PROCESSING AND PRODUCTS
Roaster Breast Meat Condemned for Cyanosis:
A Dark Firm Dry-Like Condition?
J. G. Mallia,* S. Barbut,† J.-P. Vaillancourt,‡ S. W. Martin,* and S. A. McEwen*,1
*Department of Population Medicine, †Department of Animal & Poultry Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario,
Canada N1G 2W1; and ‡Department of Food Animal and Equine Medicine, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7608
ABSTRACT A case-control study (n = 68) of roaster
chickens condemned for cyanosis was conducted. Color
(CIE L*a*b*) and pH were measured at slaughter, and
after 24 h aging on ice, at four predetermined sites of
the Pectoralis major. Cyanotic carcasses (dark) had a
higher pH than controls at the time of slaughter and at
24 h postmortem (P < 0.01). Perimortem pH was signifi-
cantly correlated with pH at 24 h postmortem (r = 0.64)
and also was correlated with lightness (L*) perimortem
and postmortem (24 h; r = −0.36 and −0.50, respectively).
Perimortem pH was not correlated with meat redness
(Key words: broiler, dark firm dry, cyanosis, poultry color, texture)
INTRODUCTION
Cyanosis is a category of condemnation adopted by
Agriculture and Agrifood Canada (AAFC) to describe
poultry with a dark-colored carcass and no other condem-
nable lesions. Cyanosis was the fourth leading cause of
condemnation of chickens in Canada in 1993 and 1994,
representing almost 10% of all condemned chickens (Her-
enda and Franco, 1996); roughly one million chickens
were condemned for cyanosis in this period. Therefore,
there is a strong interest to fully assess the situation and
to examine the suitability of cyanotic carcasses for fur-
ther processing.
Cyanotic meat is currently condemned because little is
known about its safety and quality. It has been suggested
that environmental conditions producing chronic hyp-
oxia, such as those observed in overcrowded poultry
crates, favor the occurrence of cyanosis (Herenda and
Franco, 1996). This cause has neither been confirmed nor
disproved by research, as contradictory evidence has been
obtained (Sackett et al., 1986; Boulianne et al., 1993). How-
Received for publication February 19, 1999.
Accepted for publication February 23, 2000.
1
To whom correspondence should be addressed: smcewen@
uoguelph.ca.
908
(a*) at slaughter time and after 24 h. Ultimate pH and
lightness at 24 h postmortem were also correlated. Tests
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ps/article-abstract/79/6/908/1491049 by guest on 24 July 2019
based on pH, L*, and a* of the P. major were assessed:
the sensitivity and specificity at various cut-off points
were, respectively, pH(6.3) = 76.47 and 88.24%, L*(41) =
91.18 and 79.41%, and a*(3) = 76.47 and 97.06%. The
repeatability (ρ) of pH and color measurements was ex-
cellent and ranged from 0.87 to 0.98. Breast meat from
roasters condemned for cyanosis had dark, firm, and
dry (DFD)-like traits, and accurate tests based on color
and pH could be described as a means of identifying
chickens condemned for cyanosis.
2000 Poultry Science 79:908–912
ever, the dark coloring of cyanotic birds was suggested
to be a problem related to shipping stress (Mallia, 1998).
Shipment and other stressors occurring prior to slaugh-
ter are believed to be responsible for the occurrence of
dark, firm, and dry (DFD) conditions in other species
(Tarrant, 1989; Swatland, 1994; Apple et al., 1995; Nielsen,
1981). The DFD meat has a higher pH, as has been shown
in swine (Bendall and Swatland, 1988) and cattle (Tarrant,
1989). A DFD-like condition has also been observed in
ducks (Chen et al., 1991) and turkeys (Mallia et al., 1996).
The presence of DFD meat in other poultry appears some-
what contradictory. Walker and Fletcher (1993) indicated
that meat from chickens subjected to stressors was darker
and had a higher pH than meat from unstressed birds,
suggesting a stress-related DFD-like condition. In con-
trast, the results of several other studies that examined
the relationship between meat color and pH do not sup-
port the presence of a DFD-like condition in inspected
poultry meat (Froning et al., 1978; Wyers et al., 1992;
Boulianne and King, 1995; Papinaho et al., 1996).
Concerns have been expressed over the lack of stan-
dardization of condemnation criteria for cyanosis in
chickens. Poor diagnostic agreement for chickens con-
Abbreviation Key: AAFC = Agriculture and Agrifood Canada; DFD
= dark, firm, dry; PSE = pale, soft, exudative; SE = sensitivity; SP = speci-
ficity.
 CYANOSIS IN ROASTER BREAST MEAT
demned for cyanosis was reported in a previous study
examining different condemnable conditions (Bisaillon et
al., 1988), suggesting that the postmortem visual examina-
tion at the abattoir may be deficient in some respects.
Other tests may, therefore, be of practical use to the indus-
try if they improve the identification of cyanotic carcasses.
For example, it may be possible to use colorimetry to
objectively measure color and thereby identify cyanotic
carcasses, as this method is already used to detect other
commercially important meat conditions such as pale,
soft, exudative (PSE) and DFD meat in pork and beef
(Swatland, 1989).
The main objectives of this study were 1) to investigate
the presence of a DFD-like condition in roaster chickens
condemned at slaughter as “cyanotic,” and 2) to evaluate
the ability of pH and colorimetric tests to differentiate
cyanotic carcasses from those that passed inspection.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Design and Sample Size
Sixty-eight 8-wk-old male chickens (roasters) submit-
ted to a single abattoir in southern Ontario over a 3-wk
period were evaluated in a case-control study conducted
in November 1996. Conventional electrical stunning and
a hot water subscald (soft scald) were used. A case (n =
34) was defined as a roaster carcass condemned by the
veterinary inspector for cyanosis, and a control (n = 34)
was the next fifth carcass that passed the inspection proce-
dure. All carcasses condemned for cyanosis during a rou-
tine inspection were independently examined by the se-
nior author (a veterinarian) to ensure correct classification
prior to inclusion in the study. The examination consisted
of a necropsy that evaluated the general appearance of
the carcass, the coelom, and viscera for grossly evident
pathological lesions. The roasters were raised on various
farms in Southern Ontario and were of similar age, sex,
and general characteristics to those raised across Ontario.
Muscle Color
The color of four specific sites of the ventral aspect of
the right Pectoralis major was measured2 within 20 min
of slaughter without the removal of the overlying skin,
as occurs visually during commercial inspection. The skin
was patted dry with a paper towel prior to color evalua-
tion. The specific sites chosen included 1) the proximal
extremity of the muscle, 2) the distal extremity of the
muscle, 3) the medial side at the half-way point between
the proximal and distal extremities, and 4) the lateral side
at the half-way point between the proximal and distal
extremities. Later, the skin overlying the breast muscle
was removed, and the intact muscle was patted dry with
a paper towel prior to color evaluation; the muscle peri-
2
Chroma Meter CR-200b, Minolta, Osaka 541, Japan.
3
pH Stickmeter, Fisher Scientific, Nepean, ON, Canada, K2E 7L6.
909
mysium was left intact. Color measurements on each site
were performed within 15 s of the skin removal. Chroma-
ticity was measured using the color coordinates of the
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage (CIE, 1976) for
L* (lightness), a* (redness), and b* (yellowness), under
the CIE illuminant C lighting condition. After initial mea-
surements, the P. major was excised, weighed, and stored
on ice at 4 C for 24 h. Color measurements were then
repeated in an identical fashion.
Muscle pH
A probe3 was used to measure the pH of the P. major
at the same four sites utilized for the color assessment.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ps/article-abstract/79/6/908/1491049 by guest on 24 July 2019
After adjusting for muscle temperature, the pH was re-
corded (at a depth of 1 cm) when a stable reading was
observed for 10 s. The same four muscle sites were used
for ultimate pH measurements, after storage on ice for
24 h.
Statistical Analyses
A McNemar’s t-test was used to assess the difference
among means of the two groups as the data were paired.
Four simultaneous parameters were assessed (pH, L*, a*,
b*) on the same sample of each carcass. To keep the Type
I error level to 5%, the Bonferroni approach to control
the overall level of significance was used (Shoukri and
Edge, 1996). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used
to assess linear correlations between pH and L*, a*, or b*
(Snedecor and Cochran, 1980). The intraclass correlation
coefficient for color and pH was based on four different
sites of the P. major and was performed to assess the
repeatability of color (L*, a*, b*) and pH. The ANOVA
estimator of the intraclass correlation coefficient (ρ) was
calculated using the one-way random effects model
(Fleiss, 1986), and the time-lag was accounted for by the
use of a correction factor suggested by Stanish and Tay-
lor (1983).
The sensitivities (Se) and specificities (Sp) of the pH,
L*, and a* tests were established for the identification of
cyanotic carcasses, at different cut-off points. Sensitivity
was defined as the probability that a truly positive sample
will test positive, and Sp was defined as the probability
that a truly negative sample will test negative (Martin et
al., 1987). The coefficient of reliability K (ρ2) of the pH,
L*, and a* tests was also assessed (Tenenbein, 1970).
Agreement among the pH test, L* test, and a* test was
measured by the use of Cohen’s kappa statistic, κ (Cohen,
1960), divided into categories as defined by Landis and
Koch (1977). This test measures the degree of agreement
beyond chance.
RESULTS
The color and pH differences between cases and con-
trols at time of slaughter and 24 h postmortem are shown
in Table 1. Cyanotic carcasses were significantly darker
and redder than controls at the time of slaughter; they
910 MALLIA ET AL.
TABLE 1. Pectoralis major characteristics of roasters condemned for cyanosis and control

0.5 h 24 h
Cyanosis Control2,3 Cyanosis2 Control2,3
Parameter1 (n = 34) (n = 34) P-value4 (n = 34) (n = 34) P-value4
L* 38.36 ± 0.33 41.66 ± 0.33 ≤0.05 41.87 ± 0.55 47.49 ± 0.34 ≤0.01
a* 4.72 ± 0.16 2.48 ± 0.14 ≤0.05 4.51 ± 0.20 2.21 ± 0.13 ≤0.01
b* 1.57 ± 0.28 1.63 ± 0.21 >0.05 2.39 ± 0.30 3.97 ± 0.33 ≤0.01
pH 6.40 ± 0.04 6.12 ± 0.03 ≤0.05 5.88 ± 0.07 5.60 ± 0.04 ≤0.01
Weight, g5 68.60 ± 1.36 69.10 ± 1.47 >0.05 NA6 NA NA
1
L* = lightness, a* = redness, b* = yellowness [L*a*b* coordinates (CIE, 1976)].
2
Values represent the mean ± SEM.
3
Carcasses that passed the inspection procedure.
4
P-values from paired t-test are reported with the Bonferroni correction.
5
Weight is of P. major and Pectoralis profundus combined.

Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ps/article-abstract/79/6/908/1491049 by guest on 24 July 2019

6
NA = not available.

were also darker, redder, and bluer (i.e., lower L* and
higher a* and b*) than controls at 24 h after slaughter.
Cyanotic carcasses were less acidic than controls at the
time of slaughter and 24 h later. There were no weight
differences in the P. major. Both cyanotic and control
carcasses were darker, less red, and less blue at 24 h after
slaughter than at the time of slaughter. Cyanotic and
control carcasses were also more acidic at 24 h after
slaughter than at the time of slaughter.
Correlation coefficients among color and pH of cyanotic
meat at the time of slaughter, and 24 h postmortem, are
shown in Table 2. The pH of meat from cyanotic carcasses
at slaughter time was positively and highly correlated
with the pH 24 h later. The pH was negatively and moder-
ately correlated with meat lightness at the time of slaugh-
ter and at 24 h postmortem. The pH at the time of slaugh-
ter was poorly correlated with meat redness at the time
of slaughter and 24 h later. It was also negatively and
modestly correlated with the blueness of meat at the time
of slaughter and 24 h later. Color values (L*, a* and b*)
at slaughter time were positively and highly correlated
with their respective measurements 24 h later.
The repeatability of pH, L*, and a* measurements
across the four sites of the same breast of the cyanosis
TABLE 2. Pearson correlations between pH and color parameters
from cyanotic carcasses1
Pearson correlation (ρ)
Parameters2 (n = 34)
group was found to be excellent, with ρ equal to 0.98,
0.87, and 0.96 for the L*, a*, and pH measurements, respec-
tively. The control group had comparable values of ρ,
equal to 0.98, 0.78, and 0.91 for the L*, a*, and pH measure-
ments, respectively.
The Se, Sp, K, and ρ2 are shown in Table 3. The test
with the highest Se for identifying cyanotic carcasses was
the pH6.2 test at 85.29%, and those with the highest Sp
were the L*39 test and the a*4 test. The a*3 test had the
best combination of Se and Sp and, hence, the highest
coefficient of reliability K (ρ2 = 78.93%). The pH6.3 test
also had a good coefficient of reliability K (ρ2 = 69.15%).
The pH6.3 and a*3 tests had the highest agreement beyond
chance (κ) among the tests under evaluation (κ = 0.73).
DISCUSSION
Chickens were condemned for cyanosis in Canada be-
cause the pathogenesis of the abnormal carcass color was
hitherto unknown. This study showed that the dark color-
ing of affected carcasses is compatible with a DFD-like
condition: information that warrants review of the con-
demnation policy. The DFD-compatible traits included
pH and color characteristics at the time of slaughter and
24 h postmortem. Cyanotic carcasses had a higher pH
and a correspondingly darker and redder color than con-
trols, and these characteristics persisted 24 h after slaugh-
ter. Thus, carcasses examined in this study showed DFD-
traits similar to those reported in other species, including

pH0–pH24 0.64a TABLE 3. Sensitivity (Se), specificity (Sp), and coefficient of

L*0–L*24 0.43a reliability (ρ2) of tests used to identify cyanotic roasters (n = 68)
a*0–a*24 0.58a
b*0–b*24 0.58a Test cutoff1 Se Sp ρ2
pH0–L*0 −0.36a
pH0–L*24 −0.50a (%)
pH0–a*0 0.04 pH6.2 85.29 52.94 42.7
pH0–a*24 −0.1 pH6.3 76.48 91.18 69.15
pH0–b*0 −0.27 L*39 52.94 100 59.00
pH0–b*24 −0.35a L*40 61.77 91.18 54.65
a
Pearson correlations are significantly different from zero (P ≤ 0.05). L*41 67.65 76.47 44.46
1 a*3 79.41 97.06 78.93
All cases that occurred were kept in the study, hence no sampling a*4 52.94 100 59.00
scheme for cases was adopted.
2
L* = lightness, a* = redness, b* = blueness, L*a*b* coordinates (CIE, 1
L* = lightness, a* = redness, L*a*b* coordinates (CIE, 1976), based
1976). The subscripts 0 and 24 denote 0 h and 24 h, respectively. on 34 cyanotic and 34 carcasses that passed inspection.
 CYANOSIS IN ROASTER BREAST MEAT
turkeys (Mallia et al., 1996; McCurdy et al., 1996; Barbut,
1998), and also to dark chickens that passed the USDA
inspection (Walker and Fletcher, 1993).
The identification of DFD in roaster chickens with cya-
nosis has important implications to the industry. One
implication is that policies regarding the final disposition
of affected birds can be reassessed in the light of new
information, perhaps with these carcasses being deemed
suitable for human consumption. Such reassessment
would be beneficial because a substantial number (ap-
proximately 0.5 million) chickens are condemned for this
condition annually in Canada. Recognition that DFD ex-
ists in cyanotic chicken carcasses may also provide some
insights into its eventual control by the industry.
These findings must, however, be reconciled with re-
sults of several other studies that examined the relation-
ship between color and pH and did not support the pres-
ence of a DFD-like condition in poultry. It is noteworthy
that none of these studies examined carcasses condemned
for cyanosis. No association between color and pH was
found for chicken meat that passed inspection when mea-
sured 24 h after slaughter (Wyers et al., 1992), and darker
breast muscle from broiler chickens did not have a higher
pH than normal breast meat (Froning et al., 1978). Para-
doxically, two separate studies found a relationship oppo-
site to that observed in DFD meat, namely that redder
chicken meat had a correspondingly lower pH (Papinaho
et al., 1996). Similarly, Boulianne and King (1995) found
that darker chicken meat had a correspondingly lower
pH. In the present study, the pH and lightness of meat
from carcasses that passed inspection, at slaughter time,
were not significantly correlated, which is similar to the
results of Papinaho et al. (1996).
Aging cyanotic meat for 24 h under refrigeration did
not result in changing darkness or redness, and differ-
ences between cyanotic meat and meat that passed inspec-
tion were still discernable, although somewhat reduced
in magnitude. This result is similar to that observed in
DFD meat in other species, in which the dark meat color
persisted even when ultimate pH values were reached.
Actually, several major studies on DFD pork have de-
scribed the DFD condition at 24 h postmortem (Niel-
sen, 1981).
It has also been suggested that the darker coloring of
chickens condemned as cyanotic is due to an increase in
total pigment and myoglobin content of skeletal muscle
under conditions of chronic hypoxia (Boulianne et al.,
1993). However, Sackett et al. (1986) showed that low
partial oxygen pressure did not alter total pigment, myo-
globin, and hemoglobin concentrations in broiler muscle.
Hence, the role of chronic hypoxia in the occurrence of
dark chicken carcasses remains ambiguous. In this study,
total pigment or myoglobin was not measured, and pH
data were consistent with DFD. Overall, one should not
expect to observe higher pH in affected carcasses com-
pared with controls if the color change was simply due
to increased pigment level.
To assist processors, cut-off points for pH, L*, and a*
tests were examined. In general, a pH of 6.3 could be
911
recommended as a cut-off point for a pH-based test for
DFD (cyanosis), as indicated by the highest coefficient of
reliability that was observed at this pH (Table 3). In a
similar manner, the suggested cut-off point for L* would
be 39 to 40, as shown by the high coefficients of reliability.
The a* test at a cut-off point of 3 to 4 CIE a* units was
the best overall test for the identification of cyanotic roast-
ers. In this manner, the presence of cyanosis in a carcass
can be objectively determined by a color or pH measure-
ment. For example, Bisaillon et al. (1988) suggested that
a visual inspection of test lacks accuracy due to the subjec-
tive interpretation of color. The availability of objective
tests could be useful to overcome these limitations. It is
hoped that tests based on a* and pH, particularly at the
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ps/article-abstract/79/6/908/1491049 by guest on 24 July 2019
cut-off points showing high coefficient of reliability (Table
3), could satisfy this need. The tests are rapid and nonde-
structive and can be used on line or off line in a similar
manner used for the trimming of carcasses. The use of
tests in parallel did not result in an increase in the coeffi-
cient of reliability. If current Canadian regulations are
altered to allow the consumption of cyanotic birds, these
tests can be used to identify DFD carcasses for further
processing, instead of their condemnation.
In summary, this study demonstrated the presence of
a negative correlation between lightness and pH and a
positive correlation between redness and pH, which is
important for supporting the notion that meat color ob-
served in carcasses condemned for cyanosis is due to
the presence of DFD-like traits. Cases and controls were
collected in a pairwise manner, and the use of a within-
pair difference, as the basic test statistic, was utilized to
account for similarities between a matched case and its
control (Martin et al., 1987). Potential confounding by
unmeasured factors such as climatic conditions, shipping
time, and time on the truck were accounted for in this
manner. As cases and control carcasses were also concur-
rently matched for time on the line, the pH and color
measurements should exclude time lag variation between
slaughter and measuring the different parameters. The
DFD traits identified in this study suggest that cyanotic
chickens, currently being condemned by AAFC, may
have favorable properties for further processing such as
high water-holding capacity. This study showed that tests
based on spectrocolorimetry and pH show promise for
detection of affected carcasses under normal plant condi-
tions. However, before cyanotic carcasses can be deemed
safe for human consumption, the microbiological profile
and physical properties must be assessed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the Ontario Ministry
of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs (OMAFRA) for
their support. J. Mallia held a scholarship from the Cana-
dian Commonwealth Scholarship Program.
REFERENCES
Apple, J. K., M. E. Dikeman, J. E. Minton, R. M. McMurphy, M.
R. Fedde, D. E. Leith, and J. A. Unruh, 1995. Effects of restraint
912 MALLIA ET AL.
and isolation stress and epidural blockade on endocrine and
blood metabolite status, muscle glycogen metabolism, and
incidence of dark-cutting Longissimus muscle of sheep. J.
Anim. Sci. 73:2295–2307.
Barbut, S., 1998. Estimating the magnitude of the PSE problem
in poultry. J. Muscle Food 9:35–49.
Bendall, J. R., and H. J. Swatland. 1988. A review of the relation-
ship of pH with physical aspects of pork quality. Meat Sci.
24:85–126.
Bisaillon, J. B., A. H. Meek, and T. E. Feltmate, 1988. An assess-
ment of condemnation of broiler chicken carcasses. Can. J.
Vet. Res. 52:269–276.
Boulianne, M., A. J. King, E. J. Squires, and R. J. Julian, 1993.
Investigation of a dark coloration of broiler chicken carcasses
at the abattoir. Page 146 in: Proceedings of the American
Veterinary Medical Association 130th Annual Meeting, Min-
neapolis, MN. American Veterinary Medical Association,
Schaumburg, IL.
Boulianne, M., and A. J. King, 1995. Biochemical and color char-
acteristics of skinless boneless pale chicken breast. Poultry
Sci. 74:1693–1698.
Chen, M. T., S. S. Lin, and L. C. Lin, 1991. Effect of stresses
before slaughter on changes to the physiological, biochemical
and physical characteristics of duck muscle. Br. Poult. Sci.
32:997–1002.
CIE, 1976. Supplement No. 2 to: Recommendations on uniform
color spaces—Color difference equations. Psychometric
Color Terms. Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage
(1971) tc-1-1). CIE Publication No. 15 (E-1.3.1), Paris, France.
Cohen, J., 1960. A coefficient of agreement for nominal scale.
Ed. Psychol. Measurement 20:37–46.
Fleiss, J., 1986. The Design and Analysis of Clinical Experiments.
John Wiley, New York, NY.
Herenda, D. C., and D. A. Franco, 1996. Poultry Diseases and
Meat Hygiene. Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
Froning, G. W., A. S. Babji, and F. B. Mather, 1978. The effect
of preslaughter temperature, stress, struggle and anesthetiza-
tion on colour and textural characteristics of turkey muscle.
Poultry Sci. 57:630–633.
Landis, J., and G. Koch, 1977. The measurement of observer
agreement for categorical data. Biometrics 33:159–174.
Mallia, J. G., S. Barbut, J.-P. Vaillancourt, A. Muckle, R. Irwin,
and S. A. McEwen, 1996. Safety and quality of dark turkey
carcasses exhibiting dark, firm, dry characteristics. J. Am.
Vet. Med. Assoc. 209:361. (Abstr.).
Mallia, J. G., 1998. Epidemiological studies of cyanosis in poultry
in southern Ontario. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
Martin, S. W., A. H. Meek, and P. Willeberg, 1987. Veterinary
Epidemiology—Principles and Methods. Iowa State Univer-
sity Press, Ames, IA.
McCurdy, R., S. Barbut, and M. Quinton, 1996. Seasonal effects
on PSE in young turkey breast meat. Food Res. Int.
29:363–366.
Nielsen, N. J., 1981. The effect of environmental factors on meat
quality and on deaths during transportation and lairage be-
fore slaughter. Pages 287–297 in: Proceedings of the Sympo-
sium held at Refnes Gods, Jeloy, Norway.
Papinaho, P. A., M. H. Ruusunen, T. Suusonen, and D. L.
Fletcher, 1996. Relationship between muscle biochemical and
meat quality properties of early deboned broiler breasts. J.
Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/ps/article-abstract/79/6/908/1491049 by guest on 24 July 2019
Appl. Poult. Res. 5:126–133.
Sackett, B.A.M., G. W. Froning, J. A. Deshazer, and F. J. Struwe,
1986. Effect of gaseous preslaughter environment on chicken
broiler meat quality. Poultry Sci. 65:511.
Shoukri, M. M., and V. L. Edge, 1996. Statistical Methods for
the Health Sciences. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Snedecor, G. W., and W. G. Cochran, 1980. Statistical Methods.
Iowa State University Press, Ames, IA.
Stanish, W., and N. Taylor, 1983. Estimation of the intraclass
correlation coefficient of the analysis of covariance model.
Am. Stat. 37:221–224.
Swatland, H. J., 1989. A review of meat spectrophotometry (300
to 800 nm). Can. Inst. Sci. Technol. J. 22:390–402.
Swatland, H. J., 1994. Structure and Development of Meat Ani-
mals and Poultry. Technomic Publishers, Lancaster, PA.
Tarrant, P. V., 1989. Animal behaviour and environment in the
dark-cutting condition in beef—A review. Ir. J. Food Sci.
Technol. 13:1–9.
Tenenbein, A., 1970. A double sampling scheme for estimating
from binomial data with misclassifications. J. Am. Stat. Assoc.
72:386–394.
Walker, J. M., and D. L. Fletcher, 1993. Effect of antemortem
epinephrine injections on broiler breast meat colour, pH and
haem concentration. Poultry Sci. 72(Suppl. 1):138. (Abstr.).
Wyers, M., S. Tapie, M. Hurterel, and Y. Cherel, 1992. Etude
histomorphométrique du muscle pectoral superficiel de la
dinde. Relation avec le syndrome de décoloration des esca-
lopes. Ann. Rech. Vet. 23:49–58.