

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d dI
   L
dt dt
where L is theinductance of the coil [H =Wb/A], I is the current in the coil [A].
The magnitude of induced emfis proportional to the rate of change of current,
dI/dt. The coefficient of proportionality is the inductanceL. The term dI/dt depends
on the speed with which the capacitors are discharged. Inductance L is determined by
the geometry and constitutive property of the medium. Theprincipal factors for the
coil system are the shape of the coil, the number of turnson the coil, and the
permeability of the core.
The change in the flux may be effected in various ways, such as:
 changing the magnetic strength of the field;
 moving the coil with respect to a stationary field;
 moving the field with respect to a stationary coil.
Faraday used two circuits (Fig. 17.6) with coils of insulated wire (a)and
(b). One coil (Fig. 17.6 (b)) was connected to a galvanometer, and the other to
a battery (Fig. 17.6 (a)).
Faraday's experiments showed that a current in the coil (b)was observed only
in those cases when the magnetic field passing this coil was changed. A current was
larger the larger were coils cross-area and the number of coil turns. Faraday arrived
at the conclusion: in any conducting circuit placed in alternating magnetic field an
electric current is induced that is directly proportional to the change of this magnetic
field. Faraday called the current in the coil (b)as the induced current.
An electric current can exist only under the condition that there exist the
potential difference or the electromotive force. The induced current is the secondary
phenomena. The current induced in a loop is caused by the induced electromotive
force due to a process called the electromagnetic induction.

Fig. 17.6 Circuits with coils of insulated wire a), b)

The induced emf can be increased by:

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- Increasing the number of coils;

- Using stronger magnets;
- Decreasing the time – moving faster
The size of the induced current is (also) directly proportional to the rate of
change of the magnetic flux linkage.
When a current is induced by a changing magnetic field, that current itself
produces its own magnetic field. This effect is called self-induction.

http://www.physchem.co.za/OB11-ele/magnetic4.htm
Lenz’s Law: Induced electric currents act so as to oppose the motion that
caused them.Induced current produces a secondary magnetic field that is always
opposed to the primary magnetic field that induced it, an effect called Lenz’s law.
Lenz's law enables us to determine the direction of the induced current: The
direction of the induced current is such as to oppose the change causing it.

Fig. 17.6 Circuits with coils of insulated wire a), b)Voltage is induced
when a magnet moves towards or away from a coil, inducing a current in the
coil. Faster the magnet’s motion, the greater the induced current.

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A B
Fig. 17.6789

The diagram on the Fig. 17.6789 A shows the north pole of a bar magnet
approaching a solenoid. According to Lenz's law, the current which is thereby
generated in the coil must cause an effect which opposes the approaching magnetic
field. This is achieved if the direction of the induced current creates a north pole at
the end of the solenoid closest to the approaching magnet, as the induced north pole
tends to repel the approaching north pole.
The diagram on the Fig. 17.6789 Bshows the north pole of a bar magnet
withdrawing from a solenoid. According to Lenz's law, the current which is thereby
generated in the coil must cause an effect which opposes the departing magnetic
field. This is achieved if the direction of the induced current creates a south pole at
the end of the solenoid closest to the departing magnet, as the induced south pole
tends to attract the departing north pole.
Induced current produced by a moving magnet. Magnet moves toward the
coil, induced current flows in one direction (Fig. 17.6789 A). Magnet is held still, no
induced current. Magnetic moves away from the coil, induced current flows in the
other direction (Fig. 17.6789 A).

It states that ―if the thumb, the forefinger and the middle finger are held in such a way that they are
mutually perpendicular to each other (makes 90° of Angles), then the forefinger points the direction
of the field, the thumb points the direction of motion of the conductor and the middle finger points
the direction of the induced Current (from EMF

Heinrich Lenzstated this as:

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The current that is induced in a closed conducting loop, by a change in

magnetic flux, flows in a direction that opposes the change in flux.
This means that if the magnetic flux decreases though a loop then current will
flow to try to bring the flux back up to its original value.
If the magnetic flux through a loop increases then current will flow to try to
bring the flux down to its original value.
There is an induced current in a closed conducting loop if and only if the
magnetic flux through the loop is changing. The direction of the induced current is
such that the induced magnetic field always opposes the change in the flux.

Fig.17.7Lenz's law describes the tendency of nature to resist any change in

magnetic flux passing through a loop of wire. Changes in flux can be canceled by
inducing a magnetic field in the appropriate direction.

The changing magnetic field in the coil due to the change in current induces a
current in the metal ring. Lenz’s Law states that the magnetic field in the ring
opposes the magnetic field of the coil and forces the ring to fly away.
Applications of Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction apply when electrical signals need to be transmitted
across a barrier, for example the cochlear implant. Sound is picked up by a
microphone on the outside of the skull and is used to set up a varying magnetic field.
A current is induced in a receiver secured in the bone beneath the skin and
transmitted to electrodes in the inner ear. Electromagnetic induction can be used in
other instances where electric signals need to be conveyed across various media

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Fig.17.8Electromagnetic induction used in transmitting electric currents across mediums.

The device on the baby’s head induces an electrical current in a receiver secured in the bone
beneath the skin. Cochlear implant. 1. Sounds are picked up by the microphone.2. The signal is
then “coded” (turned into a special pattern of electrical pulses). 3. These pulses are sent to the coil
and are then transmitted across the skin to the implant. 4. The implant sends a pattern of electrical
pulses to the electrodes in the cochlea. 5. The auditory nerve picks up these electrical pulses and
sends them to the brain. The brain recognizes these signals as sound.

Sleep apnea (―the cessation of breath‖) affects both adults and infants
(especially premature babies and it may be a cause of sudden infant deaths). In such
individuals, breath can stop repeatedly during their sleep. A cessation of more than 20
seconds can be very dangerous. Stroke, heart failure, and tiredness are just some of
the possible consequences for a person having sleep apnea. The concern in infants is
the stopping of breath for these longer times. One type of monitor to alert parents
when a child is not breathing uses electromagnetic induction. A wire wrapped around
the infant’s chest has an alternating current running through it. The expansion and
contraction of the infant’s chest as the infant breathes changes the area through the
coil. A pickup coil located nearby has an alternating current induced in it due to the
changing magnetic field of the initial wire. If the child stops breathing, there will be a
change in the induced current, and so a parent can be alerted.
Lenz’s law is a manifestation of the conservation of energy. The induced emf
produces a current that opposes the change in flux, because a change in flux means a
change in energy. Energy can enter or leave, but not instantaneously. enz’s law is a
consequence. As the change begins, the law says induction opposes and, thus, slows
the change. In fact, if the induced emf were in the same direction as the change in
flux, there would be a positive feedback that would give us free energy from no
apparent source—conservation of energy would be violated.
The Hall Effect. The Hall effect is the creation of voltage ε, known as the Hall
emf, across a current-carrying conductor by a magnetic field. The Hall emf is given
by

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  B  l 
(B, υ, and l, mutually perpendicular. For a conductor of width l through which
charges move at a speed υ .
https://textbookequity.org/Textbooks/collegephysicsvol22014_08_07b.pdf (362 стор)

17.6 Eddy Currents

Changing magnetic field induces eddy currents within any conductor.These
internal currents produce self-induced magnetic fields, which by Lenz’s law are in
opposition of the primary magnetic field.

Eddy currents (also called Foucault currents) are electric current induced in
conductors when a conductor is exposed to a changing magnetic field; due to relative
motion of the field source and conductor or due to variations of the field with time.
This can cause a circulating flow of electrons, or current, within the body of the
conductor. These circulating eddies of current have inductance and thus induce
magnetic fields. These fields can cause repulsive, attractive, propulsion and drag
effects. The stronger the applied magnetic field, or the greater the electrical
conductivity of the conductor, or the faster the field changes, then the greater the
currents that are developed and the greater the fields produced.
The term eddy current comes from analogous currents seen in water when
dragging an oar breadth wise: localized areas of turbulence known as eddies give rise
to persistent vortices. Somewhat analogously, eddy currents can take time to build up
and can persist for very short times in conductors due to their inductance.
Eddy currents, like all electric currents, generate heat as well as
electromagnetic forces. The heat can be harnessed for induction heating. The
electromagnetic forces can be used for levitation, creating movement, or to give a
strong braking effect. Eddy currents can also have undesirable effects, for instance
power loss in transformers. In this application, they are minimized with thin plates,
by lamination of conductors or other details of conductor shape.

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Self-induced eddy currents are responsible for the skin effect in conductors.
The latter can be used for non-destructive testing of materials for geometry features,
like micro-cracks. A similar effect is the proximity effect, which is caused by
externally-induced eddy currents.
Interruptions in the flow of eddy currents, caused by imperfections,
dimensional changes, or changes in the material's conductive and permeability
properties, can be detected with the proper equipment.

Fig. 17.9 Examples of eddy currents using

Metal Detectors. Can detect the presence of metals by using a transmitter coil
to create an oscillating primary magnetic field. This creates a secondary magnetic
field due to eddy currents in the metal. Can detect this secondary magnetic field by
using a receiver coil (Fig. 17.9).

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17.7 Magnetic Characteristics of Materials.Relative

Magnetic Permeability of a Substance

All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons
and electrons. The protons and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the
electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus. Electrons carry a negative
electrical charge and produce a magnetic field as they move through space. A
magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength
of this field is called the magnetic moment.
This may be hard to visualize on a subatomic scale but consider electric current
flowing through a conductor. When the electrons (electric current) are flowing
through the conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The magnetic
field can be detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the
compass needle, which is another example of a dipole(a magnetic N and S pole make
up a magnetic dipole) see fig. 17.10. Magnetic dipole moment is analogous to electric
dipole moment (Vector from S to N pole (by convention).

Figure 17.10 Electric and Magnetic dipole

Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way
by a magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way.
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the
material's electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of
Magnetic Induction. However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of
an external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of factors, such as
the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field
associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three
origins. These are the electron motion, the change in motioncaused by an external
magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.

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In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Electrons in a pair spin in opposite

directions. So, when electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause their
magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists.
Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field
and will react more to an external field. Most materials can be classified as
diamagnetic, paramagnetic or ferromagnetic.
Magnetic Moments. In some materials such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, the
atoms behave as tiny magnets because of certain orientations of the electrons inside
the atom. These atoms are grouped in a tiny region called the magnetic domain. The
intrinsic magnetic moments of electrons align creating magnetic regions, domains.
Non-magnetic it is material no domains. Magnetic material domains not aligned.
Magnet domains aligned (Fig. 17.11).

Fig. 17.11a)non-magnetic material - no domains; b) magnetic material - domains not

aligned; c) magnet domains not aligned

Fig. 17.11(a)Aligning Magnetic domains. (b) No external field, weak and strong
external fields. (c)Common permanent magnets are aligned domains.

The property that defines how a material responds to a magnetic field is its
permeability. Permeability has a big effect on skin depth, metals with high
permeability are poor conductors for radio-frequency signals. Magnetic permeability
is the distinguishing property of the matter, every matter has specific µ.Figure17.13
given below shows the behavior of magnetic field lines in vacuum and in two
different matters having different µ.

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Fig. 17.13Magnetic field lines in vacuum and in two different

matters having different µ

The definition of permeability of the matter is the ratio of applied magnetic

induction to the applied magnetic field:
B
 (17.9)
H
where, His the magnetic field strength (in A/m) and B is the magnetic
induction or magnetic flux density (in Tesla). (µ -units are Gauss/Oersted).
Permeability, μ, is analogous to the permittivity in that it describes the
relationship between the magnetic dipole vector and the magnetic field:
– Most of the cells and tissues that will be studied are non-magnetic;
– For these types of materials, μ is considered to be equivalent to μ0, the
permeability of free space;
– It is, therefore, much less critical to our analysis of EM interaction with
biological tissue than permittivity and conductivity
 
B  H
• These three parameters fundamentally characterize any medium
macroscopically – Parameters can be used to determine depth of penetration and
absorbed power of an incident electromagnetic wave on the medium

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Fig. 17.12 Relative Permittivity versus for six tissue

Relative permeabilityµr is the ratio of a specific medium permeability µ to the

permeability of vacuum µ0.

r  (17.10)
0
Materials are divided into four categories, depending on their permeability.
 Diamagnetic: (  R  1 ) If the relative permeability of the matter is a
little bit lower than 1 then we say these matters are diamagnetic.
 Nonmagnetic:  R  1 (air is a good example, but most metals are very
close to nonmagnetic, close enough so you can round off  R to 1.)
 Paramagnetic: (  R  1 ) If the relative permeability of the matter is a
little bit higher than 1 then we say these matters are paramagnetic.
 Ferromagnetic: (  R  1 )If the relative permeability of the matter is
higher than 1 with respect to paramagnetic matters then we say these
matters are ferromagnetic matters.
Diamagnetic materials have a weak, negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does
not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. In diamagnetic
materials all the electron are paired so there is no permanent net magnetic moment
per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron paths
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under the influence of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic table,
including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does
not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic
properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the
realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to
retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed.
Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net
magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of
magnetic domains. In these domains, large numbers of atom's moments (10 12 to 1015)
are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When a
ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized state, the domains are nearly randomly
organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. When a
magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a strong
magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic
materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected using the
magnetic particle method.
Biological tissues have no clearly expressed magnetic properties, they are
mainly diamagnetics (water, proteins, carbohydrates, etc.) and for some molecular
structures (free radicals, genes containing iron ions etc.) are characterized
paramagnetic effect in interaction with external magnetic field. Magnetic fields can
induce electric voltages and currents in biological medium (due to action of Lorentz
force on moving electrical charges, or by action of Faraday force in varying magnetic
fields). The induced voltages are, of course, substantially lower than the membrane
potentials.
 In a strong mg field, the diamagnetic and paramagnetic molecules orient
themselves to minimise their free energy. In non-homogeneous fields with big
gradients, a translation movement of ferromagnetic compounds takes place (in
living organisms negligible). A strong mg field would reduce the flow rate of
laminar streaming in a tube.
 Further, it is necessary to consider indirect action as well, mediated by free
radicals arising as a consequence of magnetochemical reactions.
 We can say that a stable magnetic field of high intensity inhibits metabolic
processes, but a varying one stimulates them. These changes are transient.

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 The interactions of magnetic fields with human tissues are utilised in both
diagnostics and therapy. Magnetotherapy is an example of healing procedure.
Magnetic stimulation of brain can be used both in diagnostics and therapy.

Magnetotherapy Biomagnetism quackery of Franz Messmer 200 years ago

Ferromagnetism in diagnosis and therapy:

Diagnosis
- Ferromagnetic particles can get into the human body by eating and breathing.
- Food can have ferromagnetic particles it accidently includes from harvesting or
from processing, and eating will deposit those particles in the stomach.
- Breathing air with iron oxide particles from arc welding, or laden with asbestos
dust, will deposit particles in the lungs.
- Placing a person's body in a strong magnetic field will align the ferromagnetic
particles, and a scan afterwards will show any dangerous concentrations.
Therapy
- Some tumors can be destroyed by heat (hyperthermia).
- Implanting ferroelectric particles (NiCu and PdCo) in the tumor and
inductively heating them with a radiofrequency magnetic field can breakdown
the tumor.

Magnetic Properties of Biological Tissues

For the most part of biological tissues, magnetic permeability is very close to
that of the free space (i.e, diamagnetic) which implies that there is no direct
interaction with the magnetic component of electromagnetic fields at low field
strengths. Although all living organisms are essentially made of diamagnetic organic
compounds, there are some paramagnetic molecules (e.g., O2) and ferromagnetic
microstructures (haemoglobin core, magnetite) also present.

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These magnetic materials are compounds of iron, particularly iron oxides,

which are involved in the reduction-oxidation biochemical reactions of the living
beings. In organisms, iron is stored as the mineral ferrihydrite (5Fe 2O3·9H2O) within
the iron storage protein ferritin. The ferrihydrite is a superparamagnetic
antiferromagnet at body temperature, and as such, its magnetic properties are
potentially important for understanding the environmental consequences of
electromagnetic field exposure, including exposure to strong fields within magnetic
resonance imaging scanners.
Moreover, biological magnetites (Fe3O4) are usually found in single domain
units. Although the magnetite is more commonly associated with sedimentary rocks,
it is also found in living organisms, with the magnetotactic bacteria as the best well-
known example. Such bacteria use chains of single domain biological magnetites that
are arranged in order to sense the geomagnetic field and use it for navigation.
Although still on some controversy, it has been reported the presence of magnetite in
human nervous tissue. This suggests that magnetite may provide a mechanism for
direct interaction of external magnetic fields with the human central nervous system.
It has been reported that extreme low frequency (ELF) fields might create biological
effects by acting on such particles, although such effects occur only under strong
magnetic fields (at least 2-5 µT)

Magnetic Stimulation of Neural Tissue

(http://www.bem.fi/book/22/22.htm)

Magnetic fields with low frequency - increase the excitability of brain, decrease
the blood flow in vessels with a high diameter - aorta (this in turn, may decrease the
blood pressure)
Magnetic fields with high frequency- have mainly thermal effects (used in
Diathermy)
Both types of fields are used in the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Scanning
(NMRS)

17.8 Basics of Magnetobiology

Magnetobiology is the study of biological effects of mainly weak static and

low-frequency magnetic fields, which do not cause heating of tissues.
Magnetobiological effects have unique features that obviously distinguish them from
thermal effects; often they are observed for alternating magnetic fields just in

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separate frequency and amplitude intervals. Also, they are dependent of

simultaneously present static magnetic or electric fields and their polarization.
Magnetobiology is a subset of bioelectromagnetics. Bioelectromagnetism and
biomagnetism are the study of the production of electromagnetic and magnetic fields
by biological organisms. The sensing of magnetic fields by organisms is known as
magnetoreception.
Biological effects of weak low frequency magnetic fields, less than about 0.1
mT (1 G) and 100 Hz correspondingly, constitutes a physics problem. The effects
look paradoxical, for the energy quantum of these electromagnetic fields is by many
orders of value less than the energy scale of an elementary chemical act. On the other
hand, the field intensity is not enough to cause any appreciable heating of biological
tissues or irritate nerves by the induced electric currents.
A bright example of magnetobiological effects is the magnetic navigation by
migrant animals. It is established that some animals are able to detect small variations
of the geomagnetic field on the order of tens of nanoteslas to find their seasonal
habitats.

Electrons, protons, & neutrons (and many others) have an intrinsic property
called ―spin‖ which gives them a magnetic dipole moment
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) / magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Detects energy difference between nuclear spins (ex: 1H) parallel and anti-
parallel to B field

Question for self-preparation of students

1. Constant magnetic field and its characteristics.
2. Magnetic field strength.
3. What is the induction of magnetic field?
4. Biot-Savart Law.
5. What main characteristics of magnetic field of infinitely long wire, solenoid,
toroid?
6. Magnetic characteristics of materials.

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7. Relative magnetic permeability of a substance.

8. What materials named diamagnetics, paramagnetics, ferromagnetics?
9. Alternating magnetic field and its characteristics.
10.Electromagnetic induction. Faraday's Law.
11.Where can be used the eddy currents?
12.What is the magnetobiology?

Tests

1. By unit of an induction of a magnetic field in the International system units is:

a) Weber (W); b) tesla (Т) ;
c) gauss (G); d) Henry (H).

2. The force action of a magnetic field on movable electrical charges is defined by:
a) Ampere law; b) Coulomb’s law;
c) Biot-Savart law; d) Lorentz force.
Which of these formulas is correct for definition of a magnetic induction of a
3.
rectilinear indefinitely long conductor with a current force I on distance r from it:
a) I b) I
B   0 ; B   0 ;
r 2r
c) I d) sin 1  sin  2
B  0  ; B   0 .
r 4r

4. On what and how depends  of substances?

a) from a nature of substance and magnetic b) from a nature of substance and magnetic
induction B0 . Increasing B0 causes induction B0 . Increasing B0 causes
decreasing  ; increasing  ;
c) only from an magnetic induction B0 . d) only from a nature of substance.
Increasing B0 causes increasing  ;

5. Cyclic (eddy) magnetic field arises at:

a) change in time of an electrical charge; b) passage of an electrical current;
c) change in time of an electrical field; d) movement of an electrical charge.

According to medical classification the frequency of electromagnetic oscillations and

6.
waves of high frequency is in borders:
a) 300 МHz and more; b) 30  300 МHz ;
c) 20  200 kHz ; d) 0,2  30 МHz ;
e) 20 Hz  20 kHz ; f) up to 20 Hz
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Paramagnetic is the substances, which in an external magnetic field are magnetized:

7.
a) in a direction opposite to a direction of a b) in a direction opposite to a direction of a
magnetic field and relative magnetic magnetic and relative magnetic
permeability of which is much more than 1; permeability of which is equal to 0;
c) in a direction of a magnetic field and relative d) in a direction of a magnetic field and
magnetic permeability of which is more than relative magnetic permeability of which is
1; equal to 0.

Exercises

1. In a homogeneous magnetic field of an induction 0,1 Т under a angle 300 to a

magnetic induction vector the rectilinear part of an conductor with a current 10 A
is located. Define the force, acting on each centimetre of a conductor.
2. Define the maximum torque, which acts on a square frame with the side of 5 cm,
which is in a homogeneous magnetic field of an induction 0,5 Т. In a frame
proceeds the current of 1 А.
3. What is the field inside a 2.00-m-long solenoid that has 2000 loops and carries a 1600-A
current?

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