Himashu kumar singh

3rd year
B.Tech(CSE) Normal
PROTOCOLS
In IT(Information Technology) Protocols are which contains some set of rules which take
place in telecommunication connection.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS
IP is a set of rules which send and receive messages at the Internet address level.
* It is a connectionless communication.

* It is an end to end data communication.

* It is unreliable protocol. In order to make it reliable, we have to pair it with TCP(Higher

protocol).

* It transports the data or information in the form of packets or datagrams.

* Each datagram is divided into two parts and they are:- (a) Header and (b) data.

* Header contains the information for routing and delivery of the datagrams or packets.

* IN OSI model IP AND TCP lies in 3rd layer(NETWORK LAYER).

* In IP model there are four layers.

LAYERS OF IP MODEL
Application layer
Transport layer
Internet layer and
Link layer

APPLICATION LAYER
This layer will choose which transmission protocol to use based on
their function. It generally communicates with the Transport layer as black boxes which provide a
stable connection.
The application layer is associated with a particular client-server application and common
services well-known port number reserved by the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority).
TRANSPORT LAYER
This layer is like a backbone to data flow between two hosts. This
layer receives data from the application layer. In this layer, there are many protocols which work
but the most important protocol is TCP and UDP.

TCP is used where a reliable connection required and UDP is used where unreliable connection
required. TCP divides the data into chunks and then passes these chunks onto a network.

As we know that this is a reliable connection which means that there is no loss of packets.
It resends the packets to the destination if the receiver did not receive.

UDP does the same thing but is not ensure that the data is received by the target host or not.
Therefore it is termed as an unreliable connection.
NETWORK LAYER
This layer handles the movement of data on a network. It means
that routing of data over the network.
IP basically performs two functions:-1- Host address and
identification.
2- Packet routing.

Unreliable datagram transmission facility is provided by this layer between the hosts and the
final destination.
DATA LINK LAYER
This is the interface layer and used to move data packets between
the internet interface of two different hosts on the same link.

And hence we can say that this direct connection with the hardware of the system and the
network interface card attached to the system.
APPLICATION LAYER
 TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER

DATA LINK LAYER

The source host from which the information will be sent will follow the above path and the target to
which the information has been sent will follow the path as mention below:-

APPLICATION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER
 NETWORK LAYER

DATALINK LAYER

HOW DO COMPUTERS CONNECT TO EACH OTHER.

The companies which provide internet services is ISP (Internet service providers).
The ISP provides the connection between your computer and the other computers in the world.
ISP makes use of IP/TCP to make computer to computer connections possible and transmit data
between them. On successfully connected to ISP(Internet Service Provider), you will be assigned
an IP address and hence we know that a unique address is given to your computer.

Same things happen while you set up a connection to your house using network router. Here
comes the two type of connection which is LAN and WAN.
LAN stands for Local Area Network and it is called so because when computers are connected to
each other on the same network.
WAN stands for Wide Area Network and it is called
so because when multiple networks are connected to each other.
In such cases, our home network router is connected to the ISP and the ISP will provide a unique
address to network router that is IP address and then assigns a local IP address to each device in
your network.

PROTOCOL LAYERS DIAGRAM

1- As we know that application layer is the topmost layer in the IP model and it consists of
many other protocols like SMTP, DNS, FTP, SSH.
It covers many aspects of functionality like
(a) Remote login to hosts.
(b) File transfer.
(c) Electronic mail transfer.
(d) Networking support, etc.

2- Transport layer is act as the backbone to data flow between two hosts and it is mainly done
using TCP and UDP.

3- Networking layer handle the movement of data on the network. It generally routs the data
over the network.

4- Data link layer mainly works with the physical

 objects like MAC.

Diagram
FTP SSH Application layer
SMTP DNS

Transport layer
TCP UDP

ICMP IGMP

Network layer
IP
ARP RARP

PPP
ETHERNET Data link layer

TOKEN RING
WAVELAND

IP VERSIONS
Versions of IP which was known experimental versions were 0 to 3 and 5.
IP version 4 is adopted more because it is one of the core protocols of standards-based
internetworking methods on the internet, it routes most internet traffic in today's world.
It is a connectionless protocol. It uses 32-bit addresses
which means that address space limit is 2 to power 32. IP version 4 addresses can be represented
in any notation but addresses should be express a 32-bit integer value. Generally, they are written
in the dot-decimal notation which represented in four octets.

Example 100.32.45.128 in binary it is equal to

01100100.00100000.00101101.10000000

IP version 6 (Ipv6)

We can say that Ipv6 is the successor of Ipv4. It is the most recent version of Internet protocol.
Every device on the internet is assigned a unique IP address for the identification and location
definition. Ipv6 uses the 128-bit address which means that limits of address space are 2 to the
power of 128.
Ipv6 addresses represented in the eight groups of four hexadecimal digits where each group is
separated by the colon.
Example 123:89:102:175, in binary this address is
expressed as
123:89:102:175

0000000001111011:0000000001011001:00000000011
00110:0000000010101111

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IPv4 AND IPv6

 IPv4 IPv6

It uses 32-bit address. It uses 128-bit address.

Packet size is limited to Packet size is much larger.

64KB.

Multicasting is not Multicasting is supported.

supported.

the address format is the address format is

decimal. hexadecimal.

Addressing capacity is 4.3 Addressing capability is

billion. infinity.

IPSec support is optional. Inbuilt IPSec support.

In IPv4 header checksum In IPv6 header no

is available. checksum is available.

Broadcast messages are Broadcast messages are

available. not available.

Lack of security. Built-in strong security.

Its header has 20 bytes. Its header is 40 bytes.

ISP have IPv4 Some ISP don't have IPv6

connectivity. connectivity.

Routers and sending hosts Sending hosts only for

for Packet fragmentation. packet fragmentation.

Still more use of IPv4 Used by the less than 1%

about 99% by the of the networks.

networks.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT
 LAYERS OF IP MODEL.

Application Transport Network Data-link

layer layer layer layer

It is located at It is located It is located It is

the top of the just below just below located

IP model. the the transport just below

application layer in IP the

layer in Ip model. network

model. layer in IP

model.

This layer Its aim to This layer This layer

defines the carry the packs the deals with

IP/TCP conversation data into data how data

protocols. between the packets has to be

source host known as IP sent

and the datagrams physically

destination with there through

host. source and the

destination network.

addresses.

It includes all It includes It includes It includes

the high-level protocols like protocols like protocols

protocols like TCP and IP, ICMP, etc. like

HTTP, etc. UDP. Ethernet,

FDDI, etc.
 TCP
TCP stands for transmission control protocol. It is the important protocol of the internet protocol
suite.

TCP deals or make sure that the data is put in the right order without missing anything. It can be
overloaded but generally, it won't get overloaded due to the controlled traffic on the internet. It
provides a reliable connection.
Many internet application like www(world wide web), emails, file transfer, etc rely on TCP.

TCP FUNCTION ON NETWORK

As we know that TCP is a reliable connection therefore between the application program and the
internet protocol it provides communication services at the intermediate level. All the
handshaking and transmission details handled by the TCP at the transport layer.

Suppose if you have sent a data from the source host to the destination host but due to some
problem it fails to reach the destination host, so in this case TCP will try to detect all kinds of
problem which occurs like loss of data, rearranges out-of-order data, etc but if TCP fails to solve
the problem and still data is undelivered then source host is notified of this failure.

TCP is used by the many application available by internet like www(world wide web), emails, peer-
to-peer file sharing, secure shell, file transfer protocol, etc.

There is a term called "positive acknowledgment with re-transmission" which is used to guarantee
the reliability of TCP. If you sent any data from source to destination host and it has been received
successfully then the receiver has to respond to it by sending an acknowledgment message.

HANDSHAKING
In TCP, handshaking method is called as "Three-way handshaking". It is used to create a
connection between a local/host and server. In this method, it is compulsory to exchange the SYS
and ACK messages before the actual data communication begins. Exchange of SYS and ACK
message is done in three steps and it is done by both client and server host. This three-way
handshaking is also known as TCP handshaking.
 CLIENT SERVER

The client
will send

the request SYS

to Server in
Server host
the form of
receives the
SYS.
SYS message.

Receives the
Server host
confirmatio
will respond to
n in the
the client SYS
form of
SYS+ACK message by
SYS+ACK
adding the

ACK message.
If the
server

wants a ACK

connection The Server

with the accepts the

client then request.

the client

CONNECTION ESTABLISHED
TCP works when:-
* Client node will send the SYS data packet over the network in order to ask the server
whether it is free to make a new connection or not.

* If the server node has the open port or free port for the new connection then the server node
will respond to the client request in the form of ACK or ACK+SYS.

* Client node will receive the SYS+ACK data packet which tells the availability of a new
connection, if the server node wants to make a connection then client node will return the
confirmation in the form of ACK data packet.

This is how a new connection is established using three-way handshaking or TCP handshaking.
Once the new connection is established then the actual data packets will begin there
communication.

NEED OF THREE WAY HANDSHAKING

We prefer three-way handshaking or TCP handshaking because rather than two-way
handshaking because in two-way handshaking only one party either client or server can send
data but in three-way handshaking both the party can communicate, which means that both
parties can send data to each other.

Transmission control protocol handshaking allow both parties to establish the ISN (Initial
Sequence Number) but in two way handshaking, only one party can establish ISN(Initial
Sequence Number) therefore only one party can send data and another party can only
acknowledge that data.
As we know that ISN is the number which is not set as zero because it is chosen randomly while
creating a new connection between two hosts. Remember that in TCP handshaking both the party
has to established ISN and both the party has to acknowledge the other's ISN.

TCP layer model is just same as the IP layer model but they both have some differences:-
 IP TCP

It stands for Internet It stand for Transmission

Protocol. Control Protocol.

It is responsible for the It is responsible for the

logical addressing. data delivery of a packet.

It used to obtain the It guarantees delivery the

address. data to that address.

It is a connectionless It is connection oriented

protocol. protocol.

It is unreliable protocol. It is reliable protocol.

It transfers datagrams to a It transfers segments to

physical layer. internet layer.

There is no control over There is control over the

the flow of data. flow of data.

IP contains a message or TCP segment can be up to

the one fragment of a 20 bytes header with

message and size can be greater than 0 bytes of

up to 65,535 bytes in data.

length.
It handles the addresses and routing of TCP generally deals with the services of
messages to the computer of one or more exchanging the data between the application.
networks.

As we know TCP is a reliable connection which

means that it can recover our data packets which are:-
(A) Lost
(B) Duplicate
(C) Delay
(D) Corrupted
(E) System Reboots
(F) Congestion
(G) Transmission speed mismatches.

In Transport layer mainly there are two protocol i.e TCP(Transmission control protocol) and
UDP(User Datagram Protocol). Both TCP and UDP do the same work but there is some difference
between them like TCP is preferred to transfer the file and UDP preferred to audio/video stream.
Both TCP and UDP support the multiplexing.

FEATURES OF TCP
* Reliable transfer of data.

* Numbering system.
TCP assign number in order to keep track of the segments which are received or
transmitted.
* Flow Control.
When a sender sends the data, which means that the guarantee data will be delivered but
TCP will limit the rate and thus limit the rate is termed as flow control.

* Error-control
TCP transfer the data in a reliable condition to which TCP implements an error control
mechanism.

* Congestion control
TCP controls and determines the amount of data has been sent by a sender.

* Interoperability

* Flexibility

* Multiple vendor support

* Lost packets can be re-transmitted

TCP PORTS
TCP uses the port number in order to identify applications(Sending and receiving application)end-
point on a host, generally known as Internet sockets. There will be associated 16-bit unsigned
port number with each side of a TCP connection for the sending and receives the application.
Whatever the TCP packets come or arriving are identified by the specific TCP connection by its
sockets, which means that the combination of source host address, source port, destination port
and destination host address. We can say that at a time server computer can provide several
clients with many services.

Port numbers are divided into three categories and they are:-
(A) Well-known port

(B) Registered port and

(C) Private port

* Well-known ports(0-1023) are used by the root processes and they are assigned by the
IANA(Internet Assigned Number Authority). Example FTP, SMTP, HTTP, etc.

* Register port starts from 1024 to 49151 and this is registered with the ICANN(Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ) by the companies and other users.
Mainly these ports are used by the end user application as an ephemeral source port.

* Private port (49152-65535) are also can be used by the end user application but not
frequently. They don't have any meaning outside of any particular TCP connection.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TCP/IP MODEL
ADVANTAGES

* Connection between different types of a computer can be set up.

* Number of routing protocols can be supported.

* For OS (Operating System) it can work independently.

* TCP/IP is an open protocol which means that it is not controlled by any one institution.
* TCP/IP supports for name and address resolution service.
DISADVANTAGES

* TCP/IP can be complex to manage and also to

set up.

* If you want to replace protocol then it is not easy.

* TCP/IP model cannot be used in any other applications.

* TCP/IP model is slower than IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange).

BASIC PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS

TCP is the important protocol in
TCP both OSI or TCP/IP model because it is a connection-oriented protocol.
Reliable transport is provided by
this protocol.
UDP is a connectionless protocol which means that if once segment is
UDP dropped then the sender is free and therefore no re-transmission will occur.
 This layer works under the

application layer. FTP supports the

FTP uploading and the downloading.

It is based on the SSH or secure

SFTP shell technology which transfer the

file between the clients securely.

SMTP prefer to work with TCP for

the guarantee error-free delivery

SMTP mail messages. SMTP tells that how

mail messages are sent between

different hosts.

It exchanges the hypertext or it will

HTTP transfer hypertext.

Commonly it deals with the devices

TELNET which manage networks like a

router.

When data travels between the

SSH system SSH encrypts data and

provide a secure alternative to

TELNET SSH security.

IP(Internet Protocol) uses this

ICMP protocol as a tool which provides

error checking.
 Address Resolution protocol
ARP commonly works for the IP in which it resolves the IP addresses to
MAC(Media Access Control).
Reverse Address Resolution RARP Protocol also works same as
ARP
but in reverse.
IGMP present within the TCP/IP IGMP protocol suite and its
work to
manage multicast groups.
Real-Time Protocol can make use of either TCP or UDP as a transport
RTP mechanism for the transport the real-time data which can be
audio/video.

There are other protocols which have different functions. Here I have discussed only those
protocol function which is commonly known.