Unit # 1

Fundamentals of OB

Evolution of management thought , five functions of management, Definition, scope and importance of OB,
Relationship between OB and the individual, Evolution of OB, Models of OB (Autocratic, Custodial,
Supportive, Collegial & SOBC), Limitations of OB. Values, Attitudes and Emotions: Introduction, Values,
Attitudes, Definition and Concept of Emotions, Emotional Intelligence - Fundamentals of Emotional
Intelligence, The Emotional Competence Framework, Benefits of Emotional Intelligence , difference between
EQ and IQ. Personality & Attitude: Definition Personality, importance of personality in Performance, The
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and The Big Five personality model, Johari Window , Transaction Analysis ,
Definition Attitude Importance of attitude in an organization, Right Attitude, Components of attitude,
Relationship between behavior and attitude.

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Definition:

Organizational Behavior (OB) can be defined as the understanding, prediction and management of human
behavior both individually or in a group that occur within an organization. Internal and external perspectives
are the two theories of how organizational behavior can be viewed from an organization’s point of view.

Meaning:

Organisation Behavior is the study of an application of knowledge about how to act within the org. It is the
human tool for human benefits. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of organization such
as business, government, schools and services organization. Whenever org. Are there is need to understand
the ob.

Importance of Organisation Behavior

While working in an organization, it is very important to understand others behavior as well as make others
understand ours. In order to maintain a healthy working environment, we need to adapt to the environment
and understand the goals we need to achieve. This can be done easily if we understand the importance of
OB.

Following points bring out the importance of OB −

 It helps in explaining the interpersonal relationships employees share with each other as well as with
their higher and lower subordinates.

 The prediction of individual behavior can be explained.

 It balances the cordial relationship in an enterprise by maintaining effective communication.
 It assists in marketing.
 It helps managers to encourage their sub-ordinates.
 Any change within the organization can be made easier.
 It helps in predicting human behavior & their application to achieve organizational goals.
 It helps in making the organization more effective.

Thus studying organizational behavior helps in recognizing the patterns of human behavior and in turn
throws light on how these patterns profoundly influence the performance of an organization.

Concept of Organisation behavior

Organizational behavior is the branch of social science that seeks to build the theories that can be applied to
predicting, understanding, and controlling behavior in working organisation .It is the subset of mgmt.
Activities concern with understanding predicting and influence behavior in org. Settings. It is the study of an
application of knowledge about human behavior related to others elements of the org. Such as structure
technology and people.

 People
 Structure
 Technology

People

An organization consists of people with different traits, personality, skills, qualities, interests, background,
beliefs, values and intelligence. In order to maintain a healthy environment, all the employees should be
treated equally and be judged according to their work and other aspects that affects the firm.

Example − A company offers campus placement to trainees from different states like Orissa, Haryana,
Arunachal Pradesh and many more. However, during and after training, all trainees are examined only on
the basis of their performance in the tasks assigned.

Organizational Structure

Structure is the layout design of an organization. It is the construction and arrangement of relationships,
strategies according to the organizational goal.

Example − Organizational structure defines the relation of a manager with employees and co-workers.

Technology

Technology can be defined as the implementation of scientific knowledge for practical usage. It also provides
the resources required by the people that affect their work and task performance in the right direction.
Example − Introduction of SAP, big data and other software in the market determines individual and
organizational performance.

Five Functions of Management

Management has been described as a social process involving responsibility for economical and effective
planning & regulation of operation of an enterprise in the fulfillment of given purposes. It is a dynamic
process consisting of various elements and activities. These activities are different from operative functions
like marketing, finance, purchase etc. Rather these activities are common to each and every manger
irrespective of his level or status.

Different experts have classified functions of management. According to George & Jerry, “There are four
fundamental functions of management i.e. planning, organizing, actuating and controlling”.

According to Henry Fayol, “To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, & to control”.
Whereas Luther Gullick has given a keyword ’POSDCORB’ where P stands for Planning, O for Organizing, S
for Staffing, D for Directing, Co for Co-ordination, R for reporting & B for Budgeting. But the most widely
accepted are functions of management given by KOONTZ and O’DONNEL
i.e. Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing and Controlling.

For theoretical purposes, it may be convenient to separate the function of management but practically these
functions are overlapping in nature i.e. they are highly inseparable. Each function blends into the other &
each affects the performance of others.
1. Planning

It is the basic function of management. It deals with chalking out a future course of action & deciding
in advance the most appropriate course of actions for achievement of pre-determined goals. According
to KOONTZ, “Planning is deciding in advance - what to do, when to do & how to do. It bridges the gap
from where we are & where we want to be”. A plan is a future course of actions. It is an exercise in
problem solving & decision making. Planning is determination of courses of action to achieve desired
goals. Thus, planning is a systematic thinking about ways & means for accomplishment of pre-
determined goals. Planning is necessary to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human
resources. It is all pervasive, it is an intellectual activity and it also helps in avoiding confusion,
uncertainties, risks, wastages etc.

2. Organizing

It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human resources and developing
productive relationship amongst them for achievement of organizational goals. According to Henry
 Fayol, “To organize a business is to provide it with everything useful or its functioning i.e. raw
material, tools, capital and personnel’s”. To organize a business involves determining & providing
human and non-human resources to the organizational structure. Organizing as a process involves:

 Identification of activities.
 Classification of grouping of activities.
 Assignment of duties.
 Delegation of authority and creation of responsibility.
 Coordinating authority and responsibility relationships.
3. Staffing

It is the function of manning the organization structure and keeping it manned. Staffing has assumed
greater importance in the recent years due to advancement of technology, increase in size of business,
complexity of human behavior etc. The main purpose o staffing is to put right man on right job i.e.
square pegs in square holes and round pegs in round holes. According to Kootz & O’Donell,
“Managerial function of staffing involves manning the organization structure through proper and
effective selection, appraisal & development of personnel to fill the roles designed un the structure”.
Staffing involves:

 Manpower Planning (estimating man power in terms of searching, choose the person and giving
the right place).
 Recruitment, Selection & Placement.
 Training & Development.
 Remuneration.
 Performance Appraisal.
 Promotions & Transfer.
4. Directing

It is that part of managerial function which actuates the organizational methods to work efficiently for
achievement of organizational purposes. It is considered life-spark of the enterprise which sets it in
motion the action of people because planning, organizing and staffing are the mere preparations for
doing the work. Direction is that inert-personnel aspect of management which deals directly with
 influencing, guiding, supervising, motivating sub-ordinate for the achievement of organizational goals.
Direction has following elements:

 Supervision
 Motivation
 Leadership
 Communication

Supervision- implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is the act of watching
& directing work & workers.

Motivation- means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with zeal to work. Positive,
negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for this purpose.

Leadership- may be defined as a process by which manager guides and influences the work of
subordinates in desired direction.

Communications- is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from one person to
another. It is a bridge of understanding.

5. Controlling

It implies measurement of accomplishment against the standards and correction of deviation if any to
ensure achievement of organizational goals. The purpose of controlling is to ensure that everything
occurs in conformities with the standards. An efficient system of control helps to predict deviations
before they actually occur. According to Theo Haimann, “Controlling is the process of checking whether
or not proper progress is being made towards the objectives and goals and acting if necessary, to
correct any deviation”. According to Koontz & O’Donell “Controlling is the measurement & correction of
performance activities of subordinates in order to make sure that the enterprise objectives and plans
desired to obtain them as being accomplished”. Therefore controlling has following steps:

a. Establishment of standard performance.

b. Measurement of actual performance.
 c. Comparison of actual performance with the standards and finding out deviation if any.
d. Corrective action.

Scope of Organisation Behavior

1. Individual Behavior

It is the study of individual’s personality, learning, attitudes, motivation, and job satisfaction. In this study,
we interact with others in order to study about them and make our perception about them.

Example − the personal interview round is conducted to interact with candidates to check their skills, apart
from those mentioned in the resume.

2. Inter-individual Behavior

It is the study conducted through communication between the employees among themselves as well as their
subordinates, understanding people’s leadership qualities, group dynamics, group conflicts, power and
politics.

Example − A meeting to decide list of new board members.

3. Group Behavior

Group behavior studies the formation of organization, structure of organization and effectiveness of
organization. The group efforts made towards the achievement of organization’s goal is group behavior. In
short, it is the way how a group behaves.

Example − Strike, rally etc.

Goals of Organisation Behavior

We have identified 8 objectives of organizational behavior;

 Job Satisfaction
 Finding the Right People
 Organizational Culture
 Leadership and Conflict Resolution
 Understanding the Employees Better

 Understand how to Develop Good Leaders

 Develop a Good Team
 Higher Productivity

Job Satisfaction

Understanding organizational behavior can shed light on the factors that can foster or hamper job
satisfaction, such as physical settings, organizational rewards and punishments or work-group
characteristics. Job satisfaction, in turn, can foster higher productivity and reduced turnover, while
providing more leverage for the recruitment of top talent.

Finding the Right People

A ship with all sails and no anchors would flounder, one with all anchors and no sails would not get
anywhere. Organizational behavior can be helpful for finding the right mix of talents and working styles
required for achievement of the task at hand. This can assist in deciding who to include in a team or task
force, as well as in deciding who to promote to a leadership position or even the ideal profile for new hires.

Organizational Culture
As organizations grow larger, it may become difficult to keep a sense of common purpose and unity of
direction. Organizational behavior is useful for understanding and designing the communication channels
and leadership structures that can reinforce organizational culture. As rapidly evolving business
environments forceorganizations to adapt, entering, for example, into global markets or utilizing virtual
workforce, organizational behavior can assist in maintaining a clear identity without losing flexibility and
adaptability.

Leadership and Conflict Resolution

Playing by the book and not making waves may be fine for some organizations, but the command-and-
control mentality of the manufacturing age may become counterproductive in the knowledge market.

Organizational behavior can assist in fostering leadership, pro-activity and creative problem-solving.

When creativity is allowed, the divergence of opinions is unavoidable, but-organizational behavior can
provide the leadership and the arbitrage dynamics required for turning conflicts into constructive idea
exchanges.

Understanding the Employees Better

Organizational behavior studies help us understand why employees behave the way they do, and also
thereby predict how they are going to behave m the future.

Understand how to Develop Good Leaders

Organizational behavior patterns help in predicting who among the employees have the potential to become
leaders. They also teach us how to mold these employees so that their leadership potential is utilized to its
fullest.

Develop a Good Team

An organization is only as good as the weakest member of its team. It is essential that all members of the
team work in coordination and are motivated to work together to achieve the best results. The teamwork
theories of organizational behavior are an essential tool in the hands of any manager.

Higher Productivity

All this leads us to the most important goal of achieving the highest productivity in realizing the visions and
goals of any organization. If implemented well, the organizational behavior principles help in motivating all
the members to do their best. The levels of motivation can be the difference between a good and a bad result.
Really organizational Behavior has so many objectives by which it serves the organizations, individuals,
groups and in a word all the stake holders.

Relationship between Organisation behaviour and Individual

For organisation to grow continuously there is need individual growing, this creates a sense of responsibility
and create relation between organisation and individual.

These are the following things can enhance the relationship between organisation behaviour and individual: -

1. Continuous Learning

2. Create Right Perception

3. Building Positive Attitude and Values

4. Having Personality and Emotions Compatible at workplace

5. Maintain Stress-Free Individuals and Environment

6. Keeping Individual and Team Motivated and Providing Job Satisfaction

1. CONTINUOUS LEARNING

 Learning is any permanent change in behaviour, resulting from experience.

 Need to promote that behaviour, which are functional.

 Need to discourage that behaviour, which are detrimental.

 It creates a bond between the organization and employee.

2. CREATE RIGHT PERCEPTION

 Select, organise & interpret input from sensory receptors.

 OB helps to create right perception for working effectively with people.

 This creates right perceptual sense in the people.

3. BUILDING POSITIVE ATTITUDES AND VALUES

 Attitudes are lasting evaluations of people, groups, objects or issues.

 Positive attitudes for effective relationship.

 Values are:
  OR

 Specific mode of conduct

 OR end state of existence is personally

 socially preferable to an opposite

 adverse mode of conduct

 end state of existence

 Values are the base of attitudes and behaviour.

4. PERSONALITY AND EMOTIONS COMPATIBLE AT WORKPLACE

 Personality is unique and relatively stable patterns of behaviour, thoughts and feelings.

 Full potential of individual can be utilised.

 Emotions are reactions consisting of subjective cognitive states, physiological reactions and
expressive behaviours.

 An understanding about emotions helps for self – development of individuals.

5. MAINTAINING STRESS-FREE INDIVIDUALS AND ENVIRONMENT

 Stress is dynamic action in which an individual confronted with Opportunity, constraint or

demand related to what he or she desires and for which outcome perceived to both uncertain
and important. With growing competition and survival and excellence become tougher

 Stress is the managerial discomfort of modern era.

 OB helps the individual in reducing stress level and manages environment and makes it
comfortable.

6. KEEPING INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS MOTIVATE AND PROVIDING JOB SATISFACTION

 Motivation is the most important intangible resource of the Organisation.

 Motivation is internal process that activates, guides and maintains behaviour over time.

 Job satisfaction is general attitude towards one’s job.

 It depends on difference between amount of rewards workers receive and amount they believe
they should receive.

 OB helps the team in getting motivated and provides job satisfaction to the employees.
History and Evolution of Organisational Behavior Studies

Origin of Organisational Behavior can trace its roots back to Max Weber and
earlier organizational studies.

The Industrial Revolution is the period from approximately 1760 when new
technologies resulted in the adoption of new manufacturing techniques,
including increased mechanization.

The industrial revolution led to significant social and cultural change,

including new forms of organization.

Analyzing these new organizational forms, sociologist Max Weber described

bureaucracy as an ideal type of organization that rested on rational-legal
principles and maximized technical efficiency.

In the 1890’s; with the arrival of scientific management and Taylorism,

Organizational Behavior Studies was forming it as an academic discipline.
Failure of scientific management gave birth to the human relations
movement which is characterized by a heavy emphasis on employee
cooperation and morale. Human Relations Movement from 1930’s to 1950’s
contributed in shaping the Organizational Behavior studies.

Works of scholars like Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Mary
Parker Follett, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Mas low, David Mc Cellan and
Victor Vroom contributed to the growth of Organisational Behavior as a
discipline.

Works of scholars like Elton Mayo, Chester Barnard, Henri Fayol, Mary
Parker Follett, Frederick Herzberg, Abraham Maslow, David Mc Cellan and
Victor Vroom contributed to the growth of Organisational Behavior as a
discipline.

Herbert Simon’s Administrative Behavior introduced a number of important

concepts to the study of organizational behavior, most notably decision
making. Simon along with Chester Barnard; argued that people make
decisions differently in organizations than outside of them. Simon was
awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for his work on organizational
decision making.

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field became more quantitative and produced
such ideas as the informal organization, and resource dependence.
Contingency theory, institutional theory, and organizational ecology also
enraged.

Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and

organizational change became areas of study.

Informed by anthropology, psychology, and sociology, qualitative research

became more acceptable in OB.

Nature of Organisation Behavior

1. A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only.

2. An Interdisciplinary Approach.
3. An Applied Science.
4. A Normative Science.
5. A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach.
6. A Total System Approach.

A Separate Field of Study and not a Discipline Only

By definition, a discipline is an accepted science that is based on a

theoretical foundation. But, OB has a multi- interdisciplinary orientation
and is, thus, not based on a specific theoretical background. Therefore, it is
better to reason to call OB a separate field of study rather than a discipline
only.

An Interdisciplinary Approach

Organizational behavior is essentially an interdisciplinary approach to study

human behavior at work. It tries to integrate the relevant knowledge drawn
from related disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology to
make them applicable for studying and analyzing organizational behavior.

An Applied Science

The very nature of OB is applied. What OB basically does is the application

of various researches to solve the organizational problems related to human
behavior. The basic line of difference between pure science and OB is that
while the former concentrates of fundamental research, the latter
concentrates on applied research. OB involves both applied research and its
application in organizational analysis. Hence, OB can be called both science
as well as art.
A Normative Science

Organizational Behavior is a normative science also. While the positive

science discusses only cause effect relationship, OB prescribes how the
findings of applied research can be applied to socially accept organizational
goals. Thus, OB deals with what is accepted by individuals and society
engaged in an organization. Yes, it is not that OB is not normative at all. In
fact, OB is normative as well that is well underscored by the proliferation of
management theories.

A Humanistic and Optimistic Approach

Organizational Behavior applies humanistic approach towards people

working in the organization. It deals with the thinking and feeling of human
beings. OB is based on the belief that people have an innate desire to be
independent, creative and productive. It also realizes that people working in
the organization can and will actualize these potentials if they are given
proper conditions and environment. Environment affects performance or
workers working in an organization.

A Total System Approach

The system approach is one that integrates all the variables, affecting
organizational functioning.

The systems approach has been developed by the behavioral scientists to

analyze human behavior in view of his/her socio-psychological framework.
Man’s socio-psychological framework makes the man a complex one and the
systems approach tries to study his/her complexity and find a solution to it.

Contributing Disciplines to the Organization Behavior Field are:

 Psychology.
 Sociology.
 Anthropology.
Psychology

Psychology has perhaps the first influence on the field of organizational

behavior because it is a science of behavior. A psychologist studies almost
all aspects of behavior.

Psychology deals with studying human behavior that seeks to explain and
sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals.
Psychologists are primarily interested in predicting the behavior of
individuals to a great extent by observing the dynamics of personal factors.

Those who have contributed and continued to add to the knowledge of OB

are teaching theorists, personality theorists, counseling psychologists and
primary, industrial and organizational psychologist.

Some of the numerous areas of interest within the disciplines of psychology

are:

 General Psychology
 Experimental Psychology
 Clinical Psychology
 Consumer Psychology
 Personality and Social Psychology
 Industrial Psychology
 Counseling Psychology
 Educational Psychology
 Consulting Psychology

Understanding Psychological principles and its models help significantly in

gaining the knowledge of determinants of individual behavior such as

 the learning process,

 motivation techniques,
 personality determinants and development,
 perceptual process and its implications,
 training process,
 leadership effectiveness,
 job satisfaction,
 individual decision making,
 performance appraisal,
 attitude measurement,
 employee selection,
 Job design and work stress.

Sociology

The major focus of sociologists is on studying the social systems in which

individuals fill their roles. The focus is on group dynamics.
They have made their greatest contribution to OB through their study of
group behavior in organization, particularly formal and sophisticated
organizations.

Sociological concepts, theories, models, and techniques help significantly to

understand better the group dynamics, organizational culture, formal
organization theory and structure, corporate technology, bureaucracy,
communications, power, conflict, and intergroup behavior.

Psychologists are primarily interested in focusing their attention on the

individual behavior.

Key concepts of Sociology are;

Most sociologists today identify the discipline by using one of the three
statements:

 Sociology deals with human interaction arid this communication are

the key influencing factor among people in social settings.
 Sociology is a study of plural behavior. Two or more interacting
individuals constitute a plurality pattern of behavior
 Sociology is the systematic study of social systems:

A social system is an operational social unit that is structured to serve a

purpose.

It consists of two or more persons of different status with various roles

playing a part in a pattern that is sustained by a physical and cultural base.

When analyzing organizing as a social system, the following elements exist:

 People or actors
 Acts or Behavior
 Ends or Goals
 Norms, rules, or regulation controlling conduct or behavior
 Beliefs held by people as actors
 Status and status relationships
 Authority or power to influence other actors
 Role expectations, role performances, and role relationships.

Therefore, organizations are viewed by sociologies as consists of a variety of

people with different roles, status, and degree of authority.
The organization attempts to achieve certain generalized and specific
objectives.

To attain some of the abstract ends such as the development of company

loyalty, the organization’s leaders appeal to the shared cultural base.

Anthropology

The main aim of anthropology is to acquire a better understanding of the

relationship between the human being and the environment. Adaptations to
surroundings constitute culture. The manner in which people view their
surroundings is a part of the culture. Culture includes those ideas shared
by groups of individuals and languages by which these ideas are
communicated. In essence, culture is a system of learned behavior.

Their work on culture and environment has helped us to understand

differences in fundamental values, attitudes, and behavior among people in
different countries and within different organizations.

Much of our current understandings of organizational culture,

environments, and differences between national cultures are the results of
the work of anthropologists or those using their methodologies.

The world is the laboratory of anthropologists, and human beings must be

studied in the natural habitat. Understanding the importance of studying
man in natural settings over time enables one to grasp the range of
anthropology.

Familiarity within some of the cultural differences of employees can lead to a

greater managerial objectivity and depth in the interpretation of behavior
and performance. Anthropologists contribute to study some aspects in
organizational settings – similar values, comparative attitudes, cross-
cultural analysis between or among the employees.

Main Challenges and Opportunities of Organizational Behavior

Challenges and opportunities of organizational behavior are massive and

rapidly changing for improving productivity and meeting business goals.

1. Improving Peoples’ Skills.

2. Improving Quality and Productivity.
3. Total Quality Management (TQM).
4. Managing Workforce Diversity.
5. Responding to Globalization.
6. Empowering People.
 7. Coping with Temporariness.
8. Stimulating Innovation and Change.
9. Emergence of E-Organisation & E-Commerce.
10. Improving Ethical Behavior.
11. Improving Customer Service.
12. Helping Employees Balance Work-Life Conflicts.
13. Flattening World.

Organisational behavior model

Autocratic Model

The root level of this model is power with a managerial orientation of

authority. The employees in this model are oriented towards obedience and
discipline. They are dependent on their boss. The employee requirement that
is met is subsistence. The performance result is less.

The major drawbacks of this model are people are easily frustrated,
insecurity, dependency on the superiors, minimum performance because of
minimum wage.

Custodial Model

The root level of this model is economic resources with a managerial

orientation of money. The employees in this model are oriented towards
security and benefits provided to them. They are dependent on the
organization. The employee requirement that is met is security.

This model is adapted by firms having high resources as the name suggest.
It is dependent on economic resources. This approach directs to depend on
firm rather than on manager or boss. They give passive cooperation as they
are satisfied but not strongly encouraged.

Supportive Model

The root level of this model is leadership with a managerial orientation of

support. The employees in this model are oriented towards their job
performance and participation. The employee requirement that is met is
status and recognition. The performance result is awakened drives.

This model is dependent on leadership strive. It gives a climate to help

employees grow and accomplish the job in the interest of the organization.
Management job is to assist the employee’s job performance. Employees feel
a sense of participation.

Collegial Model
The root level of this model is partnership with a managerial orientation of
teamwork. The employees in this model are oriented towards responsible
behavior and self-discipline. The employee requirement that is met is self-
actualization. The performance result is moderate zeal.

This is an extension of supportive model. The team work approach is

adapted for this model. Self-discipline is maintained. Workers feel an
obligation to uphold quality standard for the better image of the company. A
sense of “accept” and “respect” is seen.

Limitation of organisational behavior

 OB helps an individual to understand human behaviour only at

workplace or he she may be a failure at domestic front.
 OB has not contributed to improved interpersonal relations in an
organisation.Jealousies,back stabbing,harassements go side by side
with rewards,lectures,discussions,smiles etc
 OB is selfish and exploitive.With emphasis on motivation
,efficieny,productivity there exists a kind of competition among
workers and they are not able to live in harmony.
 OB will not totally abolish conflict but it can only reduce it.
 OB has all most become a fad wid managers.Abolishing og physical
disparities has not abolished mental barriers.


2. Values, Attitudes and Emotions: Introduction, Values, Attitudes,

Definition and Concept of Emotions, Emotional Intelligence -
Fundamentals of Emotional Intelligence, The Emotional Competence
Framework, Benefits of Emotional Intelligence , difference between EQ
and IQ.

Values :

Values represent basic convictions that- A specific mode of conduct or end-

state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence. Value is a judgmental
element of what is right, good, or desirable.

Importance of Values:

1. Values lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes and

motivation because they influence our perceptions.
2. Individuals enter organizations with notions of what is right and
wrong with which they interpret behaviors or outcomes
3. Values generally influence attitudes and behavior .
Types of Values

Terminal Values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person

would like to achieve during his or her lifetime.
Instrumental Values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving
one’s terminal values.
Values Across Culture Hofstede’s A framework for assessing cultures; five
value dimensions of national culture…
Values Across Culture GLOBE Framework for Assessing Cultures: -

- Power distance

- Individualism/Collectivism

- In-group collectivism

- Performance orientation

- Humane orientation

- Uncertainly avoidance

- Assertiveness

- Future Orientation

- Gender differentiation
Attitude

Attitude is defined as “a learned predisposition to respond in a consistently

favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object.” That is,
attitudes affect behavior at a different level than do values…

Attitude Components

a) Affective Component
The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.
b) Cognitive component
The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.
c) Behavioral Component

An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Attitude Types

Most of the research in OB has been concerned with three attitudes…

a. Job Satisfaction
A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual
holds toward his or her job.
b. Job Involvement
Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering
performance important to self-worth.
c. Organizational Commitment
Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to
maintain membership in the organization.

Job satisfaction

Job satisfaction essentially reflects the extent to which an individual likes

his or her job. Formally defined, job satisfaction is an affective or emotional
response toward various facets of one’s job…
Definition and Concept of Emotions,

Emotion is a mental state associated with the nervous system brought on

by chemical changes variously associated with thoughts, feelings,
behavioural responses, and a degree of pleasure or displeasure. There is
currently no scientific consensus on a definition. Emotion is often
intertwined with mood, temperament, personality, disposition, and
motivation.

Research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two

decades with many fields contributing including psychology,
neuroscience, endocrinology, medicine, history, sociology of emotions,
and computer science. The numerous theories that attempt to explain
the origin, neurobiology, experience, and function of emotions have only
fostered more intense research on this topic. Current areas of research in
the concept of emotion include the development of materials that
stimulate and elicit emotion. In addition PET scans and fMRI scans help
study the affective picture processes in the brain.

"Emotions can be defined as a positive or negative experience that is

associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity." Emotions
produce different physiological, behavioral and cognitive changes. The
original role of emotions was to motivate adaptive behaviors that in the
past would have contributed to the passing on of genes through survival,
reproduction, and kin selection.

In some theories, cognition is an important aspect of emotion. Those

acting primarily on the emotions they are feeling may seem as if they are
not thinking, but mental processes are still essential, particularly in the
interpretation of events. For example, the realization of our believing that
we are in a dangerous situation and the subsequent arousal of our body's
nervous system (rapid heartbeat and breathing, sweating, muscle
tension) is integral to the experience of our feeling afraid. Other theories,
however, claim that emotion is separate from and can precede cognition.
Consciously experiencing an emotion is exhibiting a mental
representation of that emotion from a past or hypothetical experience,
which is linked back to a content state of pleasure or displeasure. The
content states are established by verbal explanations of experiences,
describing an internal state.

Emotions are complex. According to some theories, they are states of

feeling that result in physical and psychological changes that influence
our behavior. The physiology of emotion is closely linked to arousal of the
nervous system with various states and strengths of arousal relating,
apparently, to particular emotions. Emotion is also linked to behavioral
tendency. Extroverted people are more likely to be social and express
their emotions, while introverted people are more likely to be more
socially withdrawn and conceal their emotions. Emotion is often the
driving force behind motivation, positive or negative. According to other
theories, emotions are not causal forces but simply syndromes of
components, which might include motivation, feeling, behavior, and
physiological changes, but no one of these components is the emotion.
Nor is the emotion an entity that causes these components.

Emotions involve different components, such as subjective experience,

cognitive processes, expressive behavior, psychophysiological changes,
and instrumental behavior. At one time, academics attempted to identify
the emotion with one of the components: William James with a subjective
experience, behaviorists with instrumental behavior, psychophysiologists
with physiological changes, and so on. More recently, emotion is said to
consist of all the components. The different components of emotion are
categorized somewhat differently depending on the academic discipline.
In psychology and philosophy, emotion typically includes a subjective,
conscious experience characterized primarily by psychophysiological
expressions, biological reactions, and mental states. A similar
multicomponential description of emotion is found in sociology. For
example, Peggy Thoits described emotions as involving physiological
components, cultural or emotional labels (anger, surprise, etc.),
expressive body actions, and the appraisal of situations and contexts.

Definitions

The Oxford Dictionary definition of emotion is "A strong feeling deriving

from one's circumstances, mood, or relationships with others." Emotions
are responses to significant internal and external events.

Emotions can be occurrences (e.g., panic) or dispositions (e.g., hostility),

and short-lived (e.g., anger) or long-lived (e.g., grief). Psychotherapist
Michael C. Graham describes all emotions as existing on a continuum of
intensity. Thus fear might range from mild concern to terror or shame
might range from simple embarrassment to toxic shame. Emotions have
been described as consisting of a coordinated set of responses, which
may include verbal, physiological, behavioral, and neural mechanisms.

Emotions have been categorized, with some relationships existing

between emotions and some direct opposites existing. Graham
differentiates emotions as functional or dysfunctional and argues all
functional emotions have benefits.

In some uses of the word, emotions are intense feelings that are directed
at someone or something. On the other hand, emotion can be used to
refer to states that are mild (as in annoyed or content) and to states that
are not directed at anything (as in anxiety and depression). One line of
research looks at the meaning of the word emotion in everyday language
and finds that this usage is rather different from that in academic
discourse.

In practical terms, Joseph LeDoux has defined emotions as the result of

a cognitive and conscious process which occurs in response to a body
system response to a trigger.

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is one's ability to recognize emotions and

emotional states and to name them.

Emotional Intelligence is a critical dimension of a person’s makeup

required for productive adult work and life.

• Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is one's ability to recognize emotions and

emotional states and to name them. It also includes the ability to control
one’s emotions appropriately and to recognize them in others and make
interventions such as calming or redirecting them in useful ways. EQ is
 one of the important “soft skills” now recognized as critically important
for managers to master.

In the 1900s, even though traditional definitions of intelligence emphasized

cognitive aspects such as memory and problem-solving, several influential
researchers in the intelligence field of study had begun to recognize the
importance of going beyond traditional types of intelligence (IQ). As early as
1920, for instance, E.L. Thorndike described “social intelligence" as the skill
of understanding and managing others. Howard Gardner in 1983 described
the idea of multiple intelligences, in which interpersonal intelligence (the
capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other
people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to
appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations) helped explain performance
outcomes.
The first use of the term “emotional intelligence" is often attributed to A
Study of Emotion: Developing Emotional Intelligence from 1985, by Wayne
Payne. However, prior to this, the term “emotional intelligence" had
appeared in Leuner (1966). Stanley Greenspan (1989) also put forward an EI
model, followed by Salovey and Mayer (1990), and Daniel Goleman (1995). A
distinction between emotional intelligence as a trait and emotional
intelligence as an ability was introduced in 2000.
Daniel Goleman’s model (1998) focuses on EI as a wide array of
competencies and skills that drive leadership performance, and consists of
five areas:

1. Self-awareness
Know one’s emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives, values and goals
and recognize their impact on others while using gut feelings to guide
decisions.
2. Self-regulation
Manage or redirect one’s disruptive emotions and impulses and adapt
to changing circumstances.
3. Social skill
Manage other’s emotions to move people in the desired direction.
4. Empathy
Recognize, understand, and consider other people’s feelings especially
when making decisions
5. Motivation
Motivate oneself to achieve for the sake of achievement.

Fundamentals of Emotional Intelligence

There are several highly effective ways of improving your Emotional

Intelligence. These are called “fundamentals” because they are helpful in
developing multiple facets of EQ. When used consistently, they can also help
you improve in both the Self and Social dimensions. Remember these and
refer back to them often throughout the remainder of the book.

Self-Fundamentals: Understanding and Accepting Ourselves

Keep a journal. For 10 minutes each morning or each evening, write

whatever you want. Do not get out your laptop, and don’t sit at your desktop
computer! The pen and the paper are essential, and though it is a slower
process, you’ll get more benefit from doing it this way because you will be
more intimately connected with your words. Journal writing can be totally
open-ended with no specific plan, or built around a theme. The meaning in
your writing will not be evident until you have entered your thoughts
faithfully for two or more weeks and you can look back over all you have
written. The content does not have to be profound, but the physical act of
writing is linked to memory—particularly emotional memory, and your
heart. Do not try to organize your writing; let the words flow. Resolve to
continue this for at least six months.

Use a programmed relaxation response. Practice at least 10 minutes a day

for two weeks, every day. Choose a very calming image (a lake, a mountain,
etc.), a calming sound (the tide or a ticking clock), a word or short phrase
(peace; I am calm). Hold the image in your mind for the full 10 minutes.
Your mind will probably stray, but don’t chastise yourself if it does. Remain
calm, and simply refocus on your calming image or message and let other
thoughts fade away. This will help you practice turning on calming physical
reactions to stressful situations.

After two weeks of faithful practice, try beginning your session by imagining
a difficult situation. As you feel yourself getting angry or anxious, shift your
mind back to your programmed relaxation response. Practice this variation
10 minutes a day for two more weeks. Then try your programmed response
in real situations in which you feel yourself getting anxious or angry.

Write yourself a positive script. This is a positive internal monologue you

program for yourself. Our minds are never still. The trouble is, we often let
negative messages drift through our minds and take over—negative images
that reduce our energy and bring about the things we most fear: failure and
rejection. Keep your positive script short. Here is an example:

I have a lot of talent and enthusiasm. People find me likable, and I am very
good at making sales. I work hard to please my customers, and they are
loyal to me. I want to be the best sales rep in this region. I know I can do it!
Increased sales will bring me greater financial rewards, make me proud, and
get me noticed. I believe in myself, my team, and this company, and I know I
can make a difference—today and every day.

Keep a copy in your desk drawer and read it over every morning and at
lunch. Repeat the words mentally or read the positive script during stressful
times. Do this religiously for a few weeks, and you will probably only find
you need to repeat it when things seem particularly tough or stressful.

Preplan how you will respond to stressful situations. We can be more

prepared to deal with emotions if we plan ahead of time how we will
respond, especially when we are angry or depressed. Like having a mapped
escape route in case of fire, you increase the likelihood that you will survive
the negative emotion if you plan ahead. Identify a place where you can
retreat: a “safe place” that you can go: one on the job and one at home. Can
you get outdoors for a short time? Is there a safe or calming room where you
can find solitude and solace? What will you do there? Plan a calming activity
to deal with anger, and an energizing or funny activity to combat sadness.

Look at the situation from a different perspective: reframe. We often get

in trouble because we make assumptions about someone else’s emotions or
intentions. Many times we think “the worst.” However, we should challenge
the thoughts that stimulate our negative thinking. Is there another
explanation for the same set of circumstances? Instead of letting anger,
hurt, or worry take over, we ought to redefine, or take a different view: “I’m
better off” or “Maybe she had a good reason” or “He probably didn’t mean it
like that.”

You might need a partner to help you look at the situation a little differently.
For example: Sadness over the loss of a job can be reframed by thinking of
all the ways the job really did not suit you; the job was okay, but it was not
perfect. And ask yourself, What did I learn from this job and from this
experience of losing it? You can choose to dwell on the loss and stay
depressed, or you can reframe and remember the positive things you derived
from the experience.

Make a mental video of the situation as you would like it to unfold. If

we can imagine it, we can create it. That’s what research tells us. We must
first be able to clearly see the end we want to achieve. Close your eyes and
really see yourself going through all the steps leading to that desired end, as
if you were viewing a video of someone else. View it in as much detail as
possible: Where are you? Who is there? What are each of you doing and
saying? Replay your mental video over and over, and sharpen the images
each time. More than a static visualization, this method of learning actually
programs your neural circuitry step-by-step so that when you begin the
action steps, you have already created the “highway” for the neurons to
travel. Star athletes regularly use this method to achieve great results, and
you can do the same thing. In fact, the more clearly you can see your video,
the more motivation it will offer you.

Social Fundamentals: The Fundamental of Social Interaction

When you have a high degree of understanding and acceptance of yourself,

you are ready to move on to Emotional Intelligence in the Social dimension.
These next fundamentals have to do with social interactions. If practiced
faithfully, the techniques can elevate the level of success in the Social
dimension and help you raise the Emotional Intelligence of those you lead.

Walk in their shoes. This exercise will help create empathy and
understanding. Make yourself write a paragraph about anyone you are
having difficulty with (a peer, a subordinate, or a superior). Write what you
know about the person—their interests, their background, their difficulties,
etc., and try to concentrate on why they may be acting the way they are.
Write in the first person, pretending you are them. As you interact with this
person, continue to try to find out more about them, and continue writing
about them. You will find that you approach them with more understanding
and empathy. As you interact with them more positively, their behavior
toward you will likewise improve, and the interactions will become smoother.

Process comments. Most of us focus our remarks strictly on content when

we are interacting with others. Process comments, however, focus on the
reasons underlying certain behaviors that we observe; these are comments
that focus on the “why” or “how” of behavior, not the “what.” When we
comment on or point out the process, we help team members grow and deal
directly with any possible conflict. A process comment focuses attention on
some inconsistency (“The team is saying one thing, but it is doing another”);
the method by which members work to solve a problem (“Some people do
not seem fully engaged in this task”); or some underlying reason for behavior
(“I wonder if this reluctance is because some of us are still upset about the
new leave policy.”). When others do not seem to see that anything is wrong,
a process comment can help bring out those things no one wants to
mention. Good process comments usually begin with the leader’s
observation, stated as a description rather than an evaluation. A comment
such as, “What’s happening here?” or “Let’s talk more about how we have
been working together on this,” can open dialogue. When a team begins to
discover the ways it has been unproductive, members can resolve to change
behavior and become more effective.

The three-step method. The three-step Method is an excellent way to deal

with conflict or potential conflict. It works whether you are a participant in
the conflict or a third-party peacemaker. The steps are simple:

1. Offer to hear the other person’s side of the story first. (For third-party
mediation: Ask one party to go first while the other listens carefully.)
Really listen, without interrupting or getting defensive. Agree with
anything you can about what they have said.
2. Tell the other person your side of the story without laying blame. (For
third-party mediation: Ask the other party to tell their story. Each
person must listen carefully to the other, in turn.) The other party is
likely to listen more closely if you allow them to go first and model
good listening.
3. Use a problem-solving approach: “How can we work this out so this
doesn’t happen again?” or “What can we do now to salvage this
project?”
Look for similar/look for good. To make interactions run smoother, we
need to look for the characteristics in others that are the same as ours and
that are good. These connections are often found at the emotional level.
Much of our culture is strongly shaped by the mass media, which focuses
our attention on what’s “wrong,” what’s abnormal, and what’s different.

To improve Emotional Intelligence, we must look for common ground. After

every interaction, force yourself to focus on the interaction just completed.
What common ground did you see? Make it a game to always be able to find
something, even something small, that you and the other person both share.
Make it a habit to find the good that others are doing and comment
frequently on those behaviors, being liberal with thanks and praise.
Remember the importance of empathy and the need to be aware of what the
other person is feeling so that you can respond appropriately.

The basic view of emotional intelligence is that emotions aren’t necessarily

the opposite of thinking, but a different way of thinking about different types
of problems that exist in our world.

In other words, emotions can be a very valuable tool in guiding our choices
and decision-making.

In light of his theory of evolution, Charles Darwin theorized that our minds
have evolved to experience emotions so that we can better adapt to our
environment.

For example, we’ve evolved to experience a “negative” emotion such as fear

so that we can better respond to a situation that is bad for survival. In this
case, fear is an emotion that motivates us to avoid something when we are
in danger.

On the other hand, a “positive” emotion, such as joy, can signal to us that a
situation is good for survival. In this case, joy is an emotion that motivates
you to seek more of something.

This is a very basic and rudimentary analysis – and it doesn’t come

anywhere near describing the complexities of our emotional world (as well as
social world) – but it gives you an idea on how different emotions can guide
our behaviors in different ways.

Emotional intelligence is about being more aware of our emotions and what
they are signaling to us.

Below you’ll find descriptions of the 4 fundamental pillars that make up

emotional intelligence as a whole and how you can apply them to your daily
life.
Self-Awareness
The first pillar of emotional intelligence is paying attention to your own
emotions.

Emotions often come in two main parts: 1) The psychological component –

the thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs that underlie most of our emotions, and
2) The physical component – the bodily sensations that often accompany
different emotional states.
For example, an emotion such as nervousness may be a mixture of certain
thoughts (“I’m not good at this” or “I’m scared I’m going to make a mistake”)
and certain sensations in our bodies (a fluttery feeling in our stomach, ie “I
have butterflies in my stomach”).

Sometimes just being more aware of our emotional states (and all their
components) is enough to manage them better. In one recent study, they
found simply labeling negative emotions can help you overcome them.
The next time you’re feeling a really strong emotion, try stepping back and
just observing that emotion as it is. Ask yourself, “What am I feeling? What
am I thinking? What physical sensations am I experiencing with this
emotion?”

A little honest reflection of your emotions can really help you understand
yourself better and how your mind really works.

Self-Regulation
Once you are more aware of your emotions, the next pillar of emotional
intelligence is learning how to respond to them better.

Depending on the situation, there are many different strategies we can use
to better regulate our emotions. Some of these strategies include:

 Channeling an emotion in a new and constructive way, such as through

exercising, writing, or painting.
 Avoiding triggers – such as certain people, situations, or environments –
that are more likely to bring out a negative emotion.
 Seeking positive experiences to reverse negative ruts (such as watching a
comedy movie when we are feeling down, or listening to motivating music
when we are lazy).

 Turning emotions around by doing the opposite of what you feel.

 Sitting and watching emotions as a passive observer, instead of acting on
them impulsively.
These are all strategies available to us to help us regulate our emotions
better on an everyday basis.
Think of “emotional intelligence” as a kind of toolkit. There are many
different ways to respond to a particular emotion, and not every tool is going
to work depending on what the situation is.

The more emotionally intelligent you become, the better you will be at
deciding what is the best way to respond to an emotion. But that’s going to
take steady practice and awareness.

Empathy
Understanding your own emotions is half of emotional intelligence, the other
half is understanding the emotions of others.

As we improve “self-awareness,” we also improve “other-awareness.” We

learn that there is sometimes a difference between our own thoughts and
feelings and the thoughts and feelings of others.

Empathy is our ability to see things from another person’s perspective – and
to take into account their individual thoughts and feelings about an
experience.

This venn diagram shows the relationship between “self-awareness” and

“other-awareness” and how the area where they overlap is where we
experience empathy:

Of course, we can never understand another person’s mind completely, but

we can actively learn about a person’s inner thoughts and feelings by paying
attention to what they are communicating verbally and non-verbally.

Empathy is a kind of “mind-reading,” but it’s based on making inferences

about people’s internal worlds based on their external actions.

Another powerful tool for improving empathy is perspective taking. This is a

mental exercise where you literally imagine yourself experiencing a situation
from another person’s perspective to better understand them.
Be more willing to ask yourself, “What is this person thinking? What is this
person feeling? Why is this person acting in the way they do?” These types of
questions will be a great starting point in building more empathy in your
daily relationships.

Social Skills
Once you understand the emotions of yourself and others, the next question
is “How do I respond to other people’s emotions?” This is where social skills
comes in as the last pillar of emotional intelligence.
First, understand that a lot of our emotional world has a social component
to it. For example, emotions such as love, guilt, rejection, and
embarrassment are almost strictly social emotions (they rarely exist outside
the context of our relationships with others).

To build healthy relationships it’s therefore important that we are attuned to

other people’s emotions, especially how they respond to our own actions and
speech.

If your actions cause negative emotions in other people, then that can hurt a
relationship and your ability to connect with others in a meaningful way.

Cultivating positive emotions – like joy, optimism, excitement, and humor –

is key toward bonding with others in a strong and lasting way.

Have you ever walked into a room of people who are really depressed or
stressed out, and you immediately begin to feel depressed and stressed too?
This is an example of emotional contagion, which is the idea that our
emotions can often spread to others like a virus.
In the same way that other people’s emotions affect us, our emotions affect
other people. So if you walk around life with a generally positive attitude,
that is going to rub off on those you interact with (but you have to first have
your own mind in order).

The social skills aspect of emotional intelligence is about becoming an

“emotional leader” of sorts. But you need to practice turning negative people
around by first being positive in yourself.

The Emotional Competence Framework

Goleman, while experimenting with emotional intelligence, applied the

concept in a workplace situation, to study how an emotionally intelligent

worker could make a difference in his or her performance and relationships.

Using the emotional competence framework, Goleman could identify the

differences between an emotionally intelligent worker and an ordinary

worker on two counts; personal competence and social competence.

Goleman has explained details of the emotional competence framework, with

different sub-components in his book. Here, however, we are only

reproducing the gist of emotional competence framework to help appreciate
how people with emotional competence can benefit an organization.

1. Personal competence:

Ability to regulate our own behaviour by redirecting disruptive impulses and

moods and the ability to pursue our goals. Competencies associated with

this are self-control, trustworthiness and integrity, initiative and

adaptability, comfort with ambiguity, openness to change, and strong desire

to achieve.

SELF - AWARENESS

Emotional awareness: Recognising one’s emotions and their effects. People

with this competence:

 Know which emotions they are feeling and why

 Realise the links between their feelings and what they think, do, and

say

 Recognise how their feelings affect their performance

 Have a guiding awareness of their values and goals

Accurate self-assessment: Knowing one’s strengths and limits. People with

this competence are:

 Aware of their strengths and weaknesses

 Reflective, learning from experience

 Open to candid feedback, new perspectives, continuous learning, and

self-development
 Able to show a sense of humor and perspective about themselves

Self-confidence: Sureness about one’s self-worth and capabilities. People

with this competence:
  Present themselves with self-assurance; have presence.

 Can voice views that are unpopular and go out on a limb for what is

right

 Are decisive, able to make sound decisions despite uncertainties and

pressures

SELF – MANAGEMENT/REGULATION

Self-control: Managing disruptive emotions and impulses. People with this

competence:

 Manage their impulsive feelings and distressing emotions well

 Stay composed, positive, and unflappable even in trying moments

 Think clearly and stay focused under pressure

Trustworthiness: Maintaining standards of honesty and integrity. People

with this competence:

 Act ethically and are above reproach

 Build trust through their reliability and authenticity

 Admit their own mistakes and confront unethical actions in others

 Take tough, principled stands even if they are unpopular

Conscientiousness: Taking responsibility for personal performance. People

with this competence:

 Meet commitments and keep promises

 Hold themselves accountable for meeting their objectives

 Are organised and careful in their work

Adaptability: Flexibility in handling change. People with this competence:

  Smoothly handle multiple demands, shifting priorities, and rapid

change

 Adapt their responses and tactics to fit fluid circumstances

 Are flexible in how they see events

Innovativeness: Being comfortable with and open to novel ideas and new
information.

People with this competence:

 Seek out fresh ideas from a wide variety of sources

 Entertain original solutions to problems

 Generate new ideas

 Take fresh perspectives and risks in their thinking

SELF - MOTIVATION

Achievement drive: Striving to improve or meet a standard of excellence.

People with this competence:

 Are results-oriented, with a high drive to meet their objectives and

standards

 Set challenging goals and take calculated risks

 Pursue information to reduce uncertainty and find ways to do better

 Learn how to improve their performance

Commitment: Aligning with the goals of the group or organisation. People

with this competence:

 Readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger

organisational goals
 Find a sense of purpose in the larger mission
  Use the group’s core values in making decisions and clarifying choices

 Actively seek out opportunities to fulfill the group’s mission

Initiative: Readiness to act on opportunities. People with this competence:

 Are ready to seize opportunities

 Pursue goals beyond what’s required or expected of them

 Cut through red tape and bend the rules when necessary to get the

job done
 Mobilise others through unusual, enterprising efforts

Optimism: Persistence in pursuing goals despite obstacles and setbacks.

People with this competence:

 Persist in seeking goals despite obstacles and setbacks

 Operate from hope of success rather than fear of failure

 See setbacks as due to manageable circumstance rather than a

personal flaw

2. Social competence:

Ability to understand others’ emotions and develop the requisite skills to

tackle people accordingly. It is linked with six competencies—empathy,

expertise in building and retaining talent, organizational awareness, cross-

cultural sensitivity, valuing diversity, and service to clients and customers.

RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

Empathy: Sensing others’ feelings and perspective, and taking an active

interest in their concerns. People with this competence:

 Are attentive to emotional cues and listen well

 Show sensitivity and understand others’ perspectives
  Help out based on understanding other people’s needs and feelings

Service orientation: Anticipating, recognising, and meeting clients’ needs.

People with this competence:

 Understand others’ needs including clients’ needs and match them to

services or products

 Seek ways to increase staff and clients’ satisfaction and loyalty

 Gladly offer appropriate assistance

 Grasp other’s perspectives, acting as a trusted advisor

Developing others: Sensing what others need in order to develop, and

bolstering their abilities.

People with this competence:

 Acknowledge and reward people’s strengths, accomplishments, and

development

 Offer useful feedback and identify people’s needs for development

 Mentor, give timely coaching, and offer assignments that challenge

and grow a person’s skills.

Leveraging diversity: Cultivating opportunities through diverse people.

People with this competence:

 Respect and relate well to people from varied backgrounds

 Understand diverse worldviews and are sensitive to group differences

 See diversity as opportunity, creating an environment where diverse

people can thrive

 Challenge bias and intolerance

Political awareness: Reading a group’s emotional currents and power

relationships.

People with this competence:

 Accurately read key power relationships

 Detect crucial social networks

 Understand the forces that shape views and actions of clients,

stakeholders and /or competitors

 Accurately read situations and organisational and external realities

3. Self-awareness:

Ability to understand our own moods, emotions and drives and their effect

on others. Competencies are self-confidence, realistic self-assessment, and

emotional self-awareness.

4. Social skills:

Ability in managing relationships and building networks to get the desired

result from others. Associated competencies are leadership, effectiveness in

leading change, conflict management, influence/communication, and

expertise in building and leading teams (of internal states, preferences,

resources, and intuitions).

Influence: Wielding effective tactics for persuasion. People with this

competence:

 Build rapport well

 Are skilled at persuasion

 Fine-tune presentations to appeal to the listener
  Use complex strategies like indirect influence to build consensus and

support

 Utilise events to effectively make a point

 Communication: Sending clear and convincing messages. People with

this competence:

 Are effective in give-and-take, registering emotional cues in attuning

their message

 Deal with difficult issues straightforwardly

 Listen well, seek mutual understanding, and welcome sharing of

information fully

 Foster open communication and stay receptive to bad news as well as

good.

Leadership: Inspiring and guiding groups and people. People with this

competence:

 Inspire others

 Articulate and arouse enthusiasm for a shared vision and mission

 Step forward to lead as needed, regardless of position

 Guide the performance of others while holding them accountable

 Lead by example

Change catalyst: Initiating or managing change. People with this

competence:

 Recognize the need for change and remove barriers

 Challenge the status quo to acknowledge the need for change

 Champion the change and enlist others in its pursuit

 Model the change expected of others

Conflict management: Negotiating and resolving disagreements. People

with this competence:

 Handle difficult people and tense situations with diplomacy and tact
  Spot potential conflicts, bring disagreements into the open, and help

deescalate

 Encourage dialogue and open discussion

 Orchestrate win-win solutions

Following more recent research, Goleman added an extra three groups of

competencies to the Social Awareness/Skills cluster that are not reflected in

the questionnaire but are certainly useful and needed in workplaces.

Building bonds: Nurturing instrumental relationships. People with this

competence:

 Cultivate and maintain extensive informal networks

 Seek out relationships that are mutually beneficial

 Build rapport and keep others in the loop

 Make and maintain personal friendships among work associates

Collaboration and cooperation: Working with others toward shared goals.

People with this competence:

 Balance a focus on task with attention to relationships

 Collaborate, sharing plans, information, and resources

 Promote a friendly, cooperative climate

 Spot and nurture opportunities for collaboration

Team capabilities: Creating group synergy in pursuing collective goals.

People with this competence:

 Model team qualities like respect, helpfulness, and cooperation

 Draw all members into active and enthusiastic participation

 Build team identity, esprit de corps, and commitment

 Protect the group and its reputation; share credit

For developing emotional intelligence at the workplace, Goleman

suggested the following steps:

1. Make an assessment of job-related emotional skills.
 2. Make an assessment of the available emotional intelligence of
individuals at the workplace. Some organizations make use of 360-
degree feedback for this purpose.

3. Make an assessment of the extent of readiness of the people in the

organization to improve their level of emotional intelligence.

4. Make an assessment of the level of motivation of the people in the

organization to believe in their learning experience to improve
emotional intelligence.

5. Make the emotional intelligence change process self-directed, allowing

people to develop their own learning plans, matching their own inter-
ests, resources, and goals.

6. Help people in organizations to focus on their manageable goals,

culminating a feeling in their mind that emotional intelligence
development is a gradual process and in pursuing the same, they may
often be confronted with their old ways of doing the work.

7. Help people to understand how they can learn through lapses and
prevent relapses.

8. Make available performance feedback to people.

9. Avoid propensity to believe that emotional intelligence can be devel-

oped overnight.

10. Make available models of desired behaviour.

11. Introduce rewards for self-improvement to encourage and

reinforce climate of participation for development of emotional
intelligence.

12. Develop objective measurement criteria to evaluate the

employees’ performance against the same.

Promotion of EQ in the workplace is summarized as:

a. Paving the way

b. Assess the organization’s needs

c. Assessing the individual

d. Delivering assessments with care

e. Maximizing learning choice

f. Encouraging participation
g. Linking goals and personal values

h. Adjusting individual expectations

i. Assessing readiness and motivation for EQ development

To bring changes in the work through EQ, organizations focus on the

following aspects:
a. Foster relationships between EQ trainers and learners.

b. Self-direct change and learning.

c. Set goals.

d. Break goals down into achievable steps.

e. Provide opportunities for practice.

f. Give feedback.

g. Use experiential methods.

h. Build in support.

i. Use models and examples.

j. Encourage insight and self-awareness.

k. Encourage transfer and maintenance of change (sustainable change).

l. Encourage application of new learning in jobs.

m. Develop organizational culture that supports learning.

To evaluate the change in the work through EQ, organizations need to

evaluate individual and organizational effect. That is, as a rule, the higher a
person’s EQ, the lesser the insecurity present and the more the openness
tolerated.

High EQ= Low insecurity = More openness.

A person’s preparedness to expose feelings, vulnerabilities, thoughts, etc. is

a feature of EQ. Again, the converse also applies. Johari illustrates this very
well. Maslow is also relevant—self-actualizers naturally have stronger EQ.
People struggling to meet lower order needs—and arguably even middle-
order needs such as esteem needs—tend to have lower EQ than self-
actualizers. The original 5-stage hierarchy of needs explains that all needs
other than self-actualization are deficiency drivers, which suggest some EQ
development potential or weakness.

There is a strong thread of EQ in Stephen Covey’s 7 Habits (1997). While

explaining the seven habits of highly effective people, Covey first deals with
the habits, defining habit as an intersection of knowledge, skill, and desire
and then emphasized on our perceptive view of the world through our
emotional bank account, that is, kindness, honesty, keeping promises,
managing role expectations, loyalty, and attitude to admit ‘I am sorry’.

The seven habits are the culmination of our emotions into a maturity
continuum and can be listed as under:
Habit 1:
Be proactive, that is, the habit of personal vision, recognizing the self-
freedom and ability to choose how to respond irrespective of situational cues
and consequences.

Habit 2:
Begin with the end in mind, that is, the habit of personal leadership,
knowing where we are going.

Habit 3:
Put first things first, that is, the habit of personal management, organizing,
and executing around priorities.

Habit 4:
Think win-win, that is, the habit of mutual benefit, seeking solution that
allows everyone to win. This ensures successful relationships. A win-win
character requires three important traits such as integrity, maturity, and
abundance mentality. With our abundance mentality, we can empower
people in organizations.

Habit 5:
First seek to understand then to be understood, that is, the habit of
communication. Empathic listening ensures this habit.

Habit 6:
Synergize, that is, the habit of creative cooperation, which can only be
developed when we value the differences and believe in alternatives. Synergy
makes one plus one greater than two.

Habit 7:
Sharpen the saw, that is, the habit of self-renewal, emphasizing on physical,
mental, social/emotional, and spiritual strength. Covey’s seven habits for
highly effective people are, therefore, embedded with emotional intelligence.
Hence, managers with high emotional intelligence can develop such habits
to be effective in their respective areas of work.
Psychologists have identified a variety of intelligences over the years
(Gardner 1993). Most of these can be grouped into one of the three
clusters— abstract, concrete, and social intelligence. Abstract intelligence is
an ability to understand and manipulate verbal and mathematical symbols,
whereas concrete intelligence is an ability to understand and manipulate
objects. Social intelligence, which was first identified by Thorndike in 1920,
is an ability to understand and relate to people (Ruisel 1992). Emotional
intelligence has its roots in social intelligence (Young 1996).

Benefits of Emotional Intelligence

There are many benefits to Emotional intelligence, but here are just a few…

1. It allows for better team work

Teams with emotionally intelligent members are great at working together.

They have good communication, trust each other, and value each other’s
input. When someone makes a suggestion, they’re able to respond in a
positive and productive way.

2. You can deal with change

Not many people like change, but Emotional intelligence gives you the tools
you need to deal with any change that comes your way. In the workplace,
many people often face change with a negative attitude and crossed arms;
but an emotionally intelligent person will be much more positive and can
inspire other team members to feel the same way.

3. You can handle those tough conversations

Whether it’s an angry customer or an upset employee, difficult conversations

can stir up all sorts of emotions. If you have the right skills, you can handle
those conversations by emotionally connecting with the other person before
finding a resolution.

4. It’s an essential people skill

Emotional intelligence allows you to quickly build trust with people, as well
as a rapport. You’ll be able to understand their feelings and empathise with
them – fantastic for any role that involves working in teams!

5. It’s a key feature of a strong leader

Great leaders understand people; they know how they work, how to
influence them, and how to inspire them. Emotional intelligence will help
you to achieve this understanding in order to be a brilliant leader and guide
your team in the right direction.
 Difference between EQ and IQ.

Before elucidating the difference between IQ and EQ, let us first understand,
what these terms actually mean. EQ or say Emotional Quotient refers to a
person’s ability to understand his/her emotion along with the other person’s
emotions, whereas IQ stands for Intelligence Quotient indicates a person’s
intelligence level.

Many people hold that IQ is more important for a person to achieve success
in life while researchers hold that people with high EQ are more successful
in their careers. So, it is one of the hot topics for debates, that which is
better than the other.

While IQ is a number that indicates a person reasoning or logical ability in

comparison to the statistical norm. Conversely, EQ implies the level of
person’s emptional intelligence. Check out the article below to find some
interesting distinguishing points between these two.

BASIS FOR
IQ EQ
COMPARISON

Meaning Intelligence Quotient or IQ is EQ refers to an

a number obtained from
standardized intelligence
test, which represents an
individual's ability of logical
reasoning.
individual's level of
emotional intelligence,
which is represented by
scores obtained in a
standardized test.

Measures General Intelligence Emotional Intelligence

Acquisition It is an inborn ability. It is learned and

improved ability.

Ability Learn, understand and Recognize, control and

implement knowledge, express one's own
logical reasoning and emotion's, perceive and
abstract thinking. assess other's emotion's.

Ensures Success in school. Success in life.

 BASIS FOR
IQ EQ
COMPARISON

Recognizes People with high intellect, Leaders, Captains,

common sense, mental Managers and people
challenges, etc. with social challenges.

3. Personality & Attitude: Definition Personality, importance of

personality in Performance, The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and The
Big Five personality model, Johari Window , Transaction Analysis ,
Definition Attitude Importance of attitude in an organization, Right
Attitude, Components of attitude, Relationship between behavior and
attitude.

Concept of Personality

The term ‘Personality' has been derived from the Latin term ‘Persona' which
means to 'speak through'. • Therefore a very common meaning of the term
personality is the role which the person (actor) displays to the public.

A few definitions (4) of personality are as given as:

1. According to Gordon Allport:"Personality is the dynamic organization

within the individual of those psychological systems that determine his
unique adjustment to his environment.

2. According to Floyd L. Ruch:"Personality includes external appearance and

behaviour, inner awareness of self as a permanent organizing force and the
particular pattern or organization of measurable traits, both inner and
outer.

3. According to Fred Luthans :"Personality means how a person affects

others and how he understands and views himself as well as the pattern of
inner and outer measurable traits and the person-situation interaction.

4. According to Salvatore Maddi:"Personality is a stable set of

characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and
differences in the psychological behaviour (thoughts, feelings and actions) of
people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood
as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.

Importance of personality in Performance

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and The Big Five personality model

Definition: The Meyers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-help

assessment test which helps people gain insights about how they work and
learn. It is a framework for relationship-building, developing positivism, and
achieving excellence.

The Myers–Briggs Type Indicator is a set of psychometric questionnaire

designed to weigh psychological preferences in how people perceive the
world and make decisions. The Myers Briggs model of personality developed
by Katherine Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers, is established on four
preferences namely −

Types of social interaction

Preference for gathering data

Preference for decision making

Style of decision making

With respect to the prescribed Myers Briggs type of indicator, preferences

include eight leadership styles −

E or I (Extraversion or Introversion)

S or N (Sensing or iNtuition)

T or F (Thinking or Feeling)

J or P (Judgment or Perception)
We combine the bias to give our Myers Briggs personality type. Say for
example, our preferences is for E and S and T and J, so it leads to
personality type of ESTJ. In the same way, there are sixteen Myers Briggs
personality types that can be generated by combining these four letters
together.

When we put these four letters together, we get our personality type code,
and there are sixteen combinations. For example, INTJ implies that we
prefer Introversion, Intuition, Thinking and Judging (remember, this implies
preferences only - an INTJ also uses Extraversion, Sensing, Feeling and
Perception).

Types of Social Interaction

The way a person communicates with people around and links with others
socially is called social interaction. Who are we, how do we communicate
with people? In order to answer these question we classify individuals and
their preferences to direct their energy into two types Extraversion &
Extrovert, Introversion & Introvert.

Extraversion or Extrovert

If people prefer to direct their energy to cope with others, things, situations,
or "the outer world", then their preference is for Extraversion.

An extrovert is an outgoing, socially confident person. This is denoted by the

letter "E".

Introversion or Introvert
If people prefer to direct their energy to deal with ideas, information,
explanations, beliefs, or "the inner world", then their preference is for
Introversion.

An introvert is a shy and reticent person. This is denoted by the letter "I".

For example − Archana is a nerdy girl and takes time to mingle up with
others and is considered as an introvert while Alka is a very outgoing person
and gels easily with everyone, so she is considered as an extrovert.

Preference for Gathering Data

Everything we see, we hear we process them in our brains. Now how do we

prefer to process information? On what basis? To answer this question, we
need to understand how to we choose to transform our information.

We can collect information in two different ways, using two different

information gathering functions − Sensing and Intuition.

Sensing

If we choose to deal with facts, what we know, to have clarity or to describe

what we see, then our preference is for Sensing.

This is denoted by the letter "S".

Intuition

If we choose to deal with ideas, look into the unknown, to generate new
possibilities or to engage what isn't obvious, then our preference is for
Intuition.

This is denoted by the letter "N" (the letter I has already been used for
Introversion).

For example − If I say that I believe something good is going to happen then
it is just an intuition as I am basing my statement without any evidence
rather on just a feeling. However, when I say that according to today’s
weather forecast it is going to rain, then this is sensing as I have an
evidence to support my statement.

Preference for Decision Making

There are two main types of functions through which we prefer to make our
decisions.

Thinking
If we choose to decide on the basis of objective logic, using an analytic and
detached path, then our preference is for Thinking. This is denoted by the
letter "T".

Feeling

If we prefer to decide using values or our personal beliefs, on the basis of

what we believe is important or what we or others care about, then our
preference is for Feeling. This is denoted by the letter "F".

For example − If I get Rs. 500 lying on the road and I think as I got it, it’s
mine then it is my thinking. However, if I think it’s not right to keep others
money and decide to donate it then it is considered as a feeling.

Style of Decision Making

Style of decision making is nothing but the way we prefer to organize our
life. It is done by either Perceiving or by Judging.

Perceiving

If we prefer to go with the flow, to maintain flexibility and respond to things

as they arise in the first place, then our preference is for Perception. This is
denoted by the letter "P".

Judging

If we prefer our life to be planned, stable and organized then our preference
is for Judging (here it is not to be confused with being 'Judgmental', which
is quite different). This is denoted by the letter "J".

For example − Mona gets a job and decides since she has got a job she need
not worry about anything else. This attitude is perceiving. On the other
hand, Tina aims for bank PO exam and plans her life where all her actions
will help her achieve her dream job. This attitude is judging.

Myers-Briggs Personality Test

After getting a brief about the personality types, let us take a look at the 16
types of personality.
ISTJ (Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, serious, earn success by
honesty and are dependable. They are logical, matter-of-fact, realistic, and
responsible. They decide practically what should be done and work towards
it steadily, regardless of distractions. They like to keep everything
synchronized and organized - their work, their home, their life. They
prioritize traditions and loyalty.

ISFJ (Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, friendly, responsible, and
careful. They are committed and steady in meeting their demands.
Thorough, painstaking, precise and accurate. They are loyal, considerate,
notice and remember specifics about other individuals who are important to
them, and are concerned with how others feel. They strive to create an
orderly and harmonious surrounding at work and at home.

INFJ (Introversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality always explore meaning and

connection in ideas, relationships, and material possessions. They want to
understand what encourages people and are insightful about others. Being
careful in nature, they are committed to their firm values. They have a clear
vision about how best to work for the common good. These type of
individuals are organized and decisive in executing their vision.

INTJ (Introversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality have a unique mindset and great
drive for executing their ideas and achieving their goals. They quickly see
patterns in external events and develop long-range elaborative perspectives.
Being committed, they start something to do and carry it through. Doubtful
and independent, they have high standards of competence and performance
- for themselves and others.

ISTP (Introversion-Sensing-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are tolerant and flexible, quiet
observers until a problem arises, then act quickly to find workable solutions.
The examine what makes things work and readily get through large
amounts of data to isolate the core of practical issues. They are interested in
cause and effect, organize facts using practical principles, and value
efficiency.

ISFP (Introversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are quiet, friendly, adaptable,

sensitive, and kind. They enjoy the present moment, and are not bothered
with what is going on around them. They like to have their own space and to
work within their chosen time frame. They are loyal and committed to their
principles and to people who are important to them. These individuals
dislike disagreements and disputes, and also do not force their opinions or
values on others.

INFP (Introversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are idealistic, loyal, honest to their
values and to people who are important to them. They want an external life
that is compatible with their values. Anxious, quick to see possibilities, they
can be catalysts for implementing ideas. They understand people and help
them fulfill their potential. These individuals are adaptable, flexible, and
accepting in nature until a value is threatened.

INTP (Introversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality develop logical explanations for

everything that interests them. They are theoretical and abstract in nature,
interested more in ideas than in social communication. They are silent,
contained, flexible, and adaptable. These individuals have unusual ability to
focus in depth to solve issues in their area of interest. They are skeptical,
sometimes can be critical, and are always analytical.

ESTP (Extroversion-Sensing-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are flexible and tolerant; they take a
pragmatic approach determined on getting immediate results. Theories and
conceptual elaborations bore them - they want to act energetically to solve
the problem. They focus on the here-and-now, are active, spontaneous, and
enjoy each moment. These type of individuals enjoy materialistic comfort
and style. They learn only through doing.

ESFP (Extroversion-Sensing-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are outgoing, friendly, free and
accepting in nature. Enthusiastic lovers of life, people, and material
comforts. They love working with others to make things happen. Bring
shared sense and a realistic approach to their work, and make work fun.
They are flexible and spontaneous, adapt readily to new people and
surroundings. They learn best by trying new skills with other people.

ENFP (Extroversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are warmly active and imaginative.
They perceive life as full of happenings. Make links between events and
information very quickly, and confidently proceed based on the patterns
they see. They want a lot of confirmation from others, and readily give
appreciation and support. These individuals are spontaneous and flexible,
often depend on their ability to improvise and their verbal fluency.

ENTP (Extroversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Perceiving)

Individuals with this type of personality are quick, smart, ingenious,

stimulating, alert, and outspoken. Resourceful in solving new and
challenging issues. They are adept at generating conceptual possibilities and
then testing them strategically. They are also good at reading people. Bored
by daily routine, these individuals will seldom do the same thing the same
way, and apt to turn to one new interest after another.

ESTJ (Extroversion-Sensing-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are practical, realistic, logical, and
matter-of-fact. They are decisive in nature and quickly move to execute
decisions. They organize projects and people to get things done, target on
getting results in the most efficient way possible. They like to maintain
routine details, have a clear set of logical standards, systematically follow
them and expect others to do so too. They are forceful in executing their
plans.

ESFJ (Extroversion-Sensing-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are warmhearted, careful, and

cooperative. They want harmony in their surrounding and work with
determination to establish it. They like to work with others to complete work
accurately and on time. They are loyal and tend to follow thoroughly even in
small matters. They want to be appreciated for who they are and for their
contribution.

ENFJ (Extroversion-iNtuition-Feeling-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are warm, empathetic, responsive,

active and responsible. They are highly sensitive to the emotions, needs, and
motivations of others. They find potential in everyone and want to help
others act according to their potential. Often these type of individuals act as
catalysts for a person’s or group’s growth. They are loyal, active to praise
and criticism. They are sociable and provide inspiring leadership.

ENTJ (Extroversion-iNtuition-Thinking-Judging)

Individuals with this type of personality are frank, decisive, smart, and
assume leadership readily. They quickly see illogical and inefficient steps
and policies, and efficiently develop and implement comprehensive systems
to solve organizational problems. They enjoy long-term planning, are usually
well informed, updated, well read, enjoy expanding their knowledge and
passing it on to others. They are forceful in presenting their ideas and views.

These are the 16 different personality types in which an individual can be

grouped into and we can learn about a person.

Big-Five Personality Model

The big five personality model identifies five types of personalities and every
individual falls into at least one of these types.
Openness to Experience
Openness flashes the level of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a
preference for novelty and variety within a person. It can also be elaborated
as the scope to which an individual is imaginative or independent, and
portrays a personal preference for a variety of activities over a scheduled
routine.

Some debate may occur regarding how to interpret the openness factor,
which is also known as "intellect" rather than openness to experience.

It includes inventiveness or curiousness in contrast to consistency or

cautiousness. Appreciation for positive arts, emotions, inventions,
adventure, unusual ideas, curiosity, and variety of experience is invited.

It is basically the extent to which an individual is original, has immense

interests, and willingly takes risk.

Conscientiousness
It is the tendency of being standardized, steady, self-disciplined, acting
dutifully, focusing on achieving goals, and prioritizing planned instead of
spontaneous behavior. It contrasts efficient or organized behavior with
easy-going or careless behavior.

It is the level to which a person is careful, cautious, and honest.

Extraversion
Positive energy, positive emotions, confidence, sociability and the tendency
to explore stimulation in the organization with others, and talkativeness is
extraversion. It contradicts outgoing or energetic behavior with solitary or
reserved behavior.

Experiencing positive emotional states and feeling good about oneself and
the world around one is extraversion.

Agreeableness
Agreeableness is the tendency of being compassionate and cooperative
instead of suspicious and antagonistic towards each other. It is a method of
measuring one's trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person has a
bad temper or not.

It distinguishes friendliness or compassionate with analytical or detached

nature. In simple words, it is the tendency to get along well with others.

Emotional Stability
It contradicts sensitive or nervous nature with secure or confident one.
Being bias towards experiencing unpleasant emotions easily, like anger,
anxiety, depression, negativity and vulnerability. Neuroticism credits the
degree of emotional stability and impulse control, and is frequently known
by its low pole, emotional stability.

The tendency to sense negative emotional states and see oneself and the
world around one negatively.

Johari Window

Johari Window is a technique for improving self-awareness within an

individual. It helps in understanding your relationship with yourself and
others. Johari Window model can be a useful tool if you want to improve
your communication skills.

It was developed by American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham

in 1955, hence the name Johari. Johari Window is generally used in Self-
help groups in exercises which help a person to learn and discover things
about themselves, like heuristic exercise.
Johari Window is a method used for self-discovery. Let us understand
Definition and meaning of Johari Window Model with examples.

What is Johari Window?

Generally, it is believed that we have in a group based on our perception of

others. And that is why to improve communication in a group it is important
to develop the perception of an individual in the group.

Johari window model is based upon two things – to acquire the trust of others
by revealing your information to them and by learning about yourself through
feedback by others.

Johari Window Model Description

There are four questions in the model just like panes in a window and each
person fits into one of this pane. Each window in Johari window model
signifies feelings, personal information, and motivation.

Also, the important point to know here is that through window panes one
must determine whether one is known or unknown to oneself as well as the
others.

Johari Window

Here as you can see in the photo there are four different panes and each
signifies one crucial idea behind it. Further, the panes are in the horizontal
axis as well as the vertical axis. So, you have to determine in which window
you fall and based on that your personality can be known.
In this model, the main focus is on feedback. Accepting of feedback and
conveying of this feedback is done through this model. The panes given in the
vertical direction represents part that is known and unknown to others. While
the horizontal part represents the known and unknown part to your self.

That is two windows represent your true self while the other two windows
represent the part that is known to others but unknown to self.

This information which is known to self and unknown to others can be

transferred through socializing with others. While the part that is known to
others but unknown to self is conveyed through feedback that you get through
other members in the group.

This model works on the basis of communication happening in the group and
how to improve yourself. The model is very simple to understand and as a
result, it is used in various organizations.

Now, we have divided the panes into 4 different panes to make you
understand further about how compromises in these panes.

Johari Window Quadrant 1: Open Area or Arena

This area or pane is called open area because the information in this pane
about the behavior, feelings, emotions about the person is known to that
person itself as well as the other members in this group.

In this arena, all the communication occurs through a two-way process. Such
that the person socializes about himself with others and constantly receives
feedback from the other members of the group. As a result, the group becomes
more effective and the relationship in this group is very dynamic.

In this group, the process of feedback solicitation is very common. This

process occurs in the group that has an understanding and the feedbacks of
the other person are heard.

So, the open area through this group can be increased horizontally such that
the blindspot area is reduced and vertically it is increased so that the hidden
and unknown areas of a person are reduced when that person reveals about
his feeling to the other person.

Johari Window Quadrant 2: Blindspot or BlindSelf

Blindspot is the area in which the certain information on your personality is

known to others but that information is not known to you.
In simple terms, other people may interpret your personality different than
you might have expected. For efficient communication, this area must be
reduced.

One way to do it is through feedback that you get from other members in the
group.

Johari Window Quadrant 3: Hidden Area or Hidden Self

Hidden area is the information that you hide from others. Here, the
information is known to you but the others are unknown to this information.
The reason for this may be the information might be personal to you so that
you are reluctant to share it with others. This includes secrets, past
experiences, feelings, etc. Many people keep their information private and do
not share it with others.

Johari Window Quadrant 4: Unknown Areas or Unknown Self

In this area, the information is unknown to you as well as the others.
Generally, certain feelings, talents, information, etc fall in this area.

The reason for this might be some traumatic experience in the past about a
particular event or experiences which might be unknown for your ever.

The person, as well as the group, is unaware about this till he or she discovers
it. One way to reduce this area is through open communication.

Transaction Analysis

Transactional Analysis (TA) is a method for analysing and understanding

our behaviour and our interactions with each other. It is a simple method,
easy to understand and apply to the many scenarios we encounter each day
and in all areas of our lives. As a result of our understanding, we become
aware of and are able to change our behaviour, and positively influence our
personal growth. TA demonstrates great versatility, covering a wide variety of
areas. The fundamentals – Ego States & Transaction Types – are shown
below. Other areas are listed here, with each subject linked to a
corresponding blog post:

 Script
 Time Structuring
 Strokes
 Drivers
 Games
My blog also contains a wealth of additional TA information which can be
accessed via the relevant categories in the archives (Ego, States, Time
Structuring, Strokes, etc.) Examples include ‘Internal Dialogues’ and ‘We
Change Anyway’.

The blog is also where you can find a comprehensive, step-by-step summary
of the self-development process: ‘The List’.

Ego States

Every one of us displays behaviour which falls into one of three categories.
Those categories are called ego states and are shown below. In the simple
diagram on the left the basic ego states are shown. The diagram on the right
represents the Parent and Child ego states in more detail:

These states develop during the early years of our life and are influenced by
those who are involved in our upbringing – usually our parents – and our
responses to what happens to us. It is important to say at this stage that all
three are required for a healthy existence and quality of life. In addition,
each ego state has positive and negative aspects, which are described below.

1. Parent Ego State

The Parent ego state is created by the messages we receive from our parents.
This means it is different for every one of us. My parents were different to
yours and so the messages I received when I was growing up are different to
the ones you received. A small child often has nothing else to do but take in
the world around it. It tries to make sense of what is going on because every
piece of information, every clue to appropriate behaviour can help with its
survival. So, the child takes in huge amounts of information from its
surroundings – in particular its parents. This information is internalised in
the Parent ego state. It is divided into two parts:
Controlling Parent

This is the parent who tells us what to do. At its best, it provides us with
vital advice and guidance on how to live our lives. At worst it manifests in
stifling, critical behaviour.

Nurturing Parent

This is the parent who cares for us. When done properly we feel cherished
and supported, but too much and we are smothered.

2. Child Ego State

In a similar way, our Child ego state represents how we felt as a child when
growing up. It represents our joy, our creativity our worries and our fears.
Again, it is divided into two distinct parts:

Adapted Child

This is the child that responds to the rules set out by our parents.
Depending on the choice the child makes, it will either play by the rules or
rebel. When a mother tells her son to sit up straight at the table, the child
may do so because he knows his mother will be pleased with him. He will
receive strokes (attention) for his behaviour. Maybe, after a week of doing so
his mother no longer notices and so in order to regain her attention, the
child begins to slouch until his mother reminds him of the right way to sit
(doing so, perhaps, using negative strokes.)

Natural Child

This refers to the way we behave when we are free and unrestricted by any
rules. It allows us to be creative, joyous and carefree. However, if behaviour
oversteps social boundaries it could cause embarrassment or offence.

3. Adult Ego State

It is the Adult ego state which allows us to interact with others without
playing games. When we are in Adult we work without emotion to gather
information, process it and act accordingly. A strong Adult ago state
orchestrates the other ego states in a way which limits their negative effects,
and makes use of the positive ones. It is this ego state we must seek out
when we find ourselves in a (psychological) game. This means that when I
am in an argument and reacting from the Child ego state (emotional), I must
find a way to communicate from the Adult ego state (see Transaction Types,
below).
There is additional information on ego states here.

Transaction Types

When we interact with each other, there are three types of transactions:

1. Parallel (Complementary)

2. Crossed

3. Hidden (Ulterior)

1. Parallel (Complementary)

Parallel or complementary transactions are those where the individuals

respond as expected. This means when I address someone’s Child ego state
from my Parent ego state, I expect them to respond from their Child.

In such cases – when the players ‘know’ which roles to play – the interaction
can continue through numerous transactions, each person reacting as
expected from their set ego state (see the diagram below). The numbers in
the brackets correspond to the arrows in the diagram.
Manager (1): You still haven’t given me the report I asked you for. You are
always doing this.

Team Member (2): It wasn’t my fault.

Manager (1): It’s never your fault. So, who’s to blame this time?

Team Member (2): I wasn’t given the data by accounts.

Manager (1): Why didn’t you inform me of this earlier?

Team Member (2): You were busy. I didn’t want to disturb you.

Manager (1): Just becasue my door is shut, doesn’t mean you can’t come
in…

And so on, until:

a) someone breaks the cycle by coming from a different ego state or

b) the manager feels he has made his point or

c) one or both parties have received the ‘strokes’ (attention) they need.

2. Crossed

These are transactions in which the respondent comes from an ego state
which is not the one ‘expected’ by the initiator. Because of this, crossed
transactions tend to come to an end sooner than parallel transactions. The
first diagram below shows the interaction with the respondent in
(Controlling) Parent ego state, whereas the second diagram shows an Adult
response to the same initial transaction.
Manager (1): You still haven’t given me the report I asked you for. You are
always doing this.

Team Member (2): And you are always picking on me. If you were as critical
of the accounts department as you are of me then maybe I would get the
information I asked them for.

Manager (1): You still haven’t given me the report I asked you for. You are
always doing this.

Team Member (2): Yes. I understand the problem and I would appreciate
your help in getting the last information I need from the accounts
department.

Just by reading the different responses from the team member in each of the
three examples above, we can actually feel the difference between the
contrasting scenarios. We can feel the childish response in the first example,
and its easy to see why that would tend to perpetuate an unhelpful dialogue.
In the second example, both manager and team member are behaving from
their Controlling Parent ego state. Again, unhelpful. It is only when the team
member deals with situation from the Adult ego state that we feel the
situation is being diffused and a solution to the problem is in sight. Of
course, this is something a good manager would do in the first place.

3. Hidden (Ulterior)

Hidden transactions are the ones which appear to be straightforward

communications but which actually contain an unspoken message that
carries with it a hidden agenda. It is these transactions which mostly lead to
games being played. They can often be seen in personal relationships and
avoiding them can require some discipline from the individuals involved.
With ulterior transactions there is a hidden hook which pulls us into a game
if we are not aware of what is happening.
In the example below we shall consider a husband and wife who have been
together for a number of years. For some time it has bothered the husband
that his wife can sometimes be forgetful or misplace things. Having used the
car the previous night she left the keys on the kitchen table rather than
return them to the shelf by the front door where they ‘belong’.

Husband: Have you seen the car keys?

This in itself is an innocent question. A request for information which is

represented by the line from Adult–Adult. However, there is an underlying
message shown by the dotted line which indicates a Parent-Child
transaction and can be formulated thus:

Husband: You had the keys last and they are not where they should be!

This comment is more inflammatory and, because we know there is an issue

between the husband and wife, it is safe to assume it is an accusation
(made from Controlling Parent) to the wife for being unreliable with the car
keys.

How the wife reacts depends on her mood, her awareness of what is
happening and her willingness to play the game. Here are some of the
options:

Wife: Yes, they are where I left them last night. I told you where they were
when I got in last night, but you didn’t listen. (Parent)

Wife: Will you leave me alone? I didn’t do it on purpose, you know. (Child)

Wife: (Oh, you know what I’m like.) I left them on the kitchen table. (Adult)

Option 2 is the one most likely to prolong the interaction and, as soon as
this happens, the subject of the interaction is no longer the location of the
keys, but the failings of the other person. The husband and wife are in a
game and the longer the game goes on the greater the pay–off for both
people.

For example, the wife can end up screaming at her husband to leave her
alone whilst at the same time feeling useless because she ‘misplaced’ the
keys; and the result for the husband may be a wielding of his perceived
superiority over his wife followed by her walking out on him.

One of the goals of games is to receive attention (so-called ‘strokes’). So if

each individual can receive positive strokes and do so without being
manipulative, they are much less likely to resort to such behaviour. Option
3 diffuses the situation and hints at the need for acceptance on the part of
the husband – there is also a parental element which suggests, “I know what
you’re trying to do and I won’t play your game.” Other reasons for playing
games are to reinforce our opinions (of self, others, or the world) or to
perpetuate our script.

Definition Attitude

Definitions: The concept ‘attitude’ is defined as follows:

‘An attitude is a negative or positive evaluation of an object which influences

human’s behavior towards that object’. – Michael Hogg
‘An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond in a favorable or
unfavorable manner towards people, an object, an idea or a situation’. –
Martin Fishbein
Explanation: We come across different people, ideas, things and
situations. We may form a negative or a positive view of them in our mind.
For example, if I think that junk foods are unhealthy as it has high sugar
and fats, It means I have a negative attitude towards junk food
consumption.
Attitude is an evaluation of a thing in terms of liking or disliking,
favoring or disfavoring, positive or negative and pro or anti.

Different people can have different attitudes towards a same thing or idea.
For example, some people view internet’s use for students as a positive
thing as they think that it helps the students in their studies. But some
people also view internet’s use for students as a negative thing as they
think it wastes a lot of their time in useless activities on the internet. This
negative or positive evaluation of an object is known as attitude.
Similarly, the idea of legalizing abortion is viewed as good by some people
as they think it is way to get rid of the unintended birth. But the same idea
of legalizing abortion is viewed as bad by some people as they think that the
fetus baby has the right to life.
As attitude is a positive or negative evaluation of an object, it influences
individual’s behavior towards that object in a favorable or unfavorable
manner. For example, if someone has a negative attitude towards junk
foods consumption, he will avoid eating junk foods and will advise others
not to eat junk foods. Similarly, if a student has a positive attitude
towards the use of internet for studies, he will use internet to read and
download study material.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE

The characteristics of Attitude are as follows:

 Attitude has an object: An attitude has an object, which is liked or

disliked, favored or disfavored; or evaluated as negative or positive.
The object can be a thing, an idea, a person, or a situation.
 Attitudes are learnt: Attitude is not an inborn phenomenon.
Attitudes are learnt through social interactions and experiences.
We interact with others, experience many things and acquire
information about things which form our negative or positive
attitude towards the thing.
 Attitudes are predispositions: An attitude is a predisposition – a prior
determined or learnt view of a thing or tendency to act in a speci c
way towards a thing. An individual has view which is already formed
in his mind.
 Attitudes are relatively stable phenomena: An attitude is not a
momentary feeling but a long-held view of something. Though
attitudes can be changed from time to time but It is a relatively
stable phenomenon which persists for a period of time.
 Attitude has an emotional component: It has emotional aspect
of liking or disliking, favoring or disfavoring; or positive or
negative evaluation.
 Attitudes inffuence human behavior: A positive attitude towards a
thing will inffuence human behavior towards the thing favorably.
Similarly, a negative attitude inffuence human behavior towards a
thing unfavorably. For instance, a vegetarian person would avoid
eating a beef due to his negative attitude towards beef consumption

Importance of attitude in an organization

Right Attitude
Components of attitude

Psychologists such as Rosenber, Eagley and Hovland have given a three

components model of Attitude.

According to this model, an attitude has following three components:

1. Cognitive Component
2. Affective Component
3. Behavioral Component

1. Cognitive Component: Cognitive component is the set of

information, ideas, facts and knowledge about an object.
2. Affective Component: This component consists of emotions and
feelings towards an object. It can be emotions of liking or disliking,
favoring or disfavoring, positive or negative evaluation towards the
object.
3. Behavioral Component: It is the tendency to behave towards the
object – e.g. how the individual acts towards the object depending upon
cognitive (facts about the object) and affective (emotions towards the
object) components.

Examples to Understand Three Components of Attitude:

Anything we know about an object or the facts we have about an object is

the cognitive component. On the basis of our knowledge about an object,
we have emotions of liking or disliking towards the object – these emotions
are the affective component. On the basis of our information and
emotions towards the object, we act towards the object in a specific way – it
is the behavioral component.
Example 1.

An orange is rich in vitamins. It is good for skin. It has a good taste.

(Cognitive Component)
I like oranges. (Affective Component)
I eat an orange daily. (Behavioral Component)

Example 2.

Saver-bulbs consume less electricity than ordinary bulbs. It has a

brighter light. It is more durable. (Cognitive Component)
I like saver-bulb because saver-bulbs are good. (Affective Component)
I buy and use saver-bulbs in my home. (Behavioral Component)

Relationship between behavior and attitude.

 BASIS FOR
ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR
COMPARISON

Meaning Attitude refers to a person's Behavior implies the

mental view, regarding the actions, moves, conduct or
way he/she thinks or feels functions of an individual
about someone or or group towards other
something. persons.

Based on Experience and Situation

observation

Trait Human Inborn

What is it? A person's mindset. Outward expression of

attitude.

Reflects What you think or feel? What you do?

Defined by Way we perceive things. Social Norms

Key Differences Between Attitude and Behavior

The difference between attitude and behavior can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:

1. Attitude is defined as a person’s mental tendency, which is

responsible for the way he thinks or feels for someone or something.
Behavior implies the actions, moves, conduct or functions or an
individual or group towards other persons.
2. A person’s attitude is mainly based on the experiences gained by him
during the course of his life and observations. On the other hand, the
behavior of a person relies on the situation.
3. Attitude is a person’s inner thoughts and feelings. As opposed to,
behavior expresses a person’s attitude.
4. The way of thinking or feeling is reflected by a person’s attitude. On
the contrary, a person’s conduct is reflected by his behavior.
5. Attitude is defined by the way we perceive things whereas behavior is
ruled by social norms.
6. Attitude is a human trait but behavior is an inborn attribute.