Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
SIDEREAL POINTER
Giorgio Carboni, June 1996, updated in February 2004
Translation edited by Robert May
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
The Astronomical Coordinate System
The first Pointer Design
Construction of the Base
Construction of the Pointing Device
Orienting the first Pointer
How to use the first Pointer
The Second Pointer Design
Building the Second Pointer
Setting the Second Pointer
Orienting the Second Pointer Figure 1 - The Sidereal Pointer is an instrument that allows you
to locate heavenly objects by means of their own coordinates.
Orienting the R.A. Shaft
Orienting the R.A. Scale
Using the Second Pointer
Improvements
How to make the Scales
Pointing the Telescope
Electronic Controls
Observations
Internet Sites
Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
In this article, we deal about the construction of a Sidereal Pointer (Indicator?). An instrument that allows you to localize celestial objects in the
nightly sky, just knowing their coordinates. What can be the use of this instrument? Firstly, it can help you to learn to know the constellations. It
can help you also to locate in the sky the position where point your telescope to observe an object invisible at naked eye, like a nebula or one of
the heavenly bodies called "Messier Objects".
Since television, newspapers and often astronomy magazines give the positions of heavenly objects only imprecisely and the position of the
celestial objects are precisely defined on the basis of the astronomical coordinate system and since there exists astronomy books which contain
these values, why not build an instrument which can help us locate every body in the sky? Thus, let us build a simple tool which help your walking
amongst the stars without getting lost. It will guide you in the heavenly observations with the naked eye, with binoculars and with any optical
instrument that don't have an equatorial mount, such as most of the homemade telescopes fail to have. This instrument will also be very useful
for learning to recognize the constellations and locate the celestial objects not visible to the naked eye, to track comets of which astronomers give
you the coordinates, etc. With this instrument, you will also be able to track on a star map the path of planets and comets. It will also be useful to
know in which direction the center of our Galaxy is, and to find out the other major celestial points. This knowledge will help you to locate where
you are and to obtain a new and more aware relationship with the sky.
This instrument, which was once known as a Torquetum, was first described by the ancient Greek scientist Ptolemy. Subsequently it seems this
first model was perfected or reinvented by an Arab astronomer in the XI or XII century. Then, it has been used by several European astronomers
since the XIII century. We will describe two models adapted to modern and quite simple enough construction.
What then are the differences? Mainly, they are as follows: the earthly
meridians are "integral" to the terrestrial surface, while celestial ones are
"integral" to the starry vault. In this way, as in the terrestrial system a city
has always the same coordinates, while in the heavenly system a star has
always the same coordinates . These coordinates are called longitude and
latitude in the terrestrial system, Right Ascension (R.A.) and Declination
(D) respectively in the astronomical ones that are used by astronomers.
It is widely known that the coordinates of these celestial objects may change a bit over time. In fact a city, by "floating" with the Earth's crust,
due to the convective motions of the mantle that are below, may vary its own position. In a similar way the stars, due to their own motion, and
due to the change of the inclination of Earth's axis, which tracks a circle in the sky in 26,000 years of time, change their location too. For us, who
are not professional astronomers, these changes are so little in size as to be negligible. Another difference among these two systems of
coordinates is that we count the terrestrial meridians in degrees, while the celestial ones are counted in hours. So we have 24 main astronomical
meridians, each of which divided in minutes and seconds. The Declination is, instead, measured in degrees, like the latitudes of the earth.
By convention, the origin of the astronomical coordinate system has been placed at the intersection between the ecliptic plane (the plane of the
terrestrial orbit around the Sun) and the plane of the heavenly equator that occurs in the spring equinox. This "0" meridian of the astronomical
system passes by this intersection at that time.
A Sidereal Pointer (figure 4) is made by 2 disks that are held 90° relative to each other. The first one carries the Right Ascension scale, and the
second the Declination scale. In order for the instrument to work correctly, the R.A. disk has to be parallel to the equatorial plane. In this way,
its axis is parallel to the Earth's axis of rotation and, as such, it's axis points toward the Pole Star (figure 5). The Declination disk has to be
orthogonal to that of the R.A.. In this way, its divisions will correspond to the celestial parallels. The R.A. disk is also called the hour disk and the
Declination one the angular disk.
You can build Pointers with techniques and materials different from those if you so desire. In any case, the scales of the Pointer must be oriented
according the astronomical meridians and parallels. If you understand this concept, the construction of this instrument will be much easier for
you.
The fact that the Pointer is not placed in the center of the Earth, but on its surface, could generate parallax errors with near objects however, due
to the enormous distances of the asters from the Earth, this problem really does not exist.
Now let's see how to build the first Pointer. Figure 4, shows the basic design of the first Pointer. Its scales are in heavy paper (cardboard or
cardstock), the plane of the scale of the Right Ascension is in plastic, the base of the instrument and the support of the scale of the Declination
are in wood. It could be simpler to make the whole Pointer out of cardboard, but in a short time its structure would inevitably be deformed by its
own weight. In order to allow the instrument to last longer and to be more precise, I make some parts with stiffer materials, like wood and
plastic. Let's start the construction of the Pointer with it's base.
Figure 6 - Base of the Pointer. Notice the hinges, the leg, the stop for the
leg and the screw on which the R.A. scale rotates.
I designed this base for the temperate latitudes of the northern (boreal) hemisphere, where most of inhabitants of our planet live. For our friends
in the south, the absolute angle will be the same and you will be pointing to the southern pole. In any case, the length of the leg has to be fitted
to the latitude of the observer. If you desire, you can make the leg adjustable if you normally change latitude a lot. For the artic and equatorial
regions, more radical adaptations to the base of the Pointer will be necessary to point the Pointer in the right direction. In order to orient the
instrument in the southern hemisphere with circumpolar constellations, you will have to refer to different constellations than those I indicated to
you. The equatorial constellations will work well for those of you in the equatorial regions.
The main components of this instrument are the scales. Due to the difficulties of drawing them, I supply them already made for you; I made
these drawings with a program for mechanical design and I saved them as a ".gif" image. To give precision and clarity to the marks, I gave these
drawings a high definition. For this reason, you will see them rather big on the monitor, but do not worry because they can be printed in the
needed size. The same is valid for the indexes drawings.
Do not save the drawing when you have resized it or give it another name if
you wish to save the image! You do not want to overwrite the original file.
Put two A4 sheets of heavy paper or cardstock, as you did with the scales, in the printer. Chose the horizontal direction of printing. Print two
copies of the sights. Check that the size you have obtained is the right one.
At this point, the scale of the Declination should be oriented. From now on, do not move the base any more, but limit yourself to rotating the
pointing device on the scales. From now on you use the instrument looking in the normal direction (in the arrow direction).
Orienting the R.A. scale to the heavenly meridians:
- chose a suitable star among the constellations near the equator as I indicated in table 1 and in figure 16;
- by rotating the pointing device on the scales (do not move the base of the instrument!), point the sight to the star you have taken as a
reference;
- now, by keeping the R.A. Index still, rotate the scale of the R.A. until the value of the Right Ascension of this star is in correspondence with the
index. With a hairpin or a piece of double sided adhesive tape, stop the R.A. scale. Do not move this scale during the night of observations;
- verify that the instrument points again to that star.
At this point, also the R.A. scale is oriented to the astronomical coordinate system.
R.A.'= R.A. - td
where td is the time difference between when you set the R.A. dial and the present time.
Let's do an example. If after 22 minutes of time since you oriented the Pointer, you want locate Cygnus g (gamma), a star of the constellation of
the Swan, you have to subtract 22' to its R.A and bring the index of this scale to this new value. The Declination isn't modified with time so it's
value isn't changed.
At this point, I wish you to have a good time with your Sidereal Pointer! In the paragraph: "Observations", you will find some information to try
with the instrument and to do some first observations. In the bibliography, I indicate an astronomy text that gives the coordinates of thousands of
stars and other heavenly objects, as well as a lot of interesting information about them. This book can act as your guide during your observations,
just as if you would to have an astronomer at your side.
Due to the design of the pointer, you will not be able to point to the stars located between the zenith and some degrees northward. The second
Pointer has been designed so to avoid this problem and it is for this reason it has to be mounted on a tripod. To also avoid interference between
the pointing device and the R.A. plane, the scale of the Declination and the sight have been brought on the side. However, you can still see a wide
portion of sky to be observed with this first design of the Pointer.
According to the following article, with only a little change it would be possible to use this instrument with the three sets of astronomical
coordinates: horizon (alt-azimuthal), equatorial, and ecliptic. The equatorial one is the one I have chosen for this project.
http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Instruments/Torquetum/Turq.html
Notice that in this second model, atop the R.A. disk, and coaxial with it, is
a transparent disk which has the reference line for the R.A.. We call it
Index disk and on it are attached the supports for the Declination shaft.
Figure 13 - The Right Ascension disk and fork. Notice the la-
teral cuts on the fork to make the bottom clamp more flexible.
Figure 14 - The R.A. index as seen from below. A flange and the two
Declination axis elastic bearing supports are attached to this disk.
18 - SCALES
To get the drawings of the scales, click here: Scales for the 2nd Pointer,
then save the image on your HD. To save and print the scales, follow the
same procedures we described for the first Pointer.
19 - A TABLE SUPPORT
The Pointer has been designed to be mounted on a tripod although you
can also build a support to put the instrument on a table. Keep in mind
that the table will prevent you from pointing to celestial objects near to
the Zenith.
Most of the mechanical parts can be made with ordinary tools. However,
some of them will be best made with a lathe. To get them made, ask a
machinist friend to make them. The pieces which have to be made with
the lathe are the Declination, R.A. and Index disks, the rings and the
counterweight. The internal and the external diameters of these pieces
have to be machined so the amount of work is minimal so the cost of
them should be low. Even then, accurate work with hand tools, a clever
approach to the work and appropriate stock, you can do the work by
hand.
After you have done this, don't move the tripod or the main axis of the Pointer. Now, at this time, the pointer is pointing to Polaris and the plane
of the R.A. disk is parallel to the terrestrial and celestial equatorial planes and the Declination is oriented properly. You just have to refer the R.A.
scale to the celestial meridians. At this moment you are already able to observe where the heavenly equator lies in the sky. To do this, bring the
Declination scale to 0°, and rotate the pointing system around the main shaft.
When they are low on the horizon, the circumpolar constellations can be hidden by haze. As Ursa Major and the Cassiopeia are on the opposite of
each other to the Pole Star, if one is low, the other is high, so at least one of these constellations should always be visible in a decent evening for
astronomical observations in the boreal hemisphere.
USING THE SECOND POINTER
Now the instrument is ready to indicate to you any celestial body of which you know the coordinates. Its use is extremely easy: just rotate the
scales to the coordinates of the celestial body, and the Pointer will show where it is located in the sky. To see the screws in the dark, you may
use an flashlight with a red filter, holding it about 1 meter away. The reflection of this light on the tips of the screws will appear like stars, so you
will have two shining points that will guide you in the sky.
This instrument has an error of some tenths of degree. It is interesting to note that Hipparchus of Nicea, astronomer of the Hellenistic age, about
2.100 years ago was the first man to determine the position of the stars in the sky, and made a catalogue with the coordinates of 850 stars. This
job let him discover important things, such as the precession of the equinoxes. Once you have found your target, you can look at the celestial
body with the naked eyes, or a binoculars or telescope.
While you are doing all these maneuvers, the celestial vault keeps rotating at the speed of about one degree every 4 minutes. So the Pointer
quickly loses its reference to the celestial meridians. Never mind! Here how you can compensate foe this difference. If you set the instrument at
10 p.m. and at 10.15 you would like point a star, you just have to subtract from the Right Ascension of the star the 15 minutes elapsed since the
orientation of the Pointer:
R.A.' = R.A. - et (where et = elapsed time since the orientation of the pointer)
IMPROVEMENTS
HOW TO MAKE THE SCALES
The scales are the most important part of this instrument, but they are also the most demanding part to be made. In the following paragraphs,
we will see some techniques which can be used.
Printing on cardboard
This technique is suited for the first Pointer. You have simply to print the scales on a cardboard 0.2 or 0.3 mm thick. This operation will be done
with a computer and a printer. I already described this technique in the chapter on the construction of the first Pointer. To protect the scale of
the R.A., you can put it on a disk cut from a transparent plastic sheet. This disk, made integral with the support of the Declination and provided
with a black line, can also do the function of the Index disk.
Printing on paper
This technique is suited for the second Pointer. You have to follow the same procedure of printing on cardboard, with the difference that, lacking
of stiffness, the scale on paper has to be glued on a rigid support. For the support, it is better to avoid using wood because it has a tendency to
warp. Plastic or metal are more suitable. To glue the scales, you can use glues, transparent varnish or such. There are also double faced
adhesive sheets which can be cold-applied and also ones which can be hot-applied. These latter have the advantage you can position them
without problems, then pass a hot iron on them to cause the scale adhere to the support. The scales on paper should be covered with a
protective varnish such as a transparent furniture varnish or transparent varnish for cars. It is also possible for these materials to tend to
dissolve the marks of the scale. To avoid it, look for another varnish or, before you apply it, fix the drawing with a suitable spray for pencil
drawings. These varnishes can be used also as a glue.
Mechanical Scribing
The laboratories which produce plates use special machines to make scales. Some are basically mechanical dividers, other are pantographs, or
use lasers and are controlled through computers. As support, special plastics for scribing (formica, phenolic resins, brass, aluminum, stainless
steel and other metals) are used. Some metals can also be anodized. The cost of these tools are out of reach of an amateur so, to use them, ask
a laboratory which works on plates and bring with you a diskette with the drawings of the scales.
http://www.pcbpaper.com/detail.html
http://www.5bears.com/pcb.htm
http://www.qsl.net/k5lxp/projects/PCBFab/PCBFab.html
Internet Keywords: laser printer toner transfer pcb iron
ELECTRONIC CONTROL
If you have enough knowledge in electronics, you might provide your instrument with a remote control with which, by typing in the coordinates of
a heavenly body, the Pointer would indicate it by itself.
By providing the R.A. shaft with a suitable constant rotation, the Pointer would keep itself oriented to the celestial meridians all during the night.
OBSERVATIONS
This little instrument can be very useful for many astronomic observations, even with the naked eye. Figures 16, 17 and 18 give you the
coordinates of some important celestial points and interesting objects to observe. Among them, there is the famous Andromeda Galaxy, a nebula
of such a bright magnitude that you can observe it with the naked eye or binoculars, while you can observe the other ones only with instruments
that have a larger aperture. However you can scarcely perceive Andromeda because of its low surface brightness. In any case, its light travelled
for 2 million years before getting to your eyes! Other objects that can be observed with low aperture instruments are clusters of stars, such as the
Pleiades. We give you the coordinates of central star of the elegant constellation of Cygnus as an example of how you can use this instrument for
recognizing constellations.
You may also want to obtain an astrolabe. It is a map of the constellations with a rotating elliptical window on it. With an astrolabe, you can tell
which part of the sky is visible at the time you are doing your observations. With the Pointer, you can locate single heavenly objects and also
constellations, but with the astrolabe you will be able to better see the position of each constellation to the others. Together, these two
instruments will be a great help in your discoveries of the night sky.
An interesting point to find is the center of our Galaxy: R.A. = 17h 42' 30" D = -28° 59' 18
Another interesting point is the famous Aries Point, also called Gamma Point. It is the zero point of the astronomical coordinate system and so it
has these coordinates: R.A. = 0 and D = 0. This point is placed at the vernal intersection of the equatorial plane with the ecliptic one (the plane
on which lies the orbit of the Earth around the Sun). It also marks the moment of the spring equinox.
By pointing the main shaft of the instrument towards the point with coordinates R.A. = 18h 00' D = 66° 34', for some minutes the ascension
plane will be parallel to the ecliptic one. On this plane are placed most of the planets, and the constellations of the Zodiac one after the other in a
majestic ring-a-ring-a-roses. As they are placed at 30° one from the other, after localizing the first one, all the others are quite easy to find with
the pointer. Furthermore, on the ecliptic plane also lies the apparent motion of the Sun on the celestial sphere. When the Moon is moving on the
ecliptic, its shadow may hit the Earth, and so who ends up under it sees the Sun darken in an eclipse. You could try to use the Pointer to forecast
eclipses.
The coordinates of the constellations of the figures 16 and 17 and the coordinates you can find in figure 18, are enough to set the pointer and do
some first observations. In astronomy text books, like the one indicated in bibliography which is cheap and very well done, you can find maps of
constellations and the coordinates of a lot of interesting celestial objects. With this book, the astrolabe and the Sidereal Pointer, you will be able
to find all the constellations you want, and at least learn to recognize them. In addition, this book gives you a lot of interesting information that
will satisfy your curiosity and your desire to learn something more about astronomy.
As the planets move relative to the stars, they do not have fixed coordinates that can be referred to but rather paths that are marked with special
tables. To find the planets, the so-called ephemeris almanacs, published yearly, are useful and you can find them in any book-shop. Those
almanacs also report the position of little planets and some close comets. Remember that, if the instrument is pointing towards the Earth this
does not mean that there is something wrong but rather it is right, and the object is in that direction and not in the night sky!
In its simplicity, the Pointer is really useful: it is a valuable guide to astronomy, and by constructing it you have done an interesting exercise of
mechanics and physics in building an equatorial mount. Furthermore, you have learned how the celestial coordinates system is organized and
you have found in which direction the center of our Galaxy is. One of the best qualities of astronomy it is not so much to show far objects, as is
to drive us to reflect about ourselves, our condition, the sense of life and the whole.
INTERNET SITES
On the Internet there are a lot of websites which can supply you the coordinates of heavenly objects and many other useful information on
astronomy.
http://www.astronomical.org/constellations/obs.html Maps of the constellations and, for each of them, the coordinates of the stars and other
celestial objects
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/ Coordinates and other information on heavenly objects.
http://www.fourmilab.to/yoursky/ Your Sky, an interactive planetarium.
http://www.geocities.com/m_s_pettersen/index.html Build an astrolabe.
http://my.execpc.com/~tgrunewa/astro/astro_links.html Links on astronomy.
http://www.seds.org/billa/psc/hist1.html Important Astronomers, their Instruments and Discoveries
http://www.humboldt.edu/~rap1/EarlySciInstSite/Instruments/Torquetum/Turq.html The Torquetum
http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/articles/fall01/Tanawa/tanawa.html Building a Torquetum
Internet Keywords: torquetum, celestial objects, heavenly objects, astronomical coordinate system, star atlas, astronomy links.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Patrick Moore, The Guinness Book of Astronomy, Guinness Publishing,1988
This book supplies the maps of the constellations, the coordinates of a lot of stars, variable stars, double stars, star clusters, nebulae, galaxies,
etc. You will find also a lot of other information on heavenly objects and on the constellations, which will be able to satisfy your curiosity of
knowledge in astronomy.