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Abstract
Under seismic action, the severe damage in critical regions of structures could be ascribed to the cumulative damage caused by cyclic
loading. This article describes an investigation of the hysteresis behaviour of Q690 circular high-strength concrete-filled thin-walled
steel tubular columns with out-of-code diameter-to-thickness ratios. A total of eight specimens were tested under constant axial com-
pression and cyclic lateral loading. The study results of phase I testing consisting of a benchmark test were summarized to examine
the seismic behaviour under standard loading, and those of the phase II testing that considered different fatigue loading modes and dif-
ferent concrete strengths were summarized to investigate the low-cycle fatigue behaviour. The load–displacement hysteretic curves,
energy dissipation, strength and stiffness degradation were discussed in detail. A simplified method was proposed to predict the low-
cycle fatigue life, which can be applied in the damage-based seismic design of circular concrete-filled steel tubular structures.
Keywords
cyclic loading, energy dissipation, failure modes, low-cycle fatigue, Q690 circular high-strength concrete-filled thin-walled steel tubular
columns
HCFTST columns, studies on the effects of the ampli- benchmark test to examine the seismic behaviour
tudes, number of cycles and loading modes on the under standard loading and the phase II tests to inves-
damage accumulation are lacking. In fact, many struc- tigate the low-cycle fatigue behaviour. The tested para-
tures would collapse after peak earthquake accelera- meters are axial compression ratio (n), loading modes
tion with few inelastic cycles, suggesting that the and concrete strength. The strength, ductility, stiffness
low-cycle fatigue damage is not negligible and the effects degradation and dissipated energy of the specimens
of amplitude and cyclic numbers should be noticeable were experimentally investigated and analysed. A sim-
(EI-Bahy et al., 1999; Zhang et al., 2009a). Therefore, plified method was proposed to predict the low-cycle
more experimental research studies are required in this fatigue life based on the Manson–Coffin model
area, mainly focusing on the HS and thin-walled steel (Coffin, 1953; Manson, 1953; Manson and Halford,
tubes, to further clarify the influences of cyclic behaviour 1981). The main objectives of the research are as fol-
on HCFTST columns. Furthermore, more test data are lows: (1) to provide a new series of test data for the
also required for the design codes, which currently HCFTST columns, (2) to evaluate the cyclic behaviour
restrict the use of HS materials in CFST columns because of the specimens under tested parameters and (3) to
of the limited knowledge. predict the low-cycle fatigue lives of CFST columns.
So far, no consensus has been reached on the defini-
tion of HCFTST columns. Against this background, a
new out-of-code column, namely, the Q690 circular Experimental programme
HCFTST column, was proposed in this article; this
column comprised ultrahigh-strength Q690 steel (yield
Material properties
strength of fy .690 MPa) and HS concrete (cylinder The ultrahigh-strength Q690 steel from the same batch
compressive strength of fc ø 60 MPa), and had large was adopted in this study. According to the ‘Metallic
diameter-to-thickness (D/t) ratios outside of the limita- materials-Tensile testing at ambient temperature’ (GB/
tions in the current design codes, for example, T 228-2002), the coupon test was conducted to obtain
American AISC-360-10 (D=t ł (0:15Es =fy )) and the properties of Q690 steel, as shown in Figure 1. The
Chinese GB 50936-2014 (D=t ł (31, 725=fy )). In this yield strength (fy ) and ultimate strength (fu ) were 723
study, a total of eight Q690 circular HCFTST columns and 765 MPa, respectively, and the elastic modulus
were tested to investigate the cyclic behaviour. This (Es ) and Poisson’s ratio (vs ) were 222,010 MPa and
presents the results of phase I tests consisting of 0.281, respectively.
Concrete grade fc (MPa) Cement (kg/m3) Fine aggregate Coarse aggregate Water Silica fume Water reducer
(kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
‘NS’ and ‘HS’ denote normal-strength and high-strength, and ‘Portland 425’ and ‘Portland 525’ indicate the cement grade, respectively.
Test phase Specimen D (mm) t (mm) fy (MPa) D/t ratio fc (MPa) n Loading patterns
Test procedures
The quasi-static cyclic loading method was adopted in
this study. First, the preloading procedure was con-
ducted to ensure the equipment functioned normally.
If all was in order, then the axial load was applied first
to the targeted value and then was kept constant dur-
ing testing. Afterwards, the lateral force of different
loading patterns was cycled under the displacement
control mode, as shown in Figure 5.
During the phase I testing, for ‘variable pattern 1’,
Figure 3. Specimen preparation. four single cycles with peak drift ratios of D=L 0.10%,
0.25%, 0.50% and 0.75% were initially applied, where
‘D’ indicates the lateral displacement and ‘L’ denotes
prevent the lateral sliding of the specimen. The axial the column length. Next, three cycles were exerted at
compression was imposed on the column through a each drift ratio level from 1% to 8%. Moreover, if
hydraulic jack of 2000-kN capacity. Furthermore, the there was no evident failure after drift ratio 8%, then
triangular box connector was assembled using HS the test would be continued by applying drift ratio
bolts (Grade 12.9, M28) for cyclic loading using a 10% until the failure of specimen.
1000-kN MTS actuator. A total of 12 bidirectional During the phase II testing, for ‘variable pattern 2’,
strain gauges, divided into three layers, were mounted the drift ratio increased from 1% to 6%, with applica-
on the steel tubes to monitor the longitudinal and cir- tion of one cycle at each deflection, and then, the drift
cumferential deformation in an equal-interval layout ratio decreased to 1% after reaching peak lateral
along the circumferential direction. The space between deformation. Moreover, the constant amplitude load-
every two layers was half of the diameter of the tested ing patterns at drift ratio 4% and 6% were utilized to
columns, and the lowest layer was 30 mm away from examine low-cycle fatigue behaviour of the Q690
448 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(2)
Figure 4. Test setup: (a) schematic diagram of the test devices and (b) test photograph.
40
52.5 10 Variable pattern 2
Variable pattern 1 6
42 8
Displacement (mm)
Displacement (mm)
31.5 6 20 Until 4
Drift Ratio (%)
Displacement (mm)
20
Until 20 Until
10 10 failure
failure
0 0
-10 -10
-20
-20
-30
-30 -40
-40 -50
Cycles Cycles
(c) (d)
Figure 5. Loading patterns: (a) variable pattern 1, (b) variable pattern 2, (c) constant pattern 1 and (d) constant pattern 2.
circular HCFTST columns. The test ended when the column bases, except for the specimen CFST-1-4, for
specimen was unable to sustain the targeted axial force which this buckling occurred during the first cycle of
or lateral cyclic loading because of the severe steel frac- drift ratio 4%. On the reverse excursion, slight buck-
ture and concrete crushing. ling was also observed on the other side. From then
onwards, the buckling on both sides of the columns
continued to develop with the steel ductility until the
Experimental observations and failure
7%–8% drift, when small hairline cracks on the tensile
modes side of the steel tube could be observed but did not
During the phase I testing, through the statistics of the penetrated the steel tube; with continued loading, the
test phenomena, very slight local buckling emerged at cracks developed to penetrate the steel shell, accompa-
drift ratios of 2%–3% in the compressive sides of the nied by a loud sound. Finally, the test ended owing to
Wang and Sun 449
the severe rupture of steel tube and crushing of the crushed, and transverse cracks in the cross section
core concrete. were gradually formed. The excessive lateral displace-
In phase II testing, the specimen CFST-2-1 had ment also promoted the rupture of the steel tube
slight local buckling growing gradually at the column because of the strength failure. In phase II testing, the
base, and the first crack of steel tube appeared at the cumulative damage was dominant mostly because the
31th cycle; at the 50th cycle, the test ended owing to imposed drift ratios do not exceed the ultimate displa-
severe failure. The slight local buckling of CFST-2-2 cement. Under the reciprocating low-cycle load, the
emerged at the first cycle and magnified more rapidly core concrete and thin-walled steel tube experienced
than CFST-2-1; the steel tube fractured first at the 11th low-cycle fatigue damage, which eventually lead to the
cycle until the severe failure appeared at 20th cycle. fatigue failure, namely, concrete crushing and steel
The specimen CFST-2-3 subjected to ‘variable pattern rupture.
2’ had slight local buckling at the third cycle, and the
first hairline crack occurred at 14th cycle. With loading
continuously, the apparent cracking of steel tube could Analysis of the experimental results
be noticed at 19th cycle until the test ended at the 44th
Load–displacement hysteretic curve
cycle. For CFST-2-4, the slight local buckling emerged
at the second cycle, and the first crack in tensile side of Phase I testing. Figure 7 depicts the hysteretic curves of
steel tube could be seen at 17th cycle; the test ended at phase I testing. An initial elastic response was
the 44th cycle. observed for all specimens, and then, the columns
A summary of the failure modes for all HCFTST entered the elastic–plastic process accompanied by
columns, including the concrete crushing, severe frac- the gradual strength and stiffness degradation. For
ture and local buckling of steel tube at column bases, specimens with D/t = 70 (CFST-1-1 and CFST-1-2),
is described in Figure 6. In Figure 6(a), an elephant- with the increase in drift level, apparent softening
foot-shaped buckling in the column base is shown. As platforms existed in hysteretic curves when the lateral
shown in Figure 6(b) and (c), the rupture crack appar- load turned from unloading to reloading. The slight
ently penetrated through the tube thickness, and the pinching observed in the hysteresis curve may be due
pulverized concrete spilled out through the rupture in to the opening and subsequent closing of horizontal
the buckled region as the rupture crack width concrete cracks transverse to the columns axis. As
increased. For all specimens, the buckling was shown in Figure 7(c) and (d), the hysteretic loops of
observed at nearly the same heights (H = 20 mm) CFST-1-4 were narrower and thus have a lower
above the foundation surface, as shown in Figure 6(d). energy dissipation capacity than those of the CFST-
It should be noted that although the failure modes 1-3 due to the loss of the confined effect under the
of the phase I and phase II testing are similar, the lower axial compression. Hence, for Q690 circular
induced factors of local buckling, concrete crushing HCFTST columns with D/t ratio exceeding current
and steel fracture are completely different. In phase I codes, increasing the axial compression ratio is an
testing, the adverse P D effect on the bottom of the efficient method to improve the potential of HS mate-
cantilever column increased gradually with the increase rials by providing an excellent confined action to limit
in the drift ratios, and the transcending failure together the propagation of the concrete shear cracks. Overall,
with the cumulative damage coexisted. After reaching the Q690 circular HCFTST columns with reasonable
the peak load, the transcending failure almost domi- design could display favourable hysteresis behaviour
nated so that the compressive zone of concrete and could be expected to have a widespread applica-
decreased sharply. Finally, the core concrete was tion in earthquake-prone regions.
Figure 6. Failure modes: (a) local buckling, (b) concrete crushing, (c) steel fracture and (d) cracking height.
450 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(2)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 7. Hysteretic curves in phase I testing: (a) CFST-1-1, (b) CFST-1-2, (c) CFST-1-3 and (d) CFST-1-4.
Phase II testing. Figure 8 shows the hysteresis curves of the peak point determined by maximum lateral load,
phase II testing. Under constant amplitude loading, and the ultimate failure point is defined as (Du, Pu ),
the hysteretic loops of CFST-2-1 and CFST-2-2 shrank where Du is the displacement when the load decreases
gradually, accompanied by the stiffness degradation to Pu = 0:85Pm . All characteristic values in phase I
and strength reduction. The plots indicated that the testing obtained by averaging the values of the push
larger deformation amplitude could result in severe and pull directions are shown in Table 3. Compared
damage. With regard to CFST-2-3 and CFST-2-4 with CFST-1-1, the yield load of CFST-1-2 decreased
under ‘variable pattern 2’, the asymmetric phenom- by 7.5% and the peak load increased by 2.9%; more-
enon occurred after accomplishing a total cycle via the over, the yield and peak load of CFST-1-4 reduced by
existing residual deformation of the transcendental 0.1% and 0.6%, respectively, compared to CFST-1-3.
damage. The concrete strength had little effect on the Moreover, the strength degradation factor (Sdj ) at
cyclic numbers, and from the plots aforementioned, overall loads was also introduced to explore the global
the loading history governed the development ten- strength degradation characteristics of tested speci-
dency of the cumulative damage. mens during the whole loading process and is expressed
as follows
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 8. Hysteretic curves in phase II testing: (a) CFST-2-1, (b) CFST-2-2, (c) CFST-2-3 and (d) CFST-2-4.
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Strength degradation: (a) phase I testing and (b) phase II testing.
Table 4. Details of ductility. results of Tables 3 and 4 indicate that the HCFTST
columns could display favourable deformation capac-
Specimen uy um uu u ity though the ductility coefficient is smaller than that
CFST-1-1 0.0263 0.0539 0.0758 2.88 of the traditional CFST columns (Elremaily and
CFST-1-2 0.0276 0.0550 0.0907 3.30 Azizinamini, 2002; Fam et al., 2004; Gajalakshmi and
CFST-1-3 0.0287 0.0500 0.0821 2.86 Helena, 2012). Moreover, the HS concrete often exhi-
CFST-1-4 0.0344 0.0550 0.0700 2.04 bits obvious brittleness compared to NS concrete.
CFST: concrete-filled steel tubular. Under out-of-code D/t ratios, the smaller axial com-
pression ratio (n ł 0:36) tends to cause insufficient
confined effect for the HS core concrete, which can
descending tendency. Moreover, the strength degrada- exacerbate the extension of the concrete cracks under
tion factors of specimen CFST-2-1 as fatigue failure cyclic loading. As a result, the effective compression
emerges are 0.81 and 0.88 in the positive and negative zone of the concrete gradually shrinks and the concrete
directions, respectively. Regarding the CFST-2-2, the in tension zone fails prematurely. The contribution of
factors are 0.79 and 0.78, respectively. Note that the core concrete to the flexural stiffness is reduced for the
reduction in strength was not caused by the imposed columns with smaller axial compression ratios.
displacement beyond the ultimate value but the cumu- Therefore, the bearing capacity and ductility of the
lative damage induced by the low-cycle fatigue specimens slightly decrease with the reduction of axial
phenomenon. compression ratio (e.g. CFST-1-3 and CFST-1-4).
Overall, the Q690 circular HCFTST columns could
satisfy the requirement of the Chinese seismic design
Inter-story drift angle and ductility code and are applicable for buildings located in
The inter-story drift angle and ductility coefficient earthquake-prone regions.
were used to evaluate the ductility of Q690 circular
HCFTST columns. In Table 4, the inter-story drift
angle can be expressed by u = D=L. uy , um and uu are Energy dissipation capacity
the drift angle at yield, peak and failure, respectively. In this section, energy dissipation analysis was con-
The ductility coefficient u can be calculated by ducted to reveal the cumulative damage regularities
u = Du=Dy based on the data in Table 3. under various loading patterns. The hysteretic energy
The Chinese technical code for CFST structures GB of every loop could be obtained by the area integral.
50936-2014 specifies the requirement on the ductility In phase I testing, for comparison purposes, the dissi-
for CFST structures: the limits of allowable elastic pated energy can be normalized as (Zhu et al., 2016)
inter-story drift angle (uy ) and elastic–plastic inter-
story drift angle (uu ) are 1/300 (0.0033 rad) and 1/50 X
n
(0.02 rad), respectively. For the Q690 circular EN = ½Ei =(Fi Di ) ð4Þ
i=1
HCFTST columns in this article, the yield drift angle
(uy ) and ultimate drift angle (uu ) are within the ranges Di = (D+ +
i Di )=2, Fi = (Fi Fi )=2 ð5Þ
of 0.0263–0.0344 and 0.0700–0.0907, respectively. The
Wang and Sun 453
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 11. Energy dissipation analysis of phase I testing: (a) CFST-2-1, (b) CFST-2-2, (c) CFST-2-3 and (d) CFST-2-4.
Table 5. Energy dissipation of phase I testing. For CFST-2-1 and CFST-2-2, the analysis result indi-
cated that the loop energy suddenly dropped when
Specimen ET (kN mm) EN entering into failure stage, accompanied by the rupture
CFST-1-1 76,961.10 32.37 of the steel tube. The accumulated energy ratios of the
CFST-1-2 68,517.09 29.72 two specimens revealed that the cumulative damage
CFST-1-3 159,123.02 26.67 increased approximately linearly under constant ampli-
CFST-1-4 87,726.34 17.51 tude loading. The half cycle energies of the positive
CFST: concrete-filled steel tubular.
and negative direction were not strictly equal, reflecting
the existence of residual deformation and the
Bauschinger effect. Regarding CFST-2-3 and CFST-2-
where EN is the normalized dissipated energy; D+ 4 under ‘variable pattern 2’, the peak energy dissipa-
i and
D tion at the maximum drift and the loop energy at the
i are the maximum tip displacements of the ith loop
in the positive and negative direction, respectively; and same drift decreased gradually, highlighting the devel-
Fi+ and Fi are the lateral forces corresponding to D+ opment of cumulative damage caused by low-cycle fati-
i
and D gue. Figure 11(c) and (d) shows the wave-shaped
i , respectively. The cumulative dissipated energy
(ET ) and the normalized dissipated energy (until 8% advance trend of the accumulated energy ratio. In
drift ratio) for specimens in phase I testing are listed in brief, great importance should be attached to the
Table 5; the CFST-1-4 exhibited lower energy dissipa- energy dissipation capacity under low-cycle fatigue of
tion capacity (EN = 17:51) than the others various loading histories.
(EN = 26.67–32.37) owing to the high D/t = 130 and
small compression ratio (n = 0.09). Stiffness degradation
The energy dissipation analysis of phase II testing is
shown in Figure 11, where the ‘1st Half Energy’ and To depict the stiffness degradation, the secant stiffness
‘2nd Half Energy’ denote the dissipated energy in the used could be expressed as
positive and negative direction, respectively. Moreover,
i i+ i
the accumulated energy ratio could also be observed. Ksec = (Ksec + Ksec )=2 ð6Þ
454 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(2)
(a) (b)
Figure 12. Stiffness degradation: (a) phase I testing and (b) phase II testing.
i+
Ksec = Fi+ =D+ i
i , Ksec = Fi =Di ð7Þ
where Fi+ and Fi are the peak loads for the ith cycle
in the two reversal directions, and D+ i and Di are the
displacements corresponding to the peak load for the
i
ith cycle in two directions. The label Ksec is the mean
secant stiffness for the ith cycle.
Figure 12 graphically illustrates the stiffness degra-
dation of the HCFTST columns. For the Q690 circular
HCFTST columns in phase I testing, the increase in
the axial compression ratio (n) tended to improve the
initial stiffness, especially under D/t = 130. After the
columns behaved nonlinearly, the stiffness degradation
rate tended to be slow and showed no abrupt changes.
In phase II testing, under the constant amplitude load-
ing pattern, the specimen CFST-2-2 displayed apparent
Figure 13. Strain amplitude–fatigue life relationship.
stiffness degradation compared to CFST-2-1 because
of the larger drift ratio. Under ‘variable pattern 2’, the
increase in the concrete strength increased the secant
where De=2, Dee =2 and Dep =2 are the total strain ampli-
stiffness of CFST-2-3.
tude, elastic strain amplitude and plastic strain ampli-
tude, respectively, and s0f , e0f , b and c are material
Low-cycle fatigue life prediction parameters. E is the elasticity modulus, and N2f is the
fatigue life. The relationship between the strain ampli-
A more comprehensive understanding of low-cycle
tude and the fatigue life can be depicted in Figure 13,
fatigue is to establish the fatigue life relationship of the
from which, it is noteworthy that, for the low-cycle
columns. In this section, the low-cycle fatigue lives
fatigue problem, the plastic strain dominates the fati-
under different loading patterns were discussed in
gue life.
detail. A simplified fatigue life prediction method was
Considering the large error caused by strain mea-
proposed and verified for application in the perfor-
surement, instrument error and gradient variation in
mance evaluation of CFST columns.
strain at different positions, the relationship in equa-
tion (8) was modified for convenience by ignoring the
Constant amplitude mode. The classical fatigue life pre- effect of elastic strain (EI-Bahy et al., 1999; Krawinkler
diction model proposed by Manson and Coffin et al., 1983) under low-cycle fatigue loading
(Coffin, 1953; Manson, 1953; Manson and Halford,
1981) is expressed as follows N2f = C 1 (DdP )c or DdP = a(N2f )x ð9Þ
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 14. Variations in material parameters: (a) calculation of parameter C, (b) variation in C and (c) variation in c.
When offering two groups of data (DdP1 , N2f 1 ) and c = 5:9363 2:6058K 0:0119(D=t) ð13Þ
(DdP2 , N2f 2 ), the parameters C and c (a or x) in equa-
tion (9) could be determined as follows fr
K = 1 + 4:1 ð14Þ
fc
ln N2f 1 ln N2f 2
c= ð10Þ 0:38fy t
ln DdP2 ln DdP1 fr = ð15Þ
D 2t
1 1
C= = ð11Þ where K is the strength enhancement factor (Sakino
N2f 1 DdcP1 N2f 2 DdcP2
et al., 2004) and fr is the confining stress.
a = C 1=c , x = 1=c ð12Þ The parameter C can be calculated according to
Figure 14(a). Moreover, the variations in the two para-
Regarding the aforementioned material parameters, meters versus the mean drift ratio (d) between different
some scholars considered them as constants for the columns could be depicted in Figure 14(b) and (c). It
same type columns (EI-Bahy et al., 1999; Gajalakshmi could be speculated from the data that the scatter band
and Helena, 2012; Zhang et al., 2009a). The literature was of uniform width along the regression line, indi-
(Krawinkler et al., 1983) reveals that the parameter C cating that the uncertainty in life prediction can be
has a greater fluctuation than that of c in equation ascribed to that phenomenon. Therefore, the fatigue
(10). To recalibrate the parameter C for reducing the life of CFST columns could be predicted using equa-
fluctuation as much as possible, it can be simplified to tion (9).
satisfy the function C = f(c) based on equation (11). To validate the accuracy of the simplified method
Consequently, for the convenience of fatigue life pre- aforementioned, the test data from other research stud-
diction of CFST columns, based on statistical analysis ies (Gajalakshmi and Helena, 2012) were also used to
of the previous test data (Zhang et al., 2009a, 2009b) verify the prediction result of the fatigue life, as shown
and experimental data of this article, the parameter c in Figure 15. From the result of the simplified method
can be proposed as follows without considering the variations in the material
456 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(2)
(a) (b)
Figure 15. Fatigue life prediction results of the simplified method: (a) prediction result without variations and (b) prediction result
considering variations.
Loading patterns Specimens ET (kN m) Fy (kN) Fatigue life (Dd = 2%) Fatigue life (Dd = 4%) Fatigue life (Dd = 6%)
Conclusion
Variable amplitude mode. In fact, the structures could
not be subject to the constant amplitude deformation This article presented the results of an experimental
under earthquake motions. Therefore, an alternative study of the hysteresis behaviour of Q690 circular
method should be developed to transform the variable HCFTST columns. Through the detailed investigation,
amplitudes to constant amplitudes for the convenience the following conclusions can be drawn within the
of low-cycle fatigue life evaluation. Based on the scope of this study:
energy equivalence principle (McCabe and Hall, 1989),
the low-cycle fatigue lives of specimens under variable 1. For the Q690 circular HCFTST columns with
amplitude patterns can be equivalent to the constant out-of-code D/t ratios, the failure modes
amplitude patterns as follows include concrete crushing, severe rupture and
Wang and Sun 457
local buckling of the steel tube at the column Declaration of Conflicting Interests
bases. The elephant foot shaped buckling could The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
be observed at nearly the same heights respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this
(H = 20 mm) above the foundation surface. article.
2. The columns with D/t = 130, the lower axial
compression ratio (n) could result in the weak
Funding
energy dissipation capacity due to the loss of
confined effect. Increasing axial compression The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
ratio is an efficient method to motivate the port for the research, authorship and/or publication of this
article: This research work was financially supported by the
potential of HS materials for offering an excel-
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
lent confined action to limit the propagation of 11172226); their support was gratefully acknowledged.
the concrete shear cracks.
3. The Q690 circular HCFTST columns could
exhibit favourable hysteretic performance and ORCID iD
large lateral deformation capacity. The elastic Jiantao Wang https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9888-3531
and the elastic–plastic inter-story drifts of the
columns are, respectively, uy = (0:0276 References
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