Contents

Foreword v
Opening address vi
Rungsit Suwanketnikon
Opening remarks vii
Kozo Ishizuka
Integrated weed management and control of weeds 1
and weedy rice in Vietnam
Nguyen Van Luat
Collecting wild relatives of rice from the Mekong Delta, Vietnam: 5
distinguishing wild rice from weedy rice
Bui Chi Buu
Origin and evolution of wild, weedy, and cultivated rice 7
Yo-Ichiro Sato
Rice seed contamination in Vietnam 17
Vo Mai, Ho Van Chien, Vo Van A, Vo Thi, Thu Suong,
and Le Van Thiet
Red rice status and management in the Americas 21
J.A. Noldin
Weedy rice complexes: case studies from Malaysia, Vietnam, 25
and Surinam
H. Watanabe, D.A. Vaughan, and N. Tomooka
Wild and weedy rice in China 35
Chao Xian Zhang
Distribution, emergence, and control of Korean weedy rice 37
J.Y. Pyon, W.Y. Kwon, and J.O. Guh
Wild and weedy rice in the Nepalese ecosystem 41
S.R. Gupta and M.P. Upadhyay
Weedy rice in Vietnam 45
Duong Van Chin, Tran Van Hien, and Le Van Thiet
Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Peninsular Malaysia 51
B.B. Bakar, M.A. Bakar, and A.B. Man
Wild and weedy rice in Thailand 55
P. Vongsaroj
Geographic distribution, ecology, and morphology 59
of wild and weedy rice in Lao PDR
A. Appa Rao, V. Phetpaseuth, C. Bounphanousay,
J.M. Schiller, and M.T. Jackson
Sources of wild rice and their control in Myanmar 69
Saw Ler Wah Win and Khin Nwe Nwe Win
Weedy rice in the Philippines 75
A.M. Baltazar and J.D. Janiya
Weedy rice in Sri Lanka 79
B. Marambe and L. Amarasinghe
Control of red rice 83
H. Sadohara, O. Watanabe, and G. Rich
Biological control of rice weeds using fungal isolates 87
K. Yamaguchi, K Ishihara, and S. Fukai
Management of weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.): 91
the Malaysian experience
M. Azmi, M.Z. Abdullah, B. Mislamah, and B.B. Baki
Weedy rice: approaches to ecological appraisal and implications 97
for research priorities
M. Mortimer, S. Pandey, and C. Piggin
An economic framework for optimal management of weedy rice 107
on Asian rice farms
S. Pandey, A.M. Mortimer, and C. Piggin
Foreword

“Weedy” rices constitute a major threat to irrigated rice production systems in Southeast Asia. Commonly
considered to be ecotypes of Oryza sativa, they display a range of undesirable agronomic traits damaging both
cultivated rice yield and quality. These proceedings represent the culmination of a review of the origins and
management of weedy rices in Asia. It was initiated under the auspices of the Asian Pacific Weed Science
Society (Professor B. Bakar) and Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Vietnam (Dr. D.V. Chin). An inaugural
workshop held in Vietnam in 1998 discussed a wide range of issues relating to weedy rices in which participants
summarized the findings in working papers. These proceedings comprise a selection of those presented that
have since been updated and reviewed as a collaborative partnership between the Asian Pacific Weed Science
Society, Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute and the International Rice Reseach Institute.
The editors are very grateful for the support from Bill Hardy and Tess Rola in the editing of these proceed-
ings and for financial support from the Department for International Development (UK) for production.

Dr. Duong Van Chin

Cuulong Delta Rice Research Instiute

Professor B. Bakar
University of Malaya, Malaysia

Dr. M. Mortimer
International Rice Research Institute

v
Opening address
Rungsit Suwanketnikon
President, Weed Science Society of Thailand, and President, Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society
Honorable guests, distinguished delegates, ladies and
gentlemen:
On behalf of the Asian-Pacific Weed Science Society,
I would like to extend our thanks to all of you for your
attendance.
The APWSS meets every 2 years. To strengthen
the close relationship among weed scientists in the
Asian-Pacific countries, the Executive Committee of
the 15th APWSS supported several activities in the
periods between the biennial conferences. A recent
activity was the Northeast Asian Area Weed Science
Symposium of China, Korea, and Japan on 20-23 Aug
1996 at Harbin, People’s Republic of China. In
addition, the Asian Tropical Weed Management
Training Courses were conducted at Kasetsart
University, Khamphaengsaen Campus, Thailand (13
Oct-9 Nov 1996 and 18 May-8 Jun 1997). The idea of
organizing this Weedy Rice Symposium came from Dr.
Kozo Ishizuka, the former president of the Weed
Science Society of Japan and APWSS, and Dr. Hiroshi
Hyakutake of the Executive Committee of APWSS.
During last year’s meeting in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia,
the Executive Committee of the 16th APWSS decided
to hold this symposium on weedy rice in Vietnam.
Rice is the world’s most important crop, and it
feeds most of the people in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America. Weeds are plant species that compete with
the rice crop for plant nutrients, water, and light.
Traditionally, weeds have been controlled in trans-
planted rice in puddled soil by water management and
hand weeding. However, rice farmers in many
countries have changed the method of planting from
transplanting to direct seeding. The easiest way to
control weeds in direct-seeded rice is by applying
herbicides. Herbicide use in rice worldwide grew more
rapidly than insecticide and fungicide use during the
past 20 years. In the next decade, herbicide use in rice
will increase dramatically.
Weedy rice is a serious weed in the rice fields of
more than 50 countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin
vi
America. It reduces rice yield and quality. In addition,
weedy rice infests several upland crops, such as jute,
maize, soybean, and vegetables. The spread of weedy
rice is almost always as a contaminant in rice seed
from cultivated varieties.
Hand pulling of weedy rice in cultivated rice is
impractical because it is difficult to distinguish
between the two until heading occurs. Herbicides are
not effective due to the close relationship between
weedy and cultivated rice. Preplanting applications of
herbicides before land preparation or seeding can be
appropriate in some situations. Research on herbicide
safeners has been done to protect the crop, but no
commercial treatment has yet been found.
To try to solve weedy rice problems, the Execu-
tive Committee of APWSS welcomes this symposium.
We believe that this is an excellent time for weed
scientists who have been working in the area of
weedy rice to meet and exchange views as well as
research findings.
On behalf of APWSS, I thank the Government of
Vietnam; the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Vietnam; the Cuu Long Delta Rice
Research Institute; Dr. Ahmed Anwar Ismail of
MARDI, Malaysia; Dr. Baki Hj Bakar of the University
of Malaya (the respective past president and secre-
tary of APWSS); and Dr. Anis Rahman of the Ruakura
Agricultural Research Centre, New Zealand (the
treasurer of APWSS), for their kind support that made
this symposium a reality. Special thanks go to Dr.
Duong Van Chin and his Organizing Committee, Dr.
Kozo Ishizuka, and Dr. Hiroshi Hyakutake of the
Weed Science Society of Japan, whose contributions
ensured the success of the symposium.
I wish this symposium every success in under-
taking this activity and achieving the demanding
targets that it set.
Thank you.
Opening remarks
Kozo Ishizuka
Past president, Asian Pacific Weed Science Society, Weed Science Society of Japan
Dr. Rungsit Suwanketnikom, president, APWSS, Dr.
Nguyen Van Luat, director, CLRRI, distinguished
delegates, ladies, and gentlemen:
As one of those who proposed the holding of this
affair to the executive committee of the Asian-Pacific
Weed Science Society held in Malaysia 1997, I am
honored to be given the pleasant task of opening this
International Symposium on Wild and Weedy Rices in
Rice Agro-Ecosystems under the auspices of APWSS
and the Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute.
I extend my sincere gratitude to Dr. Duong Van
Chin, chair of the Organizing Committee of the
symposium. Without his energetic leadership, we
could not expect such a concentrated effort and
meticulous preparation for this activity.
I should emphasize also the great contributions
made by Dr. Baki Hj Bakar and Dr. Sombat Chinawong,
the respective secretaries of the 16th and 17th
APWSS Conferences, and Dr. Hiroshi Hyakutake of
the Weed Science Society of Japan.
Now, let us think for a moment why we are having
this symposium on wild and weedy rice at this time
and at this place.
It is well known that Asia is one of the biggest
rice production areas in the world and rice is one of
the most abundant cereal crops in the region. Many
researchers in Asia have been engaged in wild rice
studies, focusing especially on the history or origin of
cultivated rice. Comparative studies between cultivars
of domesticated rice and lines of wild rice have been
carried out, mainly to enhance our understanding of
cultivated rice.
Recently, attention has been given to wild rice
from the point of view of germplasm utilization. The
objective is to incorporate useful traits of cultivated
rice—e.g., adaptation to environmental stresses, pest
and disease tolerance, or productivity of tasty rices—
by conventional and transgenic techniques.
It is equally important to take note of the
propagation and distribution of weedy rice in
cultivated rice fields. Frequently, weedy rice has been
observed to spread from rice fields, levees, or road
sides. Because weedy rice has properties very similar
to those of cultivated rice, such as easy shattering, or
some perennial vegetative reproduction properties,
the invasion of weedy rice in cultivated rice fields
would become more severe.
For effective control of weedy rice by farmers, we
should find suitable and efficient techniques, be they
chemical, physical, or biological, that are firmly based
on fundamental weed science and technology.
When it comes to chemical weed control, we
have had quite a number of herbicides that show
selectivity among plant species even taxonomically
related to each other at remarkably low dosages.
One example is the control of barnyardgrass, one
of the most dominant weeds in rice fields. Taxonomi-
cally, it is closely related to rice. Our study on
propanil herbicide showed that its degradation
enzyme (arylacylamidase) occurred both in rice and
barnyardgrass, but it had mutually different substrate
specificities. The one from rice combined well with
propanil, but the one from barnyardgrass did not.
These differences in substrate specificity resulted in
rice being tolerant of propanil and barnyardgrass
being susceptible to the same chemical. These two
species of plants show clearly different degrees of
tolerance for propanil because of the different
properties of their detoxifying enzyme.
Let us turn to another example. If you apply
pretilachor, for example, to rice seedlings, which are
relatively tolerant of the herbicide, the plants induce
isozymes of the detoxifying enzyme (glutathion-S-
transferase), which combine specifically with
pretilachor and detoxify it. These isozymes are clearly
induced in rice, but much less so in barnyardgrass.
The process is assumed to be a kind of intrinsic self-
protecting system of plants to xenobiotics. Such self-
defense systems vary from one species to another.
Differences in tolerance for some herbicides are
observed not only between rice and barnyardgrass;
they exist even among lines or cultivars of rice.
Simetryn or bensulfuron methyl showed a specific
vii
Integrated weed management
and control of weeds and weedy rice
in Vietnam
Nguyen Van Luat
The rapid increase in population has raised the
demand for food and crop plants. Our ability to meet
the increased food needs of the population depends
on several measures, one of them being how well we
manage competition imposed by weeds on crop
plants. Since 1950, world rice production has in-
creased remarkably. However, there has not been an
accompanying decrease in crop losses due to pests,
including weeds, despite intensified crop protection
measures (Moody 1997). Integrated weed manage-
ment (IWM) is an approach to help crops combat
weeds and obtain higher productivity at the lowest
cost and in the most environment-friendly manner.
This method is similar to integrated pest management
(IPM) and integrated nutrient management. In
practice, increasing rice production inputs such as
fertilizers and intensive cropping provide favorable
conditions for weed development, especially weedy
rice. On the other hand, improving land preparation,
planting, harvesting, and postharvest operations and
water management techniques can either increase
crop yield or control weeds better. Therefore, weed
control methods should be improved with these
different techniques incorporated into the IWM
approach. Another component of IWM is the
judicious use of herbicides. Given the trend toward
increased herbicide use and the likely environmental
and health consequences of such a trend, IPM
involving a combination of several methods is
desirable (Pingali et al 1997).
The Asia-Pacific Weed Science Society has
conferences on weed science every 2 yr. The 16th
conference held in Malaysia in 1997 attracted about
300 participants from 28 countries and from different
international organizations and companies. Of more
than 100 presentations, several reports involved
IWM, including rice-duck, rice-fish, and rubber-sheep
farming systems. Nearly 50% of the technical reports
were on herbicide efficiency and nearly 10% were on
biological control and biotechnology solutions.
Integrated weed management is still on a lower rung
as compared with IPM that employs resistant varieties
and natural enemies. The International Symposium on
Wild and Weedy Rice in Agroecosystems held in
Vietnam (10-11 Aug 1998, Ho Chi Minh City) was
organized by the Asia-Pacific Weed Science Society
and the Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute
(CLRRI) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (MARD). Another conference on weed
science will be held in Thailand. These activities of
the weed science societies (Asia-Pacific or national)
focus on the importance of weed control to enhance
food production.
Weed control for rice production
in Vietnam
Vietnam has a long history of rice production. Rice
has been grown in Vietnam for more than 2,000 yr. An
ancient Vietnamese idiom says, “cong cay la cong bo,
cong lam co la cong an,” which means “without
seeding, without harvesting.”
Vietnamese farmers also have a lot of experience
in weed control. Some of the more popular and
effective methods follow.
Land preparation
Dry and/or wet rototilling (plowing and/or harrowing,
sometimes drainage and leveling, first tillage) is done
to provide good conditions for weed and weedy rice
emergence and to eliminate them by second tillage.
If necessary, a herbicide spray or a third tillage
follows. This method requires more labor inputs.
Farmers in the north have applied it on their trans-
planted fields, which is the best nonherbicide
integrated method for controlling weeds and weedy
rice. In the south, however, especially in the Mekong
Delta, broadcasting is practiced on a large scale, in 3
million out of 3.6 million ha of rice area. Almost all
high-yielding varieties (HYVs) are broadcast under
several rice cropping patterns: two crops yr–1, three
crops yr–1, and seven rice crops every 2 yr (Luat
1
1991,1994). Because of labor shortages during times
of sowing and harvesting, minimum/no tillage (Luat
1996) or burning of rice straw is commonly practiced.
This induces the development of pests because, after
burning, the pests that survive develop much faster
than their natural enemies (Loc and Heong 1997).
Sowing method
Water seeding. In the Mekong Delta, farmers broad-
cast rice seed, generally pregerminated, when water in
the field is 10–50 cm deep. This water-seeding method
has been applied mainly for the winter-spring crop
when flooding occurs and when floodwater recedes at
the end of the wet season. All weed and crop residues
are removed from the field. Algae and other aquatic
weeds are collected by net to allow contact between
the rice seed and the soil surface. Water seeding has
been practiced in large areas every year, mainly in the
Longxuyen Quadrangle and in the Plain of Reeds.
Water seeding has some advantages over
conventional wet seeding. Water seeding can be
practiced earlier than wet seeding by 10–20 d; farmers
can therefore save on water. In addition weed control
with the use of water is effective. The energy input
can be reduced by nearly half due to drainage saved
at the beginning of the cropping period and reduced
irrigation requirements from tillering to ripening.
Water-seeding input for weed control is also reduced
2–3.5 times that of wet and dry seeding. By applying
water seeding, the rice crop is harvested 15–25 d
earlier and farmers now have more time to take part in
other activities, such as preparing the land or growing
one more short-duration crop such as mungbean,
soybean, or sesame. Rice in rotation with upland
crops is the best integrated method to control weeds
and weedy rice. The main constraint of water-seeding
is the damage done to fish and the crab. In addition,
chemicals for control must be used safely (Luat 1996).
Row seeding. The CLRRI has recommended
broadcasting rice in row seeding, saving at least 100
kg seed ha–1. Compared with the conventional
broadcasting method, row seeding can increase grain
yield from 0.3 to 1.5 t ha–1. This method is also better
in terms of increased resistance to lodging, rats, and
pests, use of solar radiation for photosynthesis, and
controlling weedy rice inasmuch as it is easier to
differentiate cultivated rice plants in rows and weedy
rice between rows. Row seeding is done by using the
improved IRRI seeder (Luat 1997).
Broadcasting of seedlings. This method has
been introduced from China. Seedlings are prepared in
plastic plates with holes 2 cm in diameter. Two or three
2
rice seeds are put in each hole, covered with soil, and
irrigated by spraying water. Seedling broadcasting
can be practiced by broadcasting or putting seedlings
in rows. The method has the row-seeding advantage
mentioned above; it also enjoys transplanting
benefits as a result of shortened growth duration in
the field. It is even better than transplanting in terms
of protecting seedling root systems from pulling
damage (Luat et al 1998).
Rice production in Vietnam
and role of weed control
Present status
Rice in Vietnam accounts for more than 90% of
national food production. From 1990 to 1997, food
production increased yearly by 1.3 million t; however,
the annual increase in demand was estimated to be
0.3–0.4 million t. Therefore, some 3–4 million t of
milled rice yr–1 had to be exported. The cultivated rice
area is 4.2 million ha, but rice-growing area is more
than 7 million ha. As rice area becomes limiting, rice
yield can be increased quickly. Average grain yield is
still low (3.8–3.9 t ha–1); the yield gap is attributed to
technological and/or sociological constraints that can
be managed or eliminated.
Future outlook
Vietnam aims to meet its food production goal of 32
million t in 2000 and 38–40 million t in 2010. Rice
production will still be 90% of total food production
and milled rice exports will remain at 3.5–4 million t yr–1
(MARD 1998). Vietnam has attained great progress in
rice production after establishing a market-oriented
economy. Many constraints need to be overcome,
however, to achieve the national objectives. One of
these constraints is weed damage.
Role of weed control
According to studies on yield loss from biotic and
abiotic stresses, rice yield loss attributed to weeds is
4.3% in the irrigated area and 8.4% in the rainfed area
(Thanh et al 1998). If this yield loss could be reduced
even by half, rice production in the Mekong Delta
would increase by half a million t. The worldwide loss
in rice yield from weeds has been estimated to be
around 10% of total production (Moody 1991).
Besides rational herbicide use, fertilizer applica-
tion and intensive rice cropping, which favor either
rice production or weed development, should be
improved. Better land preparation and seeding Luat NV, Loc NT, Nhan NT. 1998. Study on seedling
techniques, which increase rice yield and grain quality broadcasting as compared to seed broadcasting. Paper
and control weeds and weedy rice, should also be presented at the regional workshop on methods of rice
developed. seed multiplication, 25 Jul 1998, Cuu Long Delta Rice
Research Institute, Can Tho, Vietnam.
MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development).
References 1998. Annual report for 1997. Vietnam: MARD.
Moody K. 1991. Weed management in rice. In: Handbook
Loc NT, Heong KL. 1997. Effect of crop residue burning on
of pest management in agriculture. 2nd ed. Boca Raton,
rice predators: a case study in Vietnam. Paper
Florida: CRC Press Inc. p 301-328.
presented at the workshop on increasing efficiency of
Moody K. 1997. Priorities for weed science research. In:
fertilizer application, 29-30 Jul1997, CLRRI-Mega
Research in Asia: progress and priorities. Evenson RE,
Project/IRRI, Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute,
Herdt RW, Hossain M, editors. Wallingford, Oxon
Can Tho, Vietnam.
(UK): IRRI-CAB International. p 277-290.
Luat NV. 1991. Process of increasing rice yield in the MRD
Pingali PL, Hossain M, Gerpacio RV. 1997. From manual
from the point of view of agricultural science and
weeding to herbicide use. In: Asian rice bowls, the
technique. Sci. Activ. Monthly J. p 2-5.
returning crisis? Wallingford, Oxon (UK): IRRI-CAB
Luat NV. 1994. Progress obtained in research and produc-
International. p 245-256.
tion programmes on rice production in Vietnam
Thanh DN, Thuy NTL, Hossain M. 1998. Yield gap
(country report). In: Proceedings of the Eighteenth
production losses and priority research problem areas
Session of the International Rice Commission. Rome
in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Paper presented at
(Italy): Food and Agriculture Organization.
the workshop on prioritization of rice research in Asia,
Luat NV. 1996. Low-input rice-based cropping systems for
20-22 Apr 1998, International Rice Research Institute,
sustainable agriculture. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
Los Baños, Philippines.
Asian Crop Science Conference, 21-25 Aug 1995.
Japan: Asian Crop Science Society.
Luat NV. 1997. Effect of broadcasting and row seeding with
different seed rate on rice yield. Paper presented at a
workshop on increasing efficiency of fertilizer
application, 29-30 July 1997, CLRRI-Mega Project,
Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Can Tho,
Vietnam.

3
herbicidal activity toward some indica cultivars,
different from that observed in japonica types. These
differences are not as big as those noted among
selective herbicides being developed for cultivated
and weedy rice, but such differences would indicate
many possibilities. I suppose that this kind of
research would be one of the topics that will be
discussed in this symposium.
We should keep in mind that any differences in
properties between cultivated and weedy rices, be it
agronomical, ecological, genetic, morphological,
physiological, or biochemical, could lead to funda-
mental approaches for controlling weedy rice in rice
fields.
Today, securing food production to solve global
food problems is an urgent matter. In sustainable
agriculture, weed management continues to gain more
importance. Relevant weed management measures
have been taken under various types of cultivation—
e.g., direct seeding, transplanting of very young
seedlings, rotational cropping, limited tillage, and so
forth. Meanwhile, development in the use of herbi-
cides has been accompanied by development of
cultivation methods, adapted to suit local conditions.
Progress in weed technology, including herbicide
technology, has actually had a great influence on the
improvement of agriculture itself.
In the past several decades, so-called ‘high
technologies’ have been used in agriculture. Care
must be taken such that these are introduced to
complement the economic and social activities of
people as a whole. Concerns on environmental
conservation and sustainable development should be
considered. Technology in general should not simply
viii
be evaluated by how efficient it functions. We must
use utmost discretion in evaluating newly introduced
technologies and we must know what their role would
be in society.
Based on these considerations, we should put
results of research on wild and weedy rice to good
use to enhance our understanding and to identify
ways to control them.
We in the Asian-Pacific region deal directly with
wild and weedy rices. Much of our research has
focused on this important subject. In addition, we
have the responsibility to make as big contribution as
possible to our own agriculture. These are the major
reasons for holding this kind of symposium here in
Vietnam.
Now, please allow me to share with you my
thoughts on future APWSS activities. As one of the
members of APWSS, I am happy to join you all in this
well-organized symposium, in the rice bowl of
Southeast Asia. It is my long-cherished wish to have
more Society activities in addition to the biennial
conferences that we regularly hold. It could be a
symposium, a seminar, or a training course on
subjects considered important by Asian weed
scientists. These activities should enable APWSS to
establish a strong presence in the Asian-Pacific
region. Another way of doing this is putting up our
own communication channel—a refereed journal or
periodical—that could promote mutual exchange of
information in weed science and technology in the
region.
Finally, I pray for the success of this symposium,
and I hope that all of you will have a good time here.
Thank you.
Integrated weed management
and control of weeds and weedy rice
in Vietnam
Nguyen Van Luat
The rapid increase in population has raised the
demand for food and crop plants. Our ability to meet
the increased food needs of the population depends
on several measures, one of them being how well we
manage competition imposed by weeds on crop
plants. Since 1950, world rice production has in-
creased remarkably. However, there has not been an
accompanying decrease in crop losses due to pests,
including weeds, despite intensified crop protection
measures (Moody 1997). Integrated weed manage-
ment (IWM) is an approach to help crops combat
weeds and obtain higher productivity at the lowest
cost and in the most environment-friendly manner.
This method is similar to integrated pest management
(IPM) and integrated nutrient management. In
practice, increasing rice production inputs such as
fertilizers and intensive cropping provide favorable
conditions for weed development, especially weedy
rice. On the other hand, improving land preparation,
planting, harvesting, and postharvest operations and
water management techniques can either increase
crop yield or control weeds better. Therefore, weed
control methods should be improved with these
different techniques incorporated into the IWM
approach. Another component of IWM is the
judicious use of herbicides. Given the trend toward
increased herbicide use and the likely environmental
and health consequences of such a trend, IPM
involving a combination of several methods is
desirable (Pingali et al 1997).
The Asia-Pacific Weed Science Society has
conferences on weed science every 2 yr. The 16th
conference held in Malaysia in 1997 attracted about
300 participants from 28 countries and from different
international organizations and companies. Of more
than 100 presentations, several reports involved
IWM, including rice-duck, rice-fish, and rubber-sheep
farming systems. Nearly 50% of the technical reports
were on herbicide efficiency and nearly 10% were on
biological control and biotechnology solutions.
Integrated weed management is still on a lower rung
as compared with IPM that employs resistant varieties
and natural enemies. The International Symposium on
Wild and Weedy Rice in Agroecosystems held in
Vietnam (10-11 Aug 1998, Ho Chi Minh City) was
organized by the Asia-Pacific Weed Science Society
and the Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute
(CLRRI) and Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development (MARD). Another conference on weed
science will be held in Thailand. These activities of
the weed science societies (Asia-Pacific or national)
focus on the importance of weed control to enhance
food production.
Weed control for rice production
in Vietnam
Vietnam has a long history of rice production. Rice
has been grown in Vietnam for more than 2,000 yr. An
ancient Vietnamese idiom says, “cong cay la cong bo,
cong lam co la cong an,” which means “without
seeding, without harvesting.”
Vietnamese farmers also have a lot of experience
in weed control. Some of the more popular and
effective methods follow.
Land preparation
Dry and/or wet rototilling (plowing and/or harrowing,
sometimes drainage and leveling, first tillage) is done
to provide good conditions for weed and weedy rice
emergence and to eliminate them by second tillage.
If necessary, a herbicide spray or a third tillage
follows. This method requires more labor inputs.
Farmers in the north have applied it on their trans-
planted fields, which is the best nonherbicide
integrated method for controlling weeds and weedy
rice. In the south, however, especially in the Mekong
Delta, broadcasting is practiced on a large scale, in 3
million out of 3.6 million ha of rice area. Almost all
high-yielding varieties (HYVs) are broadcast under
several rice cropping patterns: two crops yr–1, three
crops yr–1, and seven rice crops every 2 yr (Luat
1
1991,1994). Because of labor shortages during times
of sowing and harvesting, minimum/no tillage (Luat
1996) or burning of rice straw is commonly practiced.
This induces the development of pests because, after
burning, the pests that survive develop much faster
than their natural enemies (Loc and Heong 1997).
Sowing method
Water seeding. In the Mekong Delta, farmers broad-
cast rice seed, generally pregerminated, when water in
the field is 10–50 cm deep. This water-seeding method
has been applied mainly for the winter-spring crop
when flooding occurs and when floodwater recedes at
the end of the wet season. All weed and crop residues
are removed from the field. Algae and other aquatic
weeds are collected by net to allow contact between
the rice seed and the soil surface. Water seeding has
been practiced in large areas every year, mainly in the
Longxuyen Quadrangle and in the Plain of Reeds.
Water seeding has some advantages over
conventional wet seeding. Water seeding can be
practiced earlier than wet seeding by 10–20 d; farmers
can therefore save on water. In addition weed control
with the use of water is effective. The energy input
can be reduced by nearly half due to drainage saved
at the beginning of the cropping period and reduced
irrigation requirements from tillering to ripening.
Water-seeding input for weed control is also reduced
2–3.5 times that of wet and dry seeding. By applying
water seeding, the rice crop is harvested 15–25 d
earlier and farmers now have more time to take part in
other activities, such as preparing the land or growing
one more short-duration crop such as mungbean,
soybean, or sesame. Rice in rotation with upland
crops is the best integrated method to control weeds
and weedy rice. The main constraint of water-seeding
is the damage done to fish and the crab. In addition,
chemicals for control must be used safely (Luat 1996).
Row seeding. The CLRRI has recommended
broadcasting rice in row seeding, saving at least 100
kg seed ha–1. Compared with the conventional
broadcasting method, row seeding can increase grain
yield from 0.3 to 1.5 t ha–1. This method is also better
in terms of increased resistance to lodging, rats, and
pests, use of solar radiation for photosynthesis, and
controlling weedy rice inasmuch as it is easier to
differentiate cultivated rice plants in rows and weedy
rice between rows. Row seeding is done by using the
improved IRRI seeder (Luat 1997).
Broadcasting of seedlings. This method has
been introduced from China. Seedlings are prepared in
plastic plates with holes 2 cm in diameter. Two or three
2
rice seeds are put in each hole, covered with soil, and
irrigated by spraying water. Seedling broadcasting
can be practiced by broadcasting or putting seedlings
in rows. The method has the row-seeding advantage
mentioned above; it also enjoys transplanting
benefits as a result of shortened growth duration in
the field. It is even better than transplanting in terms
of protecting seedling root systems from pulling
damage (Luat et al 1998).
Rice production in Vietnam
and role of weed control
Present status
Rice in Vietnam accounts for more than 90% of
national food production. From 1990 to 1997, food
production increased yearly by 1.3 million t; however,
the annual increase in demand was estimated to be
0.3–0.4 million t. Therefore, some 3–4 million t of
milled rice yr–1 had to be exported. The cultivated rice
area is 4.2 million ha, but rice-growing area is more
than 7 million ha. As rice area becomes limiting, rice
yield can be increased quickly. Average grain yield is
still low (3.8–3.9 t ha–1); the yield gap is attributed to
technological and/or sociological constraints that can
be managed or eliminated.
Future outlook
Vietnam aims to meet its food production goal of 32
million t in 2000 and 38–40 million t in 2010. Rice
production will still be 90% of total food production
and milled rice exports will remain at 3.5–4 million t yr–1
(MARD 1998). Vietnam has attained great progress in
rice production after establishing a market-oriented
economy. Many constraints need to be overcome,
however, to achieve the national objectives. One of
these constraints is weed damage.
Role of weed control
According to studies on yield loss from biotic and
abiotic stresses, rice yield loss attributed to weeds is
4.3% in the irrigated area and 8.4% in the rainfed area
(Thanh et al 1998). If this yield loss could be reduced
even by half, rice production in the Mekong Delta
would increase by half a million t. The worldwide loss
in rice yield from weeds has been estimated to be
around 10% of total production (Moody 1991).
Besides rational herbicide use, fertilizer applica-
tion and intensive rice cropping, which favor either
rice production or weed development, should be
improved. Better land preparation and seeding Luat NV, Loc NT, Nhan NT. 1998. Study on seedling
techniques, which increase rice yield and grain quality broadcasting as compared to seed broadcasting. Paper
and control weeds and weedy rice, should also be presented at the regional workshop on methods of rice
developed. seed multiplication, 25 Jul 1998, Cuu Long Delta Rice
Research Institute, Can Tho, Vietnam.
MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development).
References 1998. Annual report for 1997. Vietnam: MARD.
Moody K. 1991. Weed management in rice. In: Handbook
Loc NT, Heong KL. 1997. Effect of crop residue burning on
of pest management in agriculture. 2nd ed. Boca Raton,
rice predators: a case study in Vietnam. Paper
Florida: CRC Press Inc. p 301-328.
presented at the workshop on increasing efficiency of
Moody K. 1997. Priorities for weed science research. In:
fertilizer application, 29-30 Jul1997, CLRRI-Mega
Research in Asia: progress and priorities. Evenson RE,
Project/IRRI, Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute,
Herdt RW, Hossain M, editors. Wallingford, Oxon
Can Tho, Vietnam.
(UK): IRRI-CAB International. p 277-290.
Luat NV. 1991. Process of increasing rice yield in the MRD
Pingali PL, Hossain M, Gerpacio RV. 1997. From manual
from the point of view of agricultural science and
weeding to herbicide use. In: Asian rice bowls, the
technique. Sci. Activ. Monthly J. p 2-5.
returning crisis? Wallingford, Oxon (UK): IRRI-CAB
Luat NV. 1994. Progress obtained in research and produc-
International. p 245-256.
tion programmes on rice production in Vietnam
Thanh DN, Thuy NTL, Hossain M. 1998. Yield gap
(country report). In: Proceedings of the Eighteenth
production losses and priority research problem areas
Session of the International Rice Commission. Rome
in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Paper presented at
(Italy): Food and Agriculture Organization.
the workshop on prioritization of rice research in Asia,
Luat NV. 1996. Low-input rice-based cropping systems for
20-22 Apr 1998, International Rice Research Institute,
sustainable agriculture. In: Proceedings of the 2nd
Los Baños, Philippines.
Asian Crop Science Conference, 21-25 Aug 1995.
Japan: Asian Crop Science Society.
Luat NV. 1997. Effect of broadcasting and row seeding with
different seed rate on rice yield. Paper presented at a
workshop on increasing efficiency of fertilizer
application, 29-30 July 1997, CLRRI-Mega Project,
Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Can Tho,
Vietnam.

3
Collecting wild relatives of rice
from the Mekong Delta, Vietnam:
distinguishing wild rice from weedy rice
Bui Chi Buu
Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Omon, Can Tho, Vietnam
South Asia is a rich source of diversity for rice and its
relatives. The primary area of diversity for rice extends
from the foothills of the Himalayas in Nepal to north-
ern Vietnam (Chang 1976). Previous collecting efforts
for wild Oryza species in southern Vietnam concen-
trated on the Mekong Delta, especially in Dong Thap
Muoi.
Wild rice species and their habitats
Table 1 shows some of the agronomic traits of wild
rice species found in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam.
Oryza granulata
This species can grow on steep, well-drained slopes
where little light penetrates to the forest floor,
especially in deciduous secondary forests. So far, it is
found only in Muong Te, Lai Chau, northern Vietnam.
Oryza granulata has not been crossed successfully
with cultivated rice and is in a distantly related
section of the genus, section granulata.
Oryza officinalis
This species (genome CC) can be found in the
Mekong Delta, mostly at the edge of fruit orchards or
under shade in citrus plantations in Tien Giang and
Can Tho provinces. Oryza officinalis is usually found
in moist habitats, such as banks of canals. Though
usually rhizomatous, it has smaller spikelets and more
panicle branches of equivalent length from the lower
panicle nodes. Farmers use this species to prevent
soil erosion in their citrus orchards. Because of the
difference in genome, O. officinalis does not cross
successfully with O. sativa, except in cases of embryo
rescue to exploit the latter’s resistance to brown
planthopper. This species has a wide range of
resistance to pests (Heinrichs et al 1985).
Oryza nivara
This wild annual species has been exploited for its
resistance to viral diseases. O. nivara was found
many years ago in Dong Thap Muoi and Ho Lac,
Vietnam’s highlands. It can be outcrossed with
cultivars because it has the same genome, AA.
Oryza rufipogon
Very diverse populations of this perennial species
(genome AA) have been found from north to south,
especially in the Mekong Delta. Widespread and well-
established populations of O. rufipogon, together
with annuals such as O. nivara and weedy rice O.
spontanea, are usually found along borders of rivers
and canals of the delta, as well as occasionally in rice
fields or marshes. Wild and weedy rice species are
most common in abandoned fields and village ponds.
Fortunately, O. rufipogon can be found in the
protected sanctuary of Tram Chim (Dong Thap Muoi).
The cultivated rice species (sativa) hybridize with O.
rufipogon or O. nivara; then the hybrids backcross in
either direction and produce morphological inter-
grades. These are known as O. sativa f. spontanea
types. They invade cultivated fields and pose as
weeds. Oryza rufipogon grows in swamps, often
suspended in water or procumbent on the ground.
The panicles are lax and the spikelets are long (7–10
mm) and slender (2.2–.5 mm wide), well-filled with
anthers, and shatter easily. The shattering is also
noticed in hybrids (O. rufipogon/O. sativa) and
weedy rice, creating problems in rice fields.
References
Chang TT. 1976. Exploration and survey in rice. In: Frankel
OH, Hawkes JG, editors. Crop genetic resources for
today and tomorrow. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge
University Press.
Heinrichs EA, Medrano FG, Rapusas HR. 1985. Genetic
evaluation of resistance in rice. Manila (Philippines):
International Rice Research Institute. p 159-165.
5
Table 1. Agronomic characteristics of wild rice found in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam.

Characteristic O. rufipogon O. officinalis O. nivara Remarks

Vegetative stage
Blade pubescence 3 1 1 1 = glabrous, 3 = pubescent
Blade color 060 060 060 060 = green
Basal leaf sheath color 999 999 060 060 = green, 999 = mixture (green and light purple)
Leaf angle 1 1 1 1 = erect
Ligule shape 2 3 2 2 = V-shaped, 3 = truncated
Ligule color 011 011 011 011 = whitish
Collar color 080 999 060 060 = green, 080 = purple, 999 = mixture
Auricle color 999 061 061 061 = light green, 999 = mixture

Reproductive stage
Culm angle 5 5 1 1 = erect, 5 = open
Node color 060 060 060 060 = green
Internode color 999 999 060 060 = green, 999 = mixture
Culm strength 3 1 3 1 = strong, 3 = moderately strong
Flag leaf angle 3 1 3 1 = erect, 3 = intermediate, 5 = horizontal
Panicle type 9 9 1 1 = compact, 9 = open
Secondary branching 0 0 0 0 = absent, 1 = light
Panicle exsertion 1 1 1 1 = well exserted
Panicle axis 1 1 1 1 = sraight, 2 = droopy
Awning 9 9 9 9 = long and fully awned
Awn color 070 020 070 020 = straw, 070 = red
Apiculus color 070 100 070 010 = white, 070 = red, 100 = black
Stigma color 080 080 080 010 = white, 080 = purple
Sterile lemma color 020 020 020 020 = straw
Leaf length 3 4 3 3 = intermediate (41–60 cm), 4 = long (61–80 cm)
Leaf width 2 3 2 2 = intermediate (1–2 cm), 3 = broad (>2 cm)
Culm length 7 7 4 4 = (91–110 cm), 7 = (>150 cm)
Culm number 2 2 2 1 = spare (<10 culms) 2 = medium (10–20 culms)
Culm diameter of basal 1 1 1 1 = thin (<5 mm)
internode

Harvest or postharvest stage

Panicle length 4 4 3 3 = medium (21–30 cm), 4 = long (31–40 cm)
Sterile lemma length 1 1 1 1 = short (<1.5 mm)
100-grain weight (g) 1.41 0.76 2.25
Grain length (mm) 6.18 3.38 6.31
Grain width (mm) 1.70 1.69 2.38
Panicle shattering 9 9 9 9 = high (>50%)
Leaf senescence 5 5 5 1 = late and slow, 5 = intermediate
Spikelet fertility 3 3 3 3 = fertile (75–90%)
Panicle threshability 9 9 9 9 = easy
Apiculus color 100 100 100 100 = black
Lemma and palea color 052 100 054 052 = brown tawny, 054 = brown groove, 100 = black
Lemma and palea 4 4 4 4 = short hair
pubescence
Seed coat color 070 070 070 070 = red
Endosperm type 1 1 1 1 = nonglutinous (nonwaxy)

6
Origin and evolution of wild, weedy,
and cultivated rice
Yo-Ichiro Sato
Faculty of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, Shizuoka City, 422-8529, Japan
Asian cultivated rice (Oryza sativa L.) is believed to
have been domesticated in the Himalayan foothills
(Chang 1976) or the Assam-Yunnan area, which
stretched from northeastern India to southwestern
China (Watabe 1977). This hypothesis has been
supported by several genetic studies showing high
genetic diversity among native varieties in these
areas. For the phylogenetic origin, many researchers
assume a common ancestor for various varietal
groups, although the phylogenetic relationship
remains a controversial subject (Ting 1961, Oka and
Chang 1962, Chang 1976).
Yet, recent archaeological studies in China
suggest that rice cultivation originated in the middle
and lower basins of the Yangtze River. Molecular
genetic analysis of cytoplasmic and nuclear DNAs
suggests differential parentage of the two major
groups of cultivars, indica and japonica. Here, a new
hypothesis based on evidence of the geographic
origin and phylogenies of cultivated rice is described.
It is assumed that japonica comes from a progenitor
having the japonica-like nuclear and cytoplasmic
genomes in eastern China, whereas indica is the result
of natural hybridization somewhere else in the tropics.
Phylogenetic relationships of wild, weedy,
and cultivated rice
Ancestor of cultivated rice
Hypotheses concerning the phylogenetic origin of
cultivated rice are based on the assumption of either
single or plural ancestry. The monophyletic hypoth-
esis has been widely accepted following the work of
Oka and colleagues. One way of differentiating indica
and japonica from the common ancestor (indica-
japonica differentiation) was illustrated by Oka and
Chang (1962). Progenies having genetic features of
japonica emerged in japonica × wild crosses, while
those having indica features were seen in indica ×
wild crosses, suggesting that the monophyletic origin
of indica and japonica is acceptable (Oka and
Morishima 1982). The nontendency of indica-japonica
differentiation to occur among wild rice strains
(Morishima and Oka 1981) also supports this conten-
tion. Oka and his school thus concluded that indica-
japonica differentiation occurred after domestication.
Indica-japonica differentiation was considered as a
result of adaptation to different environments.
Hypotheses based on diphyletic origin have
been also proposed. Here, japonica cultivars are
considered to have originated in China. Such consid-
eration was based on the literature describing the
existence of wild rice in ancient times (Chou 1948).
Similar arguments have frequently been forwarded but
have never been widely accepted due to a lack of
biological evidence. The diphyletic hypothesis based
on biological data was originally proposed by Second
(1981) and Dally and Second (1990). Both indica and
japonica varieties were considered to have differenti-
ated from different ancestral species by analysis of
more than 40 polymorphic isozyme loci. Cultivars
having atypical features were regarded as the results
of several natural hybridizations but were not
primitive cultivars (Second 1981).
Nature of indica-japonica differentiation
Many genes for adaptive traits as well as neutral
molecular markers show nonrandom association in
their frequency among cultivars. Cultivars having the
Ph allele (positive reaction to phenol) frequently
show a susceptible reaction to KClO3 and have short
apiculus hairs (Oka 1958, Sato et al 1990). This
nonequilibrium state of allele composition at different
loci shapes two major varietal groups, the indicas and
japonicas. Japonicas tend to have long awns,
pigmentation at the apex of spikelets, more secondary
branches of panicles, etc., while indicas tend to have
the opposite characters (Cheng 1985). In the F2
population derived from an indica × japonica cross,
the genes combined in an equilibrium manner. In the
F5 population, however, a nonequilibrium was seen
among the same genes and characters as in cultivars
7
recovered, although the level of the nonequilibrium
was lower than those observed among cultivars. The
state of nonequilibrium of genes and characters
among cultivars was at least partly caused by gametic
selections but not by linkage of the relevant genes or
zygotic selections (Sato et al 1990).
Alleles at independent isozyme loci also showed
nonequilibrium among cultivars (Glaszmann 1987,
Sano and Morishima 1992). The two varietal groups
shaped by such nonequilibrium show a good
agreement for indica and japonica groupings.
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
in nuclear DNAs, however, were identical between
indica and japonica. Two major varietal groups
defined by a computer-generated dendrogram were in
good agreement for indica and japonica (Wang and
Tanksley 1989, Kawase et al 1991). On the other hand,
conventional indica and japonica types as defined by
the size and shape of spikelet and morphological
characters do not fit with varietal groups illustrated
by RFLP (Wang and Tanksley 1989). The defined
indica and japonica likely illustrated the phylogenetic
relationship among cultivars vis-à-vis IRRI’s conven-
tional indica and japonica types as far as isozyme and
genomic DNAs are concerned.
Evidence of indica-japonica differentiation in wild
rice
A deletion is known in the ORF 100 region of chloro-
plast DNA (cpDNA) in rice. This deletion is seen not
only in cultivars but also in wild rice strains. This
deletion is frequently found in annual strains of O.
rufipogon (or O. nivara), but seldom in other species,
including O. glumaepatula perennis), O. longistami-
nata perennis), and O. meridionalis. The deletion has
been found in the O. rufipogon complex (Chen et al
1993) and was occasionally transferred to indica
cultivars (Table 1).
RFLPs in genomic DNAs of wild rice suggest that
indica-japonica differentiation occurred before
domestication began. A comparative cluster analysis
using wild and domestic strains showed indica-
japonica differentiation but not wild-domestic
differentiation. Some of the wild strains collected from
tropical regions were grouped into a cluster of indica
cultivars, whereas others from China, northern
Thailand, Indochina, and upper Myanmar were
grouped into the japonica cluster.
The number of nucleolar-organizing regions
(NORs) in domestic and wild strains conforms with
the hypothesis of diphyletic origin. Indica cultivars
are frequently quadrinucleolar, whereas japonica ones
are mostly binucleolar (Shinohara 1960). Nucleolar
regions are formed at the site of ribosomal DNA
(rDNA), and their numbers are precisely countable by
fluorescent in situ hybridization. Strains of the
japonica cluster tended to have two NORs, while
many strains of the indica cluster have four NORs
(Fukui et al 1994). These facts support the diphyletic
origin of cultivated rice.

Table 1. Distribution of cpDNA with and without the deletion at ORF 100 region in species of Oryza
(after Chen et al 1993).

Region or No. of cpDNA typea % of on deletion

Species area Genome samples type
D ND

O. rufipogon South China AA 7 2 5 71

India AA 7 3 4 57
Nepal AA 1 1 0 0
Myanmar AA 2 0 2 100
Vietnam AA 15 2 13 87
Malaysia AA 5 2 3 60
Lao PDR AA 8 7 1 14
Cambodia AA 9 6 3 33
Thailand AA 23 16 7 30
Indonesia AA 1 0 1 100
Sri Lanka AA 2 2 0 0
Philippines AA 1 1 0 0
Oceania AA 1 1 0 0
Subtotal 82 43 39

O. glumaepatula Central and AA 3 1 2 77

South America
O. barthii Africa AA 26 1 25 96
O. longistaminata Africa AA 3 0 3 100
O. meridionalis Australia AA 3 0 3 100
Total 117 45 72
a
D = deletion cpDNA type, ND = nondeletion cpDNA type.

8
 Differential length of introns of the rDNA region
has been observed between indica and japonica
cultivars, as well as indica- and japonica-like wild rice
(Sano and Sano 1990). Such polymorphism in
molecular size of introns suggests the independent
occurrence of two types, judging from the
distranscription feature of introns.
The tendency for indica-japonica differentiation
is also detected in the mitochondrial plasmid-like
DNAs among cultivars and wild strains (Kanazawa et
al 1992, Miyata et al 1995). These works indicated that
indica cultivars and annual wild strains tend to fall
into the same group, separate from japonica cultivars
and strains of perennial O. rufipogon. This trend was
also seen in the presence or absence of the deletion
of cpDNA.
Genetic diversity in indica cultivars
Domestication usually leads to a reduction in genetic
diversity within populations. However, indica
cultivars show more diversity than japonica cultivars
in isozyme and molecular markers. The mean genetic
diversity among indica cultivars was higher than
among japonicas (Tang and Morishima 1988). Indicas
also showed four times higher genetic diversity in 43
RFLP markers than did japonicas (Zhang et al 1992).
The banding pattern of a polymerase chain reaction
(PCR) marker, ALPHA (Nakamura et al 1990), was
polymorphic in indica but monomorphic in japonica.
Such genetic diversification in indica cultivars
suggests their probable defuse origin. The origin of
the deletion of cpDNAs is unknown. This deletion
has been detected in O. rufipogon and in a few strains
of Oryza, but this was not common in other Oryza
species (Chen et al 1994). The cpDNAs of indica
might have emerged later than those of japonica. The
fact that almost all indica cultivars have the deleted
cpDNAs, regardless of nuclear genomes, suggests
restricted derivation; they might be derived from the
hybridization between the progenitor of indica (eu-
indica, as female) and the primitive japonica cultivars
or wild strain(s) having a japonica-type nuclear
genome (as male, see Figure 1).
Differentiation of perennial and annual habits in
wild rice
In the floodplains of big rivers in tropical monsoon
Asia, water levels change remarkably from season to
season. Land higher than the maximum water level is
occupied by terrestrial plant communities, while that
lower than the minimum level is occupied by aquatic
plant species. Population differentiation in response
to habitat variation across the toposequence is
therefore likely.
Time
O. sativa complex
Indica Japonica
Gene flow
Weedy
O. rufipogon
Indica Japonica
Fig. 1. Three-dimension phylogenetic tree showing the
relationship among wild, weedy, and cultivated strains of
Oryza sativa.
Life history traits are diversified in wild rice
populations; many strains are classified into annual
and perennial types (Morishima et al 1984). The
annual type tends to have high seed productivity,
short anther length, high selfing rate, and short
stature. It has been called O. nivara by some authors.
The perennial type tends to have opposite features
(Oka 1983) (Table 2). The annual strain tends to be
found in more heavily disturbed conditions, such as
fringes of ponds, abandoned fields, etc., while
perennial ones prefer undisturbed places such as the
inside of ponds (Oka 1983). Accordingly, annual types
are adapted to habitats exposed to drought in the dry
season.
On the other hand, the perennial type tends to
inhabit more stable conditions, such as deep water or
marshy areas. Distantly related perennial species also
prefer stable conditions. Strains of O. redleyi and O.
minuta are adaptive to shaded conditions in forest
areas.
A significant correlation was observed between
annual-perennial and indica-japonica scores as
defined by isozyme loci among wild rice strains.
Perennial and annual strains tended to have japonica-
and indica-type nuclear genomes, respectively
(Morishima and Gadrinab 1987). Annual and perennial
types have deleted and nondeleted cpDNAs,
respectively (Sato et al 1994). This suggests that the
progenitors of indicas and japonicas had annual and
perennial features, respectively.
Weedy rice and its origin
Some autogamous strains exist as weeds in or within
the fringes of rice fields. These strains of weedy rice
are recognized as harmful weeds in lowland fields,
particularly in direct-seeded habitats. Several weedy
rice accessions are known in Thailand, Malaysia,
9
Vietnam, China, Korea, Brazil, the United States, and
Japan (Ting 1949, Arashi 1974, Morishima et al 1984b,
Suh et al 1997). Weedy rice has become differentiated
from the natural hybridization between cultivars
(Arashi 1974) or between perennial wild and domestic
types (Morishima et al 1984a). In the latter case, gene
flow occurs commonly from the domestic to the
perennial wild type, but such an occurrence is rare in
the opposite direction because the perennial type has
less fertile pollen grains and a high outcrossing rate.
The recurrent gene flow of this direction might raise
produce a weedy type having an indica-type nuclear
genome and japonica-type cytoplasmic genome
(Fig. 1).
Geographic origin and distribution of
wild and cultivated rice
Chang-Watabe hypothesis
It has been commonly accepted that Asian culti-
vated rice (O. sativa L.) emerged in an area stretch-
ing across Assam District of India, upper Myanmar,
northern Thailand, northern Lao PDR, and the
southwestern provinces of China (Fig. 2). Watabe
(1976) and colleagues examined old spikelets mixed
in bricks used in constructions in South and
Southeast Asia and considered that cultivated rice
was domesticated in the Assam-Yunnan area.
Chang (1976) quite independently proposed a
similar hypothesis. Chang’s hypothesis was

Table 2. Differential characteristics of annual and perennial types of wild rice O.

rufipogon (after Oka 1998).

Asian forms African species

Attribute
Perennial Annual Perenniala Annualb

Mode of variation Continuous Different species

Reproductive barrier None F1 inviability and
partial sterility
Resource allocation
Seeds whole plant–1 Small Large Small Large
Awns seed–1 Small Large Small Large
Pollen seed–1 Large Small Large Small
Propagation
Regenerating ability High Low High Low
of stem segments
Seed productivity Low High Low High
Seed dormancy Weak Strong Weak Strong
Awn development Low High Low High
Buried seeds Few Many
Outcrossing rate High Low High Low
Mortality
Seedling Medium High
After tillering Medium Low
Phenotypic plasticity
Seedling growth High Low
Panicle development Low High
Competitive ability High Low
(with a rice cultivar)
Photoperiod sensitivity High Low
Tolerance for
Deepwater (floating) High Low No difference
Drought (seedling) Low High High Low
Submergence (seedling) Low High No difference
Population structure
Between-population Small Large Small Large
variance
Within-population High Low High Low
polymorphism
Heterozygosity High Low High Low
Sterile plants Many Few Many Few
Habitat Allopatric
Water condition Deep Shallow No difference
Disturbance Low High No difference
Biomass Large Small Large Small
Companion plants Perennial Annual Perennial Annual

O. longistaminata = O. perennis subsp. barthii. bO. breviligulata.

a

10
Fig. 2. A map showing the origin of cultivated rice.
formulated from a standpoint not only of genetics but
also of history, ethnology, ethnobotany, archaeology,
and geography.
The basic ideas on the geographic origin of rice
as proposed by these two workers (otherwise known
as the Chang-Watabe hypothesis) were acceptable to
ethnologists and ethnobotanists. They assumed the
Fertile Crescent as a center of diversity of cultural
components common in East and Southeast Asia,
such as the use of fermented soya paste (miso),
cereals having waxy endosperm, silk, Japanese
lacquer (urushi), bamboo, etc. A primitive stage of
agriculture was practiced through the slash-and-burn
method in upland fields. This area was previously
covered by evergreen forest, consisting of
Castanopsis, Quercus, Camellia, and others.
Evergreen forests, compared with deciduous forests,
were regarded as having less capability to produce
edible nuts and bulbs, and were less suitable for
hunting and gathering. Ethnobotanically, it is
considered that rice was initially cultivated with
various varieties of millet under such upland fields. In
this sense, rice was regarded originally as an upland
crop.
Contrary to the Chang-Watabe hypothesis, an
assumption of a diffuse origin of rice (Harlan 1975)
has been proposed by several authors (de Candolle
1886, Chou 1948, Randhawa 1980). These reports
suggest China and India as the center of origin.
However, these works have limited genetical evidence
or are supported only by prior literature and as such
are unsubstantive.
Center of genetic diversity
The Chang-Watabe hypothesis has also been
supported by several genetic studies, based on the
arguments of Vavilov (1926). Vavilov’s hypothesis
postulates that a high level of genetic diversity in
11
 Fig. 3. The oldest archeological sites of rice cultivation in the middle and
lower basins of Yangtze River.
cultivated plants will be observed in a particular area
where the species was domesticated from its ancestral
species. This hypothesis has been widely accepted
by many geneticists as an indication of the likely
geographic origin of a cultivated plant species.
In rice, comprehensive work searching for the
center of genetic diversity was done by Nakagahra
and his group. High genetic diversity was observed in
esterase isozymes among indigenous cultivars
collected from the Fertile Crescent and its surround-
ing areas (Nakagahra 1977). Genetic diversity was
rather poor in areas far from the Fertile Crescent. After
Nakagahra (1977), many reports have been published
that show consistent and convincing evidence that
the Fertile Crescent was indeed the center of genetic
diversity despite critical arguments about the
parallelism between center of origin and center of
genetic diversity.
Remains of ancient rice
According to the Chang-Watabe hypothesis, rice
cultivation should have spread out from the Fertile
Crescent to surrounding areas. In China, rice cultiva-
12
tion has been shown to diversify from the west to the
east. On the other hand, recent archaeological records
suggest an opposite direction of dissemination
(Wang 1986). The oldest rice relics have been found
in the middle and lower basins of the Yangtze River
(Fig. 3). Of the archaeological sites excavated, the
Homedu relics, located in Zhejiang Province (approxi-
mately 30° N) and dating back to 5000 BC, are world-
famous because of the massive number of intact
remains, including spikelets and straws of the rice
plant.
Sato (1991) examined rice grains from this source
having tough awns with many well-developed
needles. At the base of these grains, a trace of
abscission layer was observed, suggesting that those
seeds had naturally disseminated after maturation, a
feature representative of wild plants. Such seeds are
likely to be those of wild rice. This fact suggests that
the lower basin of the Yangtze River may be the center
of origin of cultivated rice.
Remains of old rice, on the other hand, are not
recorded in the Fertile Crescent. As far as the avail-
able data are concerned, rice cultivation began about
 Fig. 4. Distribution of wild rice in Asia.
2000 BC. Rice cultivation in China apparently began in
the east and spread to the west. The latest reports
suggest that older rice remains (5000–6000 BC) were
found in the middle basin of the Yangtze River.
Current archaeological data disagree with the Chang-
Watabe hypothesis.
Several archaeological relics in the tropics that
have traces of rice cultivation have been detected. In
India, many relics have been excavated throughout
the country, particularly in the Ganga Basin, that were
not older than 2200 BC (Randhawa 1980). In Thailand
and Vietnam, some relics are now known that were not
older than 3000 BC. Judging from these records and
based on available data from excavation work, rice
cultivation began not earlier than 3000 BC in the
plains of the tropics (Fig. 2).
Distribution of wild rice now and in ancient times
The geographic distribution of wild progenitors
should be taken into account to determine the origin
of cultivated species. The geographic distribution of
O. rufipogon in Southeast Asia is shown in Figure 4.
It is commonly seen in flooded plains and surround-
ing areas of big rivers in the tropics (Harlan 1975, Oka
1988). In China, well-organized surveys (Anonymous
1984) showed that O. rufipogon is distributed in the
southern region, mainly south of the Tropic of Cancer
(23.5° N). The most northern natural population of O.
rufipogon is seen in Jiangxi Province (approximately
28° N ) (Fig. 4).
The northern limit of the distribution of wild rice
during the Homedu period has been estimated to be
Yangtze River and was recorded several times
13
historically (from AD 230 to AD 1613) in old literature
(Oka 1988). Although some authors might have
confused wild and weedy rice, it is possible that true
wild rice inhabited the area in ancient times. Wild rice
might have disappeared quite recently in the Yangtze
River Basin.
Conclusion
Asian cultivated rice has a diffuse origin, based on
data discussed in this paper. Japonica cultivars
probably emerged in the middle and lower basins of
the Yangtze River about 8,000–12,000 years ago. They
are considered to have emerged from a type of
rufipogon having nondeleted cpDNA. At that time,
wild rice may have had a wider distribution under a
warmer and more humid climate than now. Perhaps
domestication began when strains of O. rufipogon
having relatively high seed productivity were
discovered in drier habitats. Japonica cultivars were
diversifying all over China before unification in the
Hang dynasty. Some strains may have reached the
tropics by crossing the Yunnan Mountains. Perhaps
these japonica strains hybridized with indigenous
annual types of wild rice to produce indica cultivars.
The center of origin of indica is still unknown.
Systematic excavations in the tropics, particularly in
Southeast Asia, will be required to obtain a clear
picture of the geographic origin of indica cultivars
and their dissemination process. Although excava-
tions in the tropics lag behind those in China,
cultivation of indica probably began later than that of
japonica. It is also probable that indica emerged as a
result of gene flow from the primitive japonica or
Nondeleted Deleted
Japonica cp DNA cp DNA nivara
nuclear nuclear
O. rufipugon O. nivara
Natural hybridization
X analysis. Theor. Appl. Genet. 80:209-222.
Weedy
Nu c l e a r r e c o m b i n e d
O. sativa japonica Indica varieties
Fig. 5. Phylogenetic origin of indica and weedy rice.
14
rufipogon having japonica-type features (Fig. 5),
judging by the high genetic diversity in genomic
DNAs as well as isozymes.
High genetic diversity in the Fertile Crescent is
explained by the introduction of indica and japonica
cultivars (introduced from the tropics and eastern
China, respectively) and by the consequent natural
hybridization between them. Genetic variation has
been preserved without erosion because of the
complex conditions of climate, geography, and human
races. Sustainable agriculture may certainly play an
important role in their preservation.
Future work involving biological analysis of plant
and animal remains (bioarchaeology) will play an
important role in achieving a more comprehensive
understanding of the origin of rice as well as various
cultivated plant species.
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15
Rice seed contamination in Vietnam
Vo Mai, Ho Van Chien, Vo Van A, Vo Thi, Thu Suong, and Le Van Thiet
Plant Protection Department of South Vietnam., Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam

Rice seed contamination by weed and weedy rice Results

seeds can result in overall higher production costs
because weed control entails additional expense. At Seventy-three rice varieties were reported to be used,
the same time, it lowers the quality of the harvested 30 of which were widely grown in the region (Table 1).
rice crop. Weedy rice is a recent emerging problem in Eighty-one percent of farmers kept a seed stock for
Vietnam and has serious repercussions on the the next cropping period. Some of them (about 19%)
country’s rice production. This paper discusses exchanged seeds with other farmers or bought seeds
results of research that analyzed farmers’ rice seed from other sources. The seed rate used for direct
contamination by weed and weedy rice and assesses seeding was 200 kg ha–1. The majority of the farmers
farmers’ perception of weeds and weedy rices. (82%) practiced rice monoculture, the remainder
alternating rice with other crops.
Methodology
Occurrence of weeds and weedy rices
Questionnaires were sent to farmers in 18 provinces in About 95% of the farmers reported that weed
south Vietnam to obtain responses to questions infestations occurred in their fields every season.
about weeds and contamination of their rice seeds. In Seventy-four percent reported the occurrence of
every province, 20 farmers were randomly chosen for grass weeds, 68% indicated sedges, 41% reported
interview. Basic data were recorded and analyzed broadleaf and other weeds. About 76% of the farmers
statistically. Rice seed samples (2 kg) were collected said they had rice off-types in their rice fields and a
from each interviewee. These samples were analyzed similar percentage considered weed infestation to be
at the Regional Plant Protection Center of south the most important cause of yield loss and seed
Vietnam. About 1 kg of each sample was examined for contamination. When questioned about the origin of
the presence of weed seeds. Weed species, including rice seed contamination, insects were considered as
weedy rices, present as seed in grain samples were causal agents by 22% of farmers, diseases by 42%,
identified and the quantity recorded. and weeds by 75.5% of those asked. Farmers also
stated that weed seeds came from the soil (65.0%),
were mixed with the rice seed (83.0%), but also came
from other sources (61.6%). All farmers agreed that
seed contamination by weed seed caused yield loss.
Table 1. Rice varieties commonly grown in the south
Vietnam region in 1997. About 70% of the farmers said that grass weeds were
the most common and the most damaging weeds in
OMCS 94 IR66707 IR9729-67-3 rice fields.
IR50404 IR64 (Mutation) IR13240-10-1
IR56279 OM1305 IR29723
HT94 OM95-5 IR49517-23 Weed management practices
IR64 OMCS 90-9 IR56279 Eighty percent of the farmers believed that rouging
OM1706 OMCS 96 IR59656
OM997-6 OM1303 OMCS1270 rice off-types before harvest was an effective measure
CL 7 (Cuu long) IR35546 IR42 to produce a clean crop seed. No less important was
Tai-nguyen TN128 OMCS576 removal of weed flower heads before seed set. Most
OM1633 OMCS97 CL 8 (Cuu long)
farmers (94 %) winnowed seed after harvest and many

17
(86%) also practiced re-winnowing before seeding but
only a small percentage (14%) indicated that winnow-
ing was completely effective in removing contami-
nants. Avoidance of seed mixing was also considered
as an effective way to prevent weed seed contamina-
tion. About eighty-five percent of farmers attempted
removal of weed seeds before seed soaking for direct
seeding.
Weed control measures varied within the survey
group: herbicides were used by 82% of farmers but
68% also weeded by hand, and water management for
weed control was mentioned by 17%. Most (93%)
farmers kept their fields inundated with water to a
depth of 1–5 cm from 7–10 d after sowing (DAS).
Hand weeding was done mostly by women (76%), this
being done 20–30 DAS. On average, 1.5 herbicide
applications were made to each crop, with the first
application being made at 0-10 DAS; 80% of the
farmers followed this practice. Ten different kinds of
herbicides were widely used in the region; of these,
the most popular were pretilachlor and 2,4-D.
Farmers’ perception of weedy rice
Nearly 70% of the farmers interviewed said they have
seen weedy rice on the fields, mostly during the
summer-fall crops and 64% indicated harvested rice
was contaminated with weedy rice. Prevalence of
weedy rice was most associated with dry seeding
(35.5% respondents), wet seeding (32.0%), seeding
without soil preparation (18.8%), and transplanting
(7.4%). Eighty percent of those surveyed were
concerned about weedy rice because of rice yield and
rice quality reduction, although some were probably
only aware of quality issues. Twenty-five percent of
the farmers said that weedy rice did not cause any
yield loss. The yield loss reportedly caused by weedy
rice ranged from 1–2% to 50–70%, while average loss
incurred was about 5–17%. Farmers distinguished
weedy rice from common rice on the basis of the
following characters: weedy rice is taller than
common rice (90.6%); grain has awns (89.5%); grain
shatters early (73.6%); grain has a dark pericarp color
(77.2%); plants flower early (25.8%); and grains are
smaller (76.8%). About 65.5% of the farmers con-
trolled weedy rice by roguing. Most (80.9%) rogued
weedy rice between booting and flowering; the rest
rouged during tillering stage.
Analysis of rice seed contamination
Results are given in Tables 2 and 3. In total, 36 weed
species were found. Echinochloa crus-galli was
present in almost all seed samples. The average
number of weed seeds was 466 grains per kg of rice
seed, 46-fold higher than the national recommenda-
tion and 67% of the contaminants were weedy rice
seeds. The provinces of Vinh Long, Can Tho, Dong
Thap, Ben Tre, Ho Chi Minh City, and Tay Ninh had
the highest quantity of weed seed kg rice seed-1
(1096, 825, 617, 598, 559, and 518, respectively). Forty
percent of the collected rice seed samples were
contaminated with weedy rice seed and these
occurred in all provinces surveyed. The provinces
with the highest quantity of weedy rice seed kg rice
seed–1 were Vinh Long, Ho Chi Minh City, Tra Vinh,
Ben Tre, and Can Tho (500, 489, 480, 467, and 462,
respectively).

Table 2. Results of the analysis of farmers’ rice seed, south Vietnam, 1997.

% contaminant grain type–1 Grains kg–1 seed

No. Province Samples Germination Moisture
(no.) rate (%) content (%) Empty Off-type Deformed Discolored Weed Weedy
grain grain grain grain rice

1 Binh Thuan 23 94 14.32 2.77 14.64 2.40 19.40 275 212

2 Dong Nai 20 84 14.67 6.65 1.74 5.20 11.40 417 194
3 Binh Phuoc 19 61 14.25 4.65 4.01 2.00 22.40 194 80
4 Binh Duong 9 86 13.96 3.03 2.25 2.40 14.80 157 100
5 Tay Ninh 12 88 14.05 8.27 2.36 2.00 22.40 518 450
6 Tp. HCM 25 83 14.37 4.39 1.68 3.20 17.40 558 489
7 Long An 18 55 14.68 7.38 2.69 3.80 24.60 345 312
8 Tien Giang 20 87 13.90 4.97 3.84 4.20 28.80 445 416
9 Ben Tre 19 65 14.90 5.25 11.40 3.00 19.40 598 467
10 Dong Thap 28 81 13.76 6.90 1.11 3.20 33.00 697 400
11 Vinh Long 16 79 15.00 4.70 1.85 5.00 14.60 1096 500
12 Tra Vinh 23 77 15.10 5.40 2.03 2.60 17.40 610 480
13 Can Tho 20 80 13.79 4.91 1.48 1.00 13.00 825 462
14 Soc Trang 24 85 14.90 6.58 1.73 3.00 16.60 318 220
15 An Giang 22 87 13.75 6.17 1.66 4.20 17.20 353 250
16 Kien Giang 19 91 15.10 5.09 4.89 3.20 10.00 491 273
17 Bac Lieu 14 73 15.20 3.36 3.27 2.20 20.60 302 200
18 Ca Mau 20 72 14.60 2.68 1.42 2.80 14.40 200 150
Total 351 Av 80 Av 14.46 Av 5.17 Av 3.35 Av 3.13 Av 18.74 Av 466Av 314.16

18
Table 3. Weed species that contaminated rice seed, south Conclusions
Vietnam, 1997.

No. Family Species From these results, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
1 Alismaceae Sagittaria trifolia
2 Amaranthaceae Amaranthus viridis • Weed seeds are major rice seed contaminants,
3 Apiaceae Centella asiatica with grass weed seeds (such as seeds of
4 Asteraceae Eclipta prostrata E. crus-galli) and weedy rice as the dominant
5 Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum
6 Capparidaceae Cleome rutidosperma species.
7 Convolvulaceae Ipomoea aquatica • Most farmers are aware of the damage
8 Ipomoea chryseides brought about by weedy rice. Farmers can
9 Cyperaceae Cyperus compressus
10 Cyperus difformis recognize weedy rice mostly by its taller plant
11 Cyperus iria habit, awned, dark-colored grain, and early
12 Cyperus rotundus grain shattering. Both dry and wet seeding
13 Fimbristylis miliacea
14 Scirpus juncoides encourage the presence of weedy rice. Weedy
15 Scirpus mucronatus rice seeds constitute the majority of the weed
16 Malvaceae Bidens pilosa seeds collected from farmers’ rice samples.
17 Sida rhombifolia
18 Mimosaceae Mimosa pigra • Roguing, manual removal of the flower heads,
19 Onagraceae Ludwigia octovalvis and winnowing are the main measures used by
20 Plantagnaceae Plantago major farmers to remove weed seeds from rice seed.
21 Poaceae Chrysopogon aciculatus
22 Dactyloctenium aegyptium • Herbicides and hand weeding are the main
23 Echinochloa colona methods used by farmers to control weeds on
24 Echinochloa crus-galli the fields.
25 Echinochloa glabrescens
26 Eleusine indica • Rouging during the tillering, booting, and
27 Ischaemum rugosum flowering stages of rice is the only method of
28 Leersia hexandra controlling weedy rice in the field.
29 Leptochloa chinensis
30 Oryza sativa
31 Panicum repens
32 Paspalum conjugatum
33 Paspalum distichum
34 Sacciolepis indica
35 Pontederiaceae Monochoria vaginalis
36 Tiliaceae Corchorus estuans

19
Red rice status and management
in the Americas
José A. Noldin
Epagri/Estação Experimental de Itajaí, C.P. 277, 88301-970, Itajaí, Santa Catarina, Brazil
Rice is a very important staple food in Latin America.
In 1996, upland and irrigated rice produced in Latin
and North America amounted to 30.5 million t; it was
grown on 8.5 million ha. Irrigated rice represents
about 55% of the growing area and 80% of the total
production in the Americas. The main irrigated rice-
producing areas are located in South America (Brazil,
Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, Argentina, Uruguay,
Bolivia, and Ecuador), Central America (Panama,
Nicaragua, and Costa Rica), the Caribbean (Cuba,
Guyana, and the Dominican Republic), and North
America (USA) (Sanint 1997).
Irrigated rice yield in Latin America and the
Caribbean has increased significantly in the last
decades, from 2.2 t ha−1 in 1961 to 4.3 t ha−1 in 1996.
The estimated yield in North America in 1994-96 was
5.6 t ha−1 (Sanint 1997). In southern Brazil, the average
yield of irrigated rice was 5.0 t ha−1 in Rio Grande do
Sul and 5.8 t ha−1 in Santa Catarina. The average yield
observed in Brazil is still low, despite all areas being
planted to semidwarf cultivars with very high yield
potential. Some farmers in Santa Catarina have
obtained yields of more than 12 t ha−1. The main
causes of the low yield in most rice-growing areas are
poor seed quality, high red rice infestation, weeds,
diseases (blast), insects, nutritional disorders, and
low fertilizer use.
Occurrence and distribution of red rice
Red rice is a common weed in most irrigated rice
production areas in the Americas: Bolivia (Llanos et al
1993), Brazil (Marchezan 1994, Noldin 1988, Souza and
Fisher 1986), Chile (Pedreiros and Alvarado 1990),
Colombia (Montealegre and Vargas 1989), Guyana
(Rai 1973), the United States (Dunand 1988), and
Venezuela (Ortiz et al 1997). The only areas where red
rice is not considered a major problem are California
(USA) and Uruguay, but it may still be found infesting
some fields.
Red rice is the most troublesome weed in irrigated
rice fields in southern Brazil. In Rio Grande do Sul, the
largest rice-producing state in Brazil, red rice infesta-
tion is critical in more than 80% of the cultivated area
(Marchezan 1994, Souza and Fisher 1986). Severe
infestation occurs when rice is drill-seeded and
irrigation is delayed (conventional planting system).
Because of red rice infestations and high production
costs, farmers have changed their production system
from drilled to minimum tillage (Menezes et al 1994)
and started using water-seeded rice (pregerminated
system).
Red rice is spread primarily as a contaminant in
rice seeds. Several surveys of rice seed quality have
been carried out in Santa Catarina State during the
last 20 years. The percentages of seed samples
infested with red rice were 98, 89, and 57%, respec-
tively, in 1977, 1987, and 1996 (Marques et al 1990,
Noldin et al 1997, Ramos and Santini 1979). The last
survey also showed that only 19% of the seed used
by growers was registered or certified, and 71% of the
growers produced their own rice seed or used
commercial grains as seeds. In Venezuela, at least 27%
of the total irrigated rice area in four states is infested
with red rice (Ortiz and Budowski 1998). Red rice
incidence per state was 38% at Portuguesa, 33% in
Guarico and Cojedes, and 9% in Barinas. The study
by Ortiz and Budowski (1998) also estimated that the
typical red rice plant population densities were 18, 17,
13, and 11 plants m–2, at Cojedes, Guarico, Barinas,
and Portuguesa, respectively. In southern United
States, red rice is listed among the 10 most common
and troublesome weeds in all rice-producing states
(Dowler 1994). A survey conducted in Chile (Pedreiros
and Alvarado 1990) and Bolivia (Llanos et al 1993)
indicated that red rice infests all rice areas, and it may
pose problems to farmers in the near future, mainly as
a result of using rice seeds infested with red rice. The
red rice situation in Uruguay is considered to be
under control, even if the weed occurs in many fields.
21
The problem tends to increase mainly in intensively
cultivated areas. In Uruguay, 90% of the rice areas are
seeded with certified seed and red rice is not allowed
in any seed class (Zorrilla, pers. commun.).
Effects of red rice contamination
Red rice is undesirable to rice farmers, to the milling
industry, and to the consumers. Rice farmers say that
it affects yield considerably (Fisher and Ramirez 1993,
Souza and Fisher 1986). Millers complain that it
reduces total and head rice recovery (and, conse-
quently, the grade) (Dunand 1988, Menezes et al
1997), besides inflating the processing cost when red
rice is separated from milled rice.
Menezes et al (1997) reported that, as the
percentage of red rice grains in the rice samples
increases, whole grain yield and total milling yield
decrease linearly for the cultivars tested. In addition,
the red rice pericarp is difficult to remove, so most
milled rice grains carry some traces of the red color
even after polishing, a characteristic that consumers
consider undesirable.
Biology of red rice
Field populatons of red rice are not homogeneous
(Montealegre and Clavijo 1992, Noldin 1995, Ortiz et al
1997, Silveira et al 1997). There is wide variation
among different populations, but most red rice
ecotypes, based on the color of the hull of mature
seeds, may be categorized into two major groups:
black hull and straw hull. Noldin (1995) evaluated 22
different plant and seed characters in 19 ecotypes
collected from rice-growing areas in southern United
States and found that none of the traits could be used
alone to make any generalization about red rice.
Because of the natural hybridization between red rice
and cultivated rice, many ecotypes are present in
most rice fields. The percentage of natural crossing
between red rice and cultivated rice depends on their
maturity time (Langevin et al 1990).
The most common red rice populations found in
the Americas have medium or long and larger grains,
early and intense seed shattering, taller plants, and
are earlier maturing than most cultivars used by rice
producers (Noldin 1995, Ortiz et al 1997, Silveira et al
1997). Some ecotypes, however, possess traits similar
to those of commercial rice cultivars—e.g., long and
thin grains, high tillering ability, low seed shattering,
and good tolerance for lodging. Besides morphologi-
cal differences, red rice ecotypes occurring in many
rice areas in the Americas show variation in seed
22
dormancy (intensity and duration), seed longevity in
the soil and under controlled conditions, and herbi-
cide sensitivity (Noldin 1995, Noldin et al 1994, 1998,
Zorrilla and Acevedo 1996).
Seed longevity in the soil is ecotype-dependent
and is also affected by burial depth, soil type and
moisture, and dormancy intensity. Studies conducted
at two locations (Beaumont and College Station) in
Texas showed that red rice seed longevity was greater
with deeper burial (Noldin 1995). After a year, red rice
buried in Beaumont had no viable seed at 5 cm depth.
Red rice seeds buried at 25 cm were more persistent.
At the last sampling, 3 yr after burial, only one
ecotype had 1% of the seeds viable; all others had
<1%. In this study, seed longevity did not vary,
considering the hull color of red rice ecotypes. Red
rice seeds lying on the soil surface or buried at 12-cm
depth in College Station had a more rapid decline than
those in Beaumont (Noldin 1995). These results
suggest that fields infested with red rice should be
kept fallow for at least one season or cropped using
low or no-tillage systems. In Uruguay, Zorrilla and
Acevedo (1996) reported that, after 28 mo in the soil,
red rice seeds at 15-cm depth were more viable than
the ones buried at 5-cm depth.
Red rice populations also show intraspecific
variation in tolerance for herbicides. Noldin et al
(1994) reported a black hull-type ecotype from Texas
with tolerance for the herbicide glufosinate.
Management of red rice
Red rice is difficult to control because of its close
genetic relationship with cultivated rice. Red rice
control requires an approach that includes several
management practices and combines preventive,
cultural, and chemical control methods (Dunand 1988,
Marchezan 1994, Menezes et al 1994, Montealegre
and Vargas 1989, Noldin 1988).
The best preventive measure to control red rice is
the use of high-quality rice seed. This is important to
prevent the introduction or dissemination of red rice
in rice fields. This objective can be met only if a good
program of certified seed production is established.
Planting a rice field free of red rice with rice seeds
containing only two red rice seeds kg−1 may result in a
soil infestation of 100 kg of red rice ha−1 after just
three seasons. In Latin American countries, the
presence of red rice in some classes of commercial
seed is allowed. In Uruguay, however, red rice is not
allowed in any class of commercial seed (Zorrilla, pers.
commun.). In Santa Catarina, southern Brazil, red rice
is not allowed in most seed classes (genetic, founda-
tion, registered, and certified). A fifth seed class,
however, called “inspected,” tolerates two red rice
seeds kg−1. The tolerance level has been brought
down year by year, and it is expected that, in 3 yr,
Santa Catarina will have zero tolerance for all commer-
cial rice seed classes.
Cultural practices for red rice control include the
use of stale seedbed techniques, water-seeded rice
with pregerminated seeds, crop rotation, and manage-
ment practices to reduce the red rice seed bank. Red
rice seed longevity increases when the seed is buried
deep in the soil (Noldin 1995, Zorrilla and Acevedo
1996). After harvesting rice fields infested with red
rice, the best management practice is to keep the
seeds near or at the soil surface during the fallow
period. In this environment, red rice seeds will either
germinate or lose viability faster than when buried
deep in the soil.
Minimum tillage systems are used in many areas
with severe red rice problems. In Rio Grande do Sul,
about 250,000 ha are cropped every rice season using
low/minimum tillage (Menezes et al 1994). Soil
preparation takes place early in the season, summer or
fall, or at least 20–30 d before planting. After seedbed
preparation, the area is kept fallow to enable red rice
and other weeds to grow and to form a good mulching
cover. Rice can either be drilled or water-seeded after
spraying the area with nonselective herbicides
(glyphosate or sulfosate). Using the minimum tillage
system, farmers get good red rice control, but some
reinfestation may occur, mainly along the rice rows.
The crop should be flooded soon after rice emer-
gence; otherwise, the degree of red rice control will
decrease (EPAGRI/IRGA/EMBRAPA-CPACT 1997).
Water-seeded rice is used in leveled fields with
lasting levees. Pregerminated rice seeds are broadcast
in the water after seedbed preparation. The use of this
crop system, combined with good water management,
is one of the best alternatives to control red rice
(Noldin 1988). In this system, the soil is flooded for
seedbed preparation. Early flooding 20–30 d before
soil preparation will help control red rice. After
seeding, water management is critical to successfully
suppress red rice. There are two management
strategies for irrigation after seeding: (1) water is
maintained at a depth of 5–10 cm until drainage at
harvest (continuous flooding); or (2) water is drained,
soil is kept saturated for 3–5 d, and flooding is
returned gradually. Excessive drainage exposes the
soil to air and increases oxygen concentration in the
soil, thus stimulating red rice germination. Studies
carried out at Itajai Experimental Station/EPAGRI have
shown that some water-seeded rice genotypes grow
and yield well under continuous flooding (Ishiy and
Noldin 1997).
Red rice control in water-seeded rice can be
improved by using herbicides such as molinate,
thiobencarb, oxadiazon, or oxyfluorfen preplant
incorporated, in combination with specific water
management practices (Noldin 1988).
Crop rotation, mainly with sorghum or soybean,
is very effective in reducing red rice population in
infested fields (Marchezan 1994, Montealegre and
Vargas 1989). Planting sorghum treated with atrazine
or soybean treated with metolachlor, alachlor,
trifluralin, ordimethenamid applied preplant incorpo-
rated or in combination with postapplication of
sethoxydim, quizalofop, or fluazifop, is generally
effective in controlling red rice (Griffin and Harger
1990, Smith and Hill 1990). Besides reducing red rice
infestation, crop rotation may also improve rice yields,
the result of better weed control and improved soil
conditions. However, the success of soybean or
sorghum planted after rice in flat soils depends on a
good drainage system because these crops do not
tolerate high soil moisture.
A plant growth regulator, maleic hydrazide, has
been used in Brazil to control seed production of red
rice (Andres and Menezes 1997, EPAGRI/IRGA/
EMBRAPA-CPACT 1997). A difference in maturity
between red rice and commercial rice is a necessary
condition (Dunand 1996). Rice cultivars must be
earlier and head at least 10–15 d before red rice.
Maleic hydrazide sprayed at the rice milk stage and
prior to or during red rice heading stage reduces the
production of red rice seed (Dunand 1996). The
number of red rice panicles decreases and red rice
sterility increases with the use of maleic hydrazide. It
is important to note that maleic hydrazide reduces
seed viability so it should not be used on rice seed
production fields (Andres and Menezes 1997). The
application of maleic hydrazide complements other
methods for reducing seed production of red rice and,
consequently, minimizes this problem in the following
years.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the following persons who provided
information about red rice in their respective coun-
tries: Aida Ortiz, UCV-FAGRO, Maracay, Venezuela;
Carlos Bruzzone, Cordoba, Peru; Gonzalo Zorrilla,
INIA, Treinta y Tres, Uruguay; Roger Taboada
Paniagua, CIAT, Santa Cruz, Bolivia; and Santiago
Hernaiz L., INIA, Quilamapu, Chile.
23
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Weedy rice complexes: case studies
from Malaysia, Vietnam, and Surinam
H. Watanabe1, D.A. Vaughan2, and N. Tomooka2
Tohoku National Agricultural Experimental Station, Omagari, Akita 014-0102, Japan
1
National Institute of Agrobiological Resources, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
2
Weedy rice infestation is serious in direct-seeded rice
fields and is reported to be increasing with the spread
of direct-seeded rice culture in tropical Asia (Moody
1994). In western peninsular Malaysia, weedy rice has
been recognized as a problem in Tanjung Karang
since 1988 (Wahab and Suhaimi 1991). In MUDA, 300
km north of Tanjung Karang, weedy rice was found in
1990 and, 3 yr later, it was a serious problem (Zuki Md.
et al 1995). During the mid-to-late-1980s, there were
years of severe drought in western peninsular
Malaysia. During drought years, when good tillage
was not possible and rainfall was unpredictable,
dropped seeds, generally supplemented with sown
seeds, developed into the next crop. This process,
otherwise known as the volunteer-seeding rice
culture, reached a peak in 1987 in the MUDA area
when 40% of the lands were volunteer-seeded (Ho
1991). This practice seems to have been a major
contributor to the emergence of weedy rice, although
other factors, such as movement by contaminated
combine harvesters from one area to another, may
have influenced the spread of weedy rice. The
shattering weedy rice was believed to have evolved in
rice fields where volunteer rice-seeding culture had
been practiced (Abdullah et al 1996). The same
problem has also been emerging in southern Vietnam
(Chin 1997). We investigated farmers’ attitudes toward
weedy rice in both countries to determine the
relationship, if any, between farmers’ attitudes and
practices and the evolution of weedy rice.
In neither MUDA nor Tanjung Karang does wild
rice appear to have played a role in the emergence of
weedy rice. Wild rice with the same AA genome as
rice, which has the potential for hybridization with
cultivated rice, is not found in Tanjung Karang. In
MUDA, while O. rufipogon (AA genome wild rice) is
common, flowering time does not coincide with that of
cultivated rice and weedy rice has few wild morpho-
logical characteristics. In eastern peninsular Malaysia,
wild rice and cultivated rice are sympatric and can
flower at the same time in December. Based on our
visual observations, weedy rice often seems to be the
result of invasion of rice fields by wild rice or natural
hybrids between wild and cultivated rice or the
progeny from such hybrids. Rice production is rather
scattered in the Kota Baru area and, unlike Tanjung
Karang and MUDA, is not based on a large-scale
irrigation scheme but rather on small-scale scattered
irrigation.
In Surinam, rice production developed during the
early part of the 20th century and two types of weedy
rice were recognized: rice plants resulting from
dropped seeds from the previous harvests and red
rice. The former tended to mature early and get eaten
by birds and could be prevented from establishing by
adequate tillage. The latter had to be rogued from the
field (Ten Have 1967). Weedy rice remains a problem
in Surinam in direct-seeded fields (HilleRisLambers,
1997, pers. commun.). The genetic diversity of weedy
rice from these different regions was analyzed to
enable the genetic structure of these gene pool
complexes to be better understood.
Farmers’ attitudes toward weedy rice
in Malaysia and Vietnam
Malaysia: Tanjung Karang and MUDA
Methods of investigation. Ninety-three farmers, 19
from Tanjung Karang and 74 from MUDA, whose
fields were infested with weedy rice were selected for
interviews in 1994. Responses for a total of 209 rice
crops that the farmers had grown over three seasons
were analyzed. Overall, 85% of the farmers were
Malay, 13% were Chinese, and 1% each were Indian
and Thai. One hundred weedy rice plants and 20
cultivated rice plants (MR84) were sampled from a
dry-seeded rice field in Kampung Selarung Lalang
Kanan, MUDA, in 1993 to investigate morphological
variation in a single rice field.
Results. Farmers used the term Padi Angin as a
local name of weedy rice, which means “windy rice or
air rice,” named because grains can fall off when
25
mature in wind. Farmers identified weedy rice plants
mainly by grain shattering. Long culm, short or round
grain, grain pigmentation, and light green color of the
leaf sheath were also traits that helped in identifica-
tion. Infestation of weedy rice was much more serious
in dry-seeded fields, less in wet-seeded fields, and
absent from transplanted fields. Certified seed was
used by 38% of the surveyed farmers in MUDA and
67% of the surveyed farmers in the Tanjung Karang
area; the other farmers used their own seeds, which
were produced in their own rice fields during the
previous seasons. It seemed that weedy rice emerged
from both incorporated shed seeds and contaminated
sown seeds in these areas.
Many farmers complained that weedy rice
reduced rice yield and caused lodging problems when
a field had a high density of weedy rice. In dry-seeded
fields, weedy rice reportedly emerged earlier than
seeded cultivated rice. Early emergence would give
weedy rice a competitive advantage over cultivated
rice, leading to poor seedling establishment of the
cultigen. Based on the interviews, the quality of the
harvested rice was not a great concern of farmers.
Many farmers responded that red rice, pigmented
grain, and awns were not the major characteristics of
Malaysian weedy rice. Easy grain shattering and long
culms that reduce rice yield were perceived to be a
greater problem than grain characters that reduce rice
quality. Weedy rice closely resembling cultivated rice,
seed dormancy, and tolerance for rice herbicides were
also reported as undesirable characteristics. These
characters were reported to make control of weedy
rice difficult and expensive, thus reducing farmers’ net
income.
Distinct differences were observed in methods of
weedy rice control between the two major rice areas.
Transplanting rice culture, herbicide application at
land preparation, intensive rototilling before cropping,
and manual weeding were considered as effective
methods for weedy rice control mainly by Tanjung
Karang farmers. Preplanting herbicide application was
practiced by all farmers interviewed in Tanjung
Karang but by only 4% of farmers in MUDA. More
than half of the farmers did not practice manual
weeding in both areas.
In the single rice field examined in detail, many
types of weedy rice were found. Most weedy rice
plants had easier grain shattering and longer culms
than cultivated rice, whereas grain pigmentation, red
pericarp, and awn were characteristics of a small
proportion of the weedy rice population. Weedy rice
showed greater variation in morphological characters
than cultivated rice. Weedy rice was characterized by
a longer culm, short or round grain, and higher seed
26
productivity than modern rice cultivars. Azmi et al
(1994) reported that weedy rice plants from 18
different locations could be classified into three
types—awn type, compact panicle type, and open
panicle type. However, there was wide variation in
culm length, panicle length, number of spikelets
panicle–1, grain length, grain width, and grain weight
among the 18 variants.
Vietnam
Methods of investigation. Forty-one rice farmers (20
from Long An Province, 19 from Binh Thuan Province,
1 from Tien Gian Province, and 1 from Vinh Long
Province) were interviewed in March 1998. Questions
asked are listed (Table 1). Responses for a total of 60
rice crops that the farmers had harvested between
April 1997 and March 1998 were analyzed. These
areas have been infested with weedy rice since 1994.
Our investigation focused on how farmers tried to
control weedy rice and whether they succeeded or
not.
Results. Farmers used various local names for
weedy rice such as Lua Lon, Lua Doc, Lua Rung, and
Lua Co, suggesting that farmers recognize weedy rice
as a rice plant having several characteristics that
distinguish it from rice cultivars. Wild rice (O.
rufipogon) has a different local name, Lua Ma. Some
farmers (16%) used Lua Ma also for weedy rice, in
contrast to Malaysia, where rice farmers use only
Padi Angin for weedy rice, whereas Padi Hantu is the
local name for wild rice (O. rufipogon). Farmers’
perceptions of weedy rice characters indicated that
Vietnamese weedy rice had a morphology similar to
that of Malaysian weedy rice such as long culm, easy
grain shattering, awn, short grain, and early heading.
Table 1. Items included in questionnaires to evaluate
farmers’ responses.
1. Farmer’s name
2. Size of rice field
3. Local name of weedy rice
4. Characteristics of weedy rice
5. Yield loss caused by weedy rice
6. Other problems of weedy rice
7. Cropping system
8. Cropping season
9. Seeding method
10. Rice cultivar
11. Seed source
12. Grain yield in each season
13. Level of weedy rice infestation
14. Land preparation before dry seeding
15. Land preparation before wet seeding
16. Herbicides in wet-seeding culture
17. Herbicides in dry-seeding culture
18. Frequency of hand weeding
19. Problem weeds
The importance of a red-colored pericarp, however,
seemed to be slightly different between countries.
Many farmers complained that their harvested grains
were often contaminated with red rice. Based on the
first author’s observations, many red rice plants were
growing in their rice fields. Based on a survey by the
Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, red pericarp
was the major characteristic of weedy rice in these
areas in 1996 (Chin 1997).
Intensive land preparation was effective in
reducing weedy rice emergence after seeding in
Malaysia. In Vietnam, however, farmers usually
thought that preplanting land rototilling was not very
effective in reducing the weedy rice population since
the rototilling was practiced under severe drought
conditions in the dry season or under deep water
conditions in the rainy season. The water condition is
usually not favorable for rice emergence during the
land preparation period, and weedy rice emergence is
not promoted by preplanting rototilling. Weedy rice
can emerge only after seeding of cultivated rice,
especially in a triple-rice cropping system. In one
village, all farmers who had adopted a three-rice
cropping system changed to two rice crops and a
fallow to permit control of weedy rice.
Rice seeding method was considered to be very
important in relation to the degree of weedy rice
infestation. Weedy rice was more serious in the dry-
seeding season, less in the wet-seeding season, and
little in transplanted rice. Many farmers who practiced
dry seeding in the summer-autumn season com-
plained that weedy rice had been increasing since
1994. Some farmers, however, had succeeded in
reducing weedy rice in their fields by introducing
transplanted rice culture in one or two cropping
seasons after serious infestation in their dry-seeding
season. They responded that weedy rice emerged
from accumulated shattered seeds from the previous
season’s crop. Rice farmers who had practiced only
wet seeding and never practiced dry seeding re-
sponded that weedy rice had decreased by changing
the rice cultivar or by using certified pure seeds. They
Table 2. Trend of weedy rice infestation in Long An and Binh Thuan provinces (no. of farmers
who responded).
Cropping sequence
(seeding method)
Rice monoculture (dry+wet) (dry+wet+wet)
Rice monoculture (wet+wet) (wet+wet+wet)
Rice+rice+mungbean+rice+groundnut+mungbean
Total
Long An, 20 farmers; Binh Thuan, 19 farmers (interviewed by H. Watanabe and C.A. Hach, March 1998).
thought that weedy rice emerged from contaminated
rice seeds.
The cropping system was also considered to be
a very important factor influencing weedy rice
infestation (Table 2). Among rice farmers who
adopted the rice monoculture system, 54% said that
weedy rice had continued to increase since 1996 and
28% of the farmers stated that weedy rice had
decreased. Based on the interviews, cultivation of
upland crops seemed to contribute to control of
weedy rice infestation. Farmers who introduced
mungbean cropping in the dry season found that
weedy rice decreased a few years after serious
infestation. The farmers found that many rice plants
had emerged and died because of insufficient soil
moisture during the mungbean season. Multiple
cropping systems were found to be effective in
reducing the weedy rice population in this region.
Genetic variation in weedy rice
populations
Materials
We have analyzed the genetic variation of weedy
rice from three different regions in Malaysia and one
in Surinam (Fig. 1). Weedy rice from both Tanjung
Karang and MUDA was sampled during 1995 from
throughout the contaminated area and DNA was
extracted from 38 samples of weedy rice and two
samples of check cultivar MR84 from Tanjung
Karang and 49 weedy rice samples from MUDA.
Twenty-six samples of wild, weedy, and cultivated
rice were collected from contaminated areas of Kota
Baru in April 1997. Sixty samples of weedy rice and
two cultivars were collected in October and Novem-
ber 1997 from rice fields near New Nickerie, Surinam.
Methods of analysis
RAPD analysis was used to analyze genetic varia-
tion since this method permits detection of variation
among closely related species and has been used to
detect and measure genetic variation at the popula-
Weedy rice infestation
Increasing Decreasing Not infested
14 4 0
5 6 6
0 3 1
19 13 7
27
 Fig. 1. Map of weedy rice sampling locations.
tion level (e.g., Lanner-Herrera et al 1996). We used
standard procedures for small-scale extraction of DNA
(Williams et al 1993) and analysis of RAPD polymor-
phism (Abdullah et al 1996) for 10 samples from both
Tanjung Karang and MUDA that showed diversity
based on seven morphoagronomic characters in a
randomized complete block experiment with three
replicates in a greenhouse in Tsukuba, Japan.
Results
Tanjung Karang. Analysis of DNA polymorphism
(RAPD) (Fig. 2a,b) revealed that weedy rice consisted
of two groups with a similar number of samples. Since
cultivated rice consists of two subspecies, indica and
28
japonica, the phenol test—an indicator test for these
two subspecies—was performed to see whether the
two groups corresponded to these two subspecies.
While there were an almost equal number of samples
with a positive (indica) reaction and a negative
(japonica) reaction, the two groups revealed by RAPD
analysis did not correspond to the two phenol test
groups. It is possible that, in Tanjung Karang, we are
seeing the early stages of differentiation (or genetic
drift) that may lead to different ecotypes of weedy rice
in Tanjung Karang.
MUDA. RAPD analysis (Fig. 3a,b) revealed no
clearly discernible groups. It is possible that, since
weedy rice has not been recognized for as long in
 0.320 0.427 0.533 0.640 0.747 0.853 0.960 Level
MR 84 MR 84
a MR 84 MR 84
W1 W1
W24 W24
W6 W6
Group 1 W26 W26
W7 W7
W25 W25
W29 W29
W21 W21
W27 W27
W35 W35
W26 W26
W16 W16
W20 W20
W11 W11
W12 W12
W13 W13
W15 W15
W2 W2
W3 W3
W4 W4
W8 W8
W14 W14
Group 2 W9 W9
W31 W31
W10 W10
W18 W18
W17 W17
W23 W23
W5 W5
W33 W33
W32 W32
W22 W22
W19 W19
W30 W30
W34 W34
0.320 0.427 0.533 0.640 0.747 0.853 0.960 Level

0.6
b

0.3

0.0 Group 2
Group 1

-0.3

-0.6
-0.6 -0.3 0.0 -0.3 -0.6

Fig. 2. (a) Dendrogram generated using the UPGMA method within the NTSYS program package based on a distance matrix of
the DICE coefficient using presence and absence of 23 polymorphic RAPD bands from 38 samples of weedy rice and 2
samples of cultivated rice (cultivar MR84) from Tanjung Karang, Malaysia, to generate the distance matrix. * = cultivar MR84.
Three weedy rice samples had the same RAPD banding profile as the uppermost MR84 sample., W1 and W2 are not shown.
(b) Principal component analysis showing vector line generated using the PHYLIP program to generate the two-dimensional
plot based on a dissimilarity matrix generated from the same data used in Figure 2a.

29
 a
W1 0.909
W44 0.871
W6 0.859
W43 0.744
W5 0.909
W34 0.871
W41 0.665
W10 0.889
W25 0.804
W26 0.715
W23 0.889
W32 0.630
W12 0.579
W2 0.769
W19 0.697
W8 0.567
W7 0.889
W11 0.826
W13 0.923
W40 0.871
W26 0.775
W16 0.923
W27 0.836
W29 0.909
W42 0.735
W20 0.889
W31 0.804
W21 0.739
W39 0.644
W9 0.889
W35 0.703
W36 0.727
W37 0.505
W18 0.490
W3 0.571
W4 0.875
W15 0.866
W17 0.821
W14 0.638
W24 0.727
W30 0.464
W22 0.667
W33 0.351
W38 ------
0.320 0.427 0.533 0.640 0.747 0.853 0.960 Level

0.8
b

0.4

0.0

-0.4

-0.8
-0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.3 0.6

Fig. 3. (a) Dendrogram generated as for Figure 2a using 15 polymorphic RAPD bands from 49 samples of weedy rice from
MUDA, Malaysia. (b) Principal component analysis showing vector lines generated as for Figure 2b using polymorphic RAPD
banding data used in Figure 3a.

30
 a 10r 0.795

2EOr 0.715

W32 0.952

8Os* 1.000

70s 0.941

11Os 0.899

60s 0.831

2COr 0.909 Cultivated/wild/

weed complex
2DOr 0.880

2FOr 0.957

2GOr 0.889

5Os 0.718

2BOr 0.917

60r1 0.695

2AOr 0.640

5Or 0.591

4Or 0.639

80r 0.941
Wild type
90r 0.801

110r 0.440

30r ---------
Level
-
0.40 0.53 0.667 0.800 0.933 1.067 1.200

0.6
b
Cultivated/wild/
Wild type weed complex
0.3

0.0

-0.3

-0.6
-0.9 -0.6 -0.3 0.0 0.3

Fig. 4.
4 (a) Dendrogram generated as in Figure 2a using 18 polymorphic RAPD banding data from 26 samples from the Kota
Baru area, Malaysia. [*5 samples had the same RAPD banding profile as sample 80s (samples 10s, 20s, 30s, 40s, 90s.)] In
this figure, s indicates a sample which is morphologically like O. sativa, cultivated rice, and r indicates a sample which is
morphologically similar to O. rufipogon, wild rice. (b) Principal component analysis showing vector lines generated as for
Figure 2b using polymorphic RAPD banding data used in Figure 4a.

31
 a
1 0.947
9 0.915
24,10 0.866
Group 1 40 0.941
8 0.924
54 0.904
12 0.789
21 0.900
55 0.759
44 0.731
57 0.724
18 0.875
51 0.644
29 0.824
48 0.697
33 0.504
2 0.960
37 0.884
34 0.968
43 0.949
36 0.858
11 0.923
15 0.821
3 0.846
49 0.771
Group 2 12 0.792
47, 17 0.957
58 0.883
38 0.864
22 0.929
28 0.766
7 0.947
33 0.802
26 0.821
41 0.857
cultivar 61 0.682
5 0.657
20 0.638
16 0.547
35 0.667
cultivar 62
Level
0.500 0.600 0.700 0.800 0.900 1.000 1.100

0.7
b
Group 1
0.5

0.2 Group 2

0.0

-0.2
-0.8 -0.4 0.0 0.4 0.8

Fig. 5. (a) Dendrogram generated as in Figure 2a using 21 polymorphic RAPD bands from 60 samples of weedy rice and two
samples of cultivated rice from Surinam 25 [*19 samples had the same RAPD banding profile as sample 0 (samples 4, 6, 13,
14, 19, 25, 27, 30, 31, 32, 39, 45, 50, 52, 53, 56, 59, 60.)] (b) Principal component analysis showing vector lines generated as
for Figure 2b using polymorphic RAPD banding data used in Figure 5a.

32
MUDA as in Tanjung Karang, insufficient generations
have passed for differentiation (or genetic drift) to
have occurred. However, the diversity revealed by
RAPD analysis within these two areas is comparable
based on the results presented (Fig. 2, 3). In both
Tanjung Karang and MUDA, about 90% of the
samples were uniquely identified by their DNA
polymorphism patterns.
Significant differences were found among
samples for all morphoagronomic traits (Table 3).
Source location also showed significant differences
for all traits except flag leaf length and seed width.
Since distinct differences were found between
locations (Tanjung Karang and MUDA), this sug-
gests that weedy rice evolved in these two major rice-
producing areas independently. Thus, despite a
probably similar evolutionary pathway, we may
consider weedy rice in each area a distinct weed
complex with its own characteristics.
Kota Baru. RAPD analysis (Fig. 4a,b) indicated
two rather distinct groups. One group consists of five
samples, which were different from each other but
loosely grouped together based on principal compo-
nent analysis (Fig. 4b). These five samples all have
morphological characteristics similar to those of wild
rice. The second group consists of samples that were
morphologically the same as wild rice (r) and culti-
vated rice (s). This group of samples may include
hybrids between wild and cultivated rice. The pattern
of genetic diversity in Kota Baru appears to be quite
different from that in Tanjung Karang and MUDA and
probably reflects the different origin of weedy rice in
Kota Baru. To obtain a clearer understanding of the
dynamics of weedy rice in Kota Baru, more detailed
population sampling is necessary.
Surinam. Analysis of RAPD banding patterns
revealed that 41 of 60 samples could be uniquely
identified based on 12 primers that had 21 clear
polymorphic bands (Table 4). The analysis divided
the samples into two major groups (Fig. 5a). Group 1
(Fig. 5a) had 36 samples and group 2 had 26 samples,
including the two check cultivars. A comparison of
eight morphoagronomic characteristics revealed no
major differences between groups except for awn
length. There were no differences in response of the
hull to the phenol test, which was positive for all
samples, indicating that they all belonged to the
indica subspecies of rice.
The basis for the difference between the two
groups as revealed by the RAPD banding polymor-
phism is not clear. The data suggested, however, that
group 1 consists of some characteristics, such as
well-developed awn, that resemble wild-type charac-
teristics. It is possible that the samples in group 1
might have developed, by genetic drift or natural
selection, wild-type characteristics that may be an
adaptation to survival in natural conditions. This
group may be a soil seed bank source of weedy rice.
Group 2 samples, which include two cultivars, may
consist of those samples that most closely resemble
the crop and have characteristics adapted to rice
cultivation. This group may come from planting
contaminated seeds.
General comments and conclusions
The evolution of weedy rice is intimately linked to
farming practices. We found that farmers’ perceptions
of this problem vary from region to region and have
led to differing methods for the control of weedy rice.
In Malaysia, farmers are more likely to resort to
herbicides to attempt to control weedy rice, whereas
in Vietnam, the cropping system and changing
cultivars are the more likely options.
DNA polymorphism is a useful tool for under-
standing the pattern of genetic diversity in closely
related germplasm. Our analysis of DNA polymor-
phism at four different rice-growing locations reveals
a different pattern of genetic diversity at each
location, where the specific combination of germplasm
from which weedy rice emerges will primarily deter-
mine the pattern of genetic diversity. Subsequently,
the various farming cultural practices, crop cycles,
and environmental conditions will influence the
evolution of weedy rice. Weedy rice should therefore
be understood at a local level and controlled based on
knowledge of local conditions and local potential to
control this problem.
Weedy rice, usually a shattering form of the
taxonomic species O. sativa, comes from innumerable
locally adapted populations. For each consecutive
season that weedy rice remains a field problem, it
becomes better adapted to its local environment and it
is only by abrupt changes in farming practices, such
as draining the soil, that buildup of weedy rice seed
bank can be prevented. Where applicable, preventing
possible hybridization between wild and cultivated
rice is likely to be effective in controlling this weed.
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to collaborators in Malaysia,
Vietnam, and Surinam for their cooperation.
33
 Table 3. Primers, their nucleotide sequence, and number of polymorphic bands
generated from within the analyzed sample sets.a

Primer Nucleotide sequence MUDA Tanjung Karang Kota Baru Surinam

code of primer

P4 GCAGAGCATC 1 1 6 3
P7 AGCACTTCGG 1 2 2 2
P9 ACTCCGCAGT 1 – 1 1
P22 ATGAGTCCAC 2 2 2 2
P29 TGCGGTCAAC 1 2 3 2
P34 CTTGCCTCCC 1 1 – –
P41 GAGTGCGCAG 1 1 – 1
P42 CCGGACTGAC 2 2 1 1
P44 TGGTCGCACG – – 1 –
P104 TGGTCCCTGA 1 1 – –
P105 TGGTCGCTGA – 3 – –
P108 TGGACACTGA 1 3 – –
P110 TGGGCACTGA 1 2 2 –
P117 TGGTCAGTGA 2 3 1 –
P162 GTAGACCCGT – – – 3
P206 CTCGACTAGG – – – 1
P245 CAGTTCTGGC – – – 3
P285 CTGGCGGCTG – – – 1
P301 GCTGGACATC – – – 1
Total 15 23 19 21
a
–not used since no polymorphism was detected.

Table 4. Variance components for morphoagronomic traits of Malaysian weedy rice samples.

Variance Days to Height Flag leaf Flag leaf Panicle Seed Seed
flowering length width length length width

Location 3,360 ** 1,168 ** 3.2ns 7.3** 12.5* 2.4** 0.01ns

Block 5.5ns 67.4ns 127.7* 2.1ns 7.3* 0.1ns 0.01ns
Sample 178.8** 1,943 ** 102.8** 7.2** 13.6** 0.8* 0.05**
Error 6.1 66.2 25.1 0.9 2.2 0.1 0.01
a
ns = nonsignificant. * = P<0.05. ** = P<0.01.

References Moody K. 1994. Weedy forms of rice in Southeast Asia.

Abdullah MZ, Vaughan DA, Watanabe H, Okuno K. 1996.
The origin of weedy rice in Peninsular Malaysia.
MARDI Res. J. 24(2):169-174.
Azmi M, Watanabe H, Abdullah MZ. 1994. Morphological
characteristics of Padi Angin. Paper presented at the
MARDI Workshop on Padi Angin, 18 May 1994,
Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia. 17 p.
Chin DV. 1997. Occurrence of weedy rice in Vietnam. In:
Proceedings of the 16th Asian Pacific Weed Science
Society Conference. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Asian
Pacific Weed Science Society. p 243-245.
Ho NK. 1991. Comparative ecological studies of weed flora
in irrigated rice fields in the MUDA area. MADA
Monograph No. 44. Alor Setar Kedah, Malaysia:
MUDA. 97 p.
Lanner-Herrera C, Gustafsson M, Falt AS, Bryngelsson T.
1996. Diversity in natural populations of wild
Brassica oleraceae as estimated by isozyme and
RAPD analysis. Genet. Resour. Crop Evol. 43:13-23.
Paper presented at the MARDI Workshop on Padi
Angin, 18 May 1994, Kepala Batas, Penang, Malay-
sia. 5 p.
Ten Have H. 1967. Research and breeding from mechanical
culture of rice in Suriname. Wageningen: Center for
Agriculture Publications and Documents.
Wahab AH, Suhaimi. 1991. Padi angin, adverse effects and
methods for its eradication [in Malay]. Teknol. Padi
7:27-31.
Williams JGK, Hanafey MK, Rafalski JA, Tingey SV.
1993. Genetic analysis using randomly amplified
polymorphic DNA markers. Methods Enzymol.
218:704-740.
Zuki Md I, Watanabe H, Ho NK. 1995. Status and control
of weedy rice problems in the Muda area. In:
Proceedings of the 15th Asian-Pacific Weed Science
Society Conference. Tokyo: Asian Pacific Weed
Science Society. p 817-833.

34
Wild and weedy rice in China
Chao Xian Zhang
Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 10094, People’s Republic of China
Rice is the most important grain crop in China and has
been grown for more than 7,000 yr. The area planted
to rice every year exceeds 30 million ha. In China, rice
is distributed from Helongjiang Province in the north
to Hainan Province in the very south, and from the
Xinjiang Ugur Autonomous Region in the west to
Taiwan Province in the east. Average yield is 5.8 t ha-1.
In recent years, direct-seeded rice and simplified
transplanted rice has become popular. In contrast to
traditional transplanting, this method involves
throwing rice seedlings onto the prepared field by
hand. This system is referred to as “less intensive”
cropping.
More than 700 weed species of agriculture have
been identified in China; 60 of them being classified
as very important species in the 1980s. In spite of
control measures implemented, about 3 million t of
grain loss have been reported due to weeds. Similarly,
weeds have always been a major constraint to rice
production in China, with 70 species being recorded
in rice fields. Among these, Echinochloa crus-galli,
Monochoria vaginalis, Cyperus difformis, Rotala
indica, Sagittaria pygmaea, Potamogeton distinctus,
Eleocharis acicularis, Marsilea quadrifolia, Cyperus
iria, Leptochloa chinensis, Scirpus juncoides,
Scirpus planiculmis, and Jussiaea repens are the
most troublesome.
Herbicides are intensively applied to control rice
weeds, in addition to implementing various manage-
ment measures through manual and cultural means.
Currently, the most commonly used herbicides and
mixes of herbicides in rice are butachlor, acetochlor,
propanil, thiobencarb, oxyfluorofen, quinclorac,
bensulfuron, metsulfuron, acetochlor + bensulfuron +
metsulfuron, butachlor + bensulfuron + metsulfuron,
and quinchlorac + bensulfuron + metsulfuron.
A nationwide survey has identified three species
of wild rice in Hunan, Jiangxi, Fujian, Guangdong,
Guangxi, Yunnan, Hainan, and Taiwan provinces:
Oryza sativa f. spontanea, O. officinalis, and O.
meyeriana. These species persist in the wild and are
considered important sources of breeding germplasm.
Conservation measures must be implemented to save
these rices from extinction.
Weedy rice has not been reported as a weed in
China to date. Labor-intensive weeding, manual plant
selection in the nursery and transplanting may explain
its non-occurrence. However, as cultural practices
change and as more labor move from agriculture to
other industries, weedy rice may become a problem in
the future.
Reference
Agricultural Resources of China and Regional Review. 1987.
China: Publishing House of Industrial Business.
35
Distribution, emergence, and
control of Korean weedy rice
J.Y. Pyon1, W.Y. Kwon2, and J.O. Guh1
Department of Agronomy, Chungnam National University, Taejon 305-764, Korea
1

Department of Agronomy, Seoul National University, Suwon 441-744, Korea

2

Red rice is a serious weed of direct-seeded rice,
contributing to lower rice quality in Korea. Trans-
planting was commonly practiced by Korean farmers
but, in recent years, the government encouraged a
shift to dry direct-seeding to save on labor. This
resulted in increased occurrence of weedy rices in
farmers’ fields.
This paper examines the characteristics of weedy
rice and describes the distribution and emergence
pattern, weed competition, and methods of controlling
weedy rices in Korea.
Distribution
Suh et al (1992) collected 1,113 lines of weedy rices
from farmers’ fields throughout the Korean peninsula
from 1988 to 1991. Two hundred and eighty-nine lines
of long-grain-type weedy rices were distributed in the
southern provinces of Korea (Kyeongnam, Kyeongbuk,
Jeonnam, and Jeonbuk), while 824 lines of the short-
grain type were distributed in eight provinces (Table
1). Of the long-grain weedy rice collected, 90.8% had
red pericarp and 9.2% had white pericarp. For short-
grain weedy rice, 88.8% had red pericarp, 10.6% had
brown, and 0.6% had white. All long-grain-type
weedy rices showed easy shattering and had no
awns. Among the short-grain types, 85.2% showed
easy shattering and 49.6% were awned.
Weedy rices were the more important weeds in
direct-seeded rice fields (Choi et al 1995). Five lines of
red rice were also found infesting direct-seeded rice in
Gangwha County, Kyeonggi Province (Lee et al 1993).
Many types of red rice with short or long awns on the
spikelet (occasionally some types occur without awn
on the spikelet) were found in the same hill. Suh et al
(1997) also reported that the number of weedy rice
plants was higher in direct-seeded fields than in
transplanted rice fields, with most of the weedy rices
found within hills of cultivated rice fields and only a
few grown between hills (Table 2). However, the
number of weedy rices occurring in direct-seeded rice
fields was higher in rows or between hills than within
hills or rows.
Emergence pattern
Occurrence of weedy rice was closely related to
seeding date. Choi et al (1995) have shown that early
seeding resulted in higher emergence rate of weedy
rice (Table 3). This suggests that weedy rice germi-

Table 1. Red rices collected in the Korean peninsula from Table 2. Number of plants and panicles of weedy rice
1988 to 1991 (Suh et al 1992). grown in three kinds of fields: transplanted, transplanted
after direct seeding in the previous year, and direct-
Types seeded (Suh et al 1997).
Region Counties
Long Short Total visited Cultivation Weedy Weedy rice Cultivated
grain grain (no.) type rices m–2 panicles m–2 variety
(no.) (no.)
Kyeongnam 76 82 158 18
Kyeongbuk 158 316 474 26 Transplanting 0.2 4.6 Hwanambyeo
Jeonnam 49 43 92 10 0.3 6.7 Unknown
Jeonbuk 6 34 40 6 Transplanting 2.3 50.6 Garak Shin 1
Chungnam 0 94 94 13 after direct 3.2 70.4 Hwanambyeo
Chungbuk 0 85 85 8 seeding 2.2 46.2 Dongjinbyeo
Kyeonggi 0 121 121 13 Direct seeding 4.2 92.4 Garak Shin 1
Kangwon 0 49 49 7 6.6 151.8 Garak Shin 1
Total 289 824 1,113 101 4.4 101.2 Garak Shin 1

37
Table 3. Occurrence of weedy rice as affected by seeding nates as well as cultivated rice at low temperature.
dates of direct-seeded rice (Choi et al 1995).
Occurrence of weedy rice was also affected by tillage
method. The emergence rate of weedy rice was higher
Seeding date Occurrence (%) Relative index in fields with no-tillage and rotary tillage regimes
10 Feb 3.6 180 (Table 4). In fields plowed, followed by rotary tillage,
10 Mar 3.1 155 weedy rice was deeply buried in the soils.
10 Apr 2.9 145 Kwon et al (1996) reported 2.7–3.7% emergence
10 May 2.0 100
30 May 0.8 40 of cultivated rice and 17–26.3% emergence of weedy
10 Jun 0.5 25 rice during the November planting before winter. The
30 Jun 0.4 20 emergence rate of weedy rice at low temperature was
better than that of cultivated rice. Emergence
Table 4. Occurrence of weedy rice as affected by tillage percentages were higher at shallower depths than in
method (Choi et al 1995). deep soil (Table 5). Cultivated rice did not emerge at
Tillage method Occurrence Index the 9-cm water depth, but weedy rice did (between 60
(no. 10 a–1) and 100%) at the same depth (Table 6, Suh and Ha
1993). Weedy rice emerged at the 11-cm water depth;
Plow + rotary tillage 46 100
Rotary tillage 127 276 the same trend was observed at deeper soil depths.
No tillage 289 628

Table 5. Emergence of rice and weedy rice sown in sandy clay loam field at different sowing depths
and dates under dry direct-seeded conditions (Kwon et al 1996).a

Sowing Recommended rice Old rice strain Weedy riceb

depth Sowing date
(cm) Dongjin Dadajo Galgga Galssal

1 28 Nov 1994 2.7 f** 3.7 b 17.0 cd 26.3 cd

3 Apr 1995 79.3 b 79.7 a 81.7 ab 85.3 ab
1 May 1995 93.3 a 93.3 a 79.2 ab 95.3 a
3 28 Nov 1994 1.7 f 3.7 d 0.0 d 9.3 a
3 Apr 1995 68.3 c 80.3 a 90.0 a 81.3 ab
1 May 1995 86.0 ab 88.0 a 67.5 b 99.7 a
6 29 Nov 1994 0.0 f 0.0 d 0.0 d 0.0 e
3 Apr 1995 56.3 d 49.0 b 70.0 ab 71.3 b
1 May 1995 82.0 ab 89.0 a 64.2 d 92.7 a
9 28 Nov 1994 0.0 f 0.0 d 0.0 d 0.0 e
3 Apr 1995 14.7 e 25.3 c 25.8 c 32.0 c
1 May 1995 14.0 e 48.7 b 5.8 d 38.7 c
a
Means within a row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by Duncan’s multiple range test
(DMRT). bGalgga = Galsaekggarakshare, Galssal = Galsaekssalshare.

Table 6. Shoot emergence rate of short-grain Korean weedy rices at different water depths (Suh and Ha 1993).

Emergence rate (%) at different water depths

Weedy rice
1 cm 3 cm 5 cm 7 cm 9 cm 11 cm

Kyeongsanaengmi 14 92.5 ab* 92.5 a 100.0 a 92.5 a 72.5 de 85.0 a

Jainaengimi 4 90.0 ab 95.0 a 100.0 a 97.5 a 95.0 ab 95.0 a
Suseongaengmi 5 95.0 ab 97.5 a 97.5 a 90.0 a 87.5 bc 85.0 a
Damtiaengmi 6 95.0 ab 95.0 a 90.0 a 85.0 a 65.0 ef 72.5 a
Gachangaengmi 3 100.0 a 97.5 a 92.5 a 97.5 a 96.0 abc 82.5 a
Cheongdoaengmi 4 97.5 a 97.5 a 95.0 a 85.0 a 67.5 ef 60.0 a
Geochangaengmi 3 97.5 a 97.5 a 97.5 a 95.0 a 60.0 f 75.0 a
Sancheongaengmi 9 95.0 ab 97.5 a 97.5 a 85.0 a 80.0 cd 87.5 a
Geumcheonaengmi 1 97.5 a 97.5 a 97.5 a 95.0 a 100.0 a 95.0 a
Habcheonaengimi 7 97.5 a 90.0 a 87.5 a 95.0 a 97.5 ab 97.5 a
Seomjinbyeo (rice) 67.5 b 60.0 b 15.0 b 10.0 b 0.0 g 0.0 b
Mean 95.8 95.8 a 95.5 91.8 81.5 83.5
a
Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by DMRT.

38
Kwon et al (1996) noted that weedy rice emerged more
slowly than cultivated rice. Soil crusting and harden-
ing hampered seedling emergence of cultivated rice,
but not that of weedy rice (Lee et al 1996). Growth of
weedy rice was faster in dry than in flooded condition
(Kuk et al 1997).
Competition between rice
and weedy rice
Weedy rice in competition with direct-seeded rice
reduced yields by about 22.1%, but the competitive
ability of the latter was increased at higher seeding
rates (Table 7). The number of panicles of rice was
reduced more than the other yield components when
rice was infested with weedy rice. Lee et al (1987)
reported that a significant yield reduction of rice
started when rice competed with weedy rice 20 d (or
longer) after rice transplanting (Table 8).Yield reduc-
tion was mainly attributed to the decrease in number
of panicles per hill and number of grains per panicle.
Three hundred panicles m–2 of weedy rice were
needed to reduce rice grain yield by 50% that of hand-
weeded rice.
Control of weedy rice
Chemical control of weedy rice has not been practiced
in Korea. Kuk et al (1997) studied weed control
systems using herbicides and found that weedy rice
was completely controlled by thiobencarb at 2.1 kg ai
ha–1 and by oxadiazon at 0.24 kg ai ha–1. Molinate (6.5
kg ai ha–1), however, gave 26–67% control when
applied 6 d before rice seeding (Table 9). Severe rice
injuries were observed with use of thiobencarb and
oxadiazon under flooded conditions. A slight rice
injury was noted when water was drained before
herbicide application.
In conclusion, weedy rices are widely distributed
and become a serious weed in direct-seeded rice fields
in Korea because of their great adaptability to emerge
at low temperature and from deep soil or water depths.

Table 7. Agronomic characteristics and yield components of direct-seeded rice at different rates of mixing with red rice
(Lee et al 1983).

Sowing rate Panicles m–2 Grains Percentage of Yield of milled Decreased

(kg 10 a–1) (no.) panicle –1 ripened grains rice (t ha–1) rate (%)
(no.) (no.)
Rice Red rice Red rice Rice

6 0 – 250 98 85.9 3940 –

6 2 77 202 90 81.5 3420 13.2
8 0 – 258 92 84.7 4790 –
8 2 62 246 90 80.7 3730 22.1
10 0 – 264 90 81.0 4360 –
10 2 44 255 82 79.8 3770 13.5

Table 8. Yield and growth of rice as influenced by duration of weedy rice

competition (Lee et al 1987).a

Duration of Grain
competition Rice yield Panicles hill–1 panicles–1 Ripening Panicle
(d) (g pot–1) (no.) (no.) ratio (%) length (cm)

0 42.9 a* 15.7 a 57 ab 81.7 a 17.5 a

10 34.1 ab 15.1 a 57 ab 87.4 a 17.0 b
20 32.1 bc 13.8 ab 60 a 86.9 a 16.7 b
30 31.5 bc 10.6 bc 58 a 87.7 a 16.1 c
40 29.8 bc 10.6 bc 47 ab 86.3 ab 16.1 c
50 24.4 bc 9.9 bc 48 ab 86.3 ab 15.9 c
60 23.6 c 7.3 c 42 b 84.2 b 14.4 d
All season 22.7 c 7.4 c 45 ab 81.2 c 14.9 d
a
Means in a column followed by the some letter are not significantly different at the 5% level by
DMRT.

39
 Table 9. Effect of thiobencarb, molinate, and oxadiazon on shoot fresh weight of weedy rice and rice
24 d after application (Kuk et al 1997).

Weedy rice (flood) Rice

Treatment (g 3 plants–1)
(kg ai ha–1) Flood Drain
1 2
1 2 1 2

Control 0.71 0.77 0.67 0.69 0.72 0.78

Thiobencarb (1.05) 0 0.40 0.33 0.38 0.69 0.80
Thiobencarb (2.1) 0 0 0.18 0.25 0.64 0.74
Molinate (4.5) 6.65 0.81 0.70 0.62 0.73 0.80
Molinate (6.5) 0.5 0.25 – – 0.68 0.72
Oxadiazion (0.24) 0 0 0.50 0.48 0.64 0.68
Oxadiazion (0.48) 0 0 0 0 – -

Under no-tillage conditions, weedy rices compete well
with the rice crops in direct-seeded fields. The weeds
are also disseminated naturally. The control methods
of weedy rice were not completely established in
direct-seeded rice fields in Korea.
References
Choi CD, Moon BC, Kim SC, Oh YJ. 1995. Ecology and
growth of weeds and weedy rice in direct-seeded rice
fields. Korean J. Weed Sci. 15:39-45.
Kuk, YI, Guh JO, Chon SU. 1997. Difference of classifica-
tion, growth and herbicidal tolerance in collected
weedy rice. Korean J. Weed Sci. 17:31-43.
Kwon YW, Lee BW, Kim DS. 1996. Seedling emergence of
rice, weedy rice, and Echinochloa species sown before
wintering and in early spring. Korean J. Weed Sci.
16:88-99.
Lee BW, Kwon YW, Myung EJ. 1996. Effect of soil
crusting and hardening during drying after artificial
rainfall on seedling emergence of rice and barnyard-
grass. Korean J. Crop Sci. 41:131-138.
Lee DW, Hong YK, Kim JC, Kim YH. 1983. Ecological
characteristics of red rice and factors affecting its
competition with rice. Korean J. Weed Sci. 3:143-150.
Lee DW, Kim JC, Kim YH, Hong YK, Son SY. 1987. Effect
of duration of competition and density of red rice on
growth and yield of rice. Korean J. Crop Sci. 7: 45-51.
Suh HS, Ha WG. 1993. Collection and evaluation of Korea
red rice. V. Germination and characteristics on
different water and soil depth. Korean J. Crop Sci.
38:128-133.
Suh HS, Back JH, Ha WG. 1997. Weedy rice occurrence
and position in transplanted and direct-seeded
farmer’s fields. Korean J. Crop Sci. 42:352-356.
Suh HS, Park SJ, Heu MH. 1992. Collection and evaluation
of Korea red rice. I. Regional distribution and seed
characteristics. Korean J. Crop Sci. 37:425-430.

40
Wild and weedy rice in the
Nepalese ecosystem
S.R. Gupta and M.P. Upadhyay
Agriculture Botany Division, Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal

The Kingdom of Nepal is a land-locked country Potential value

located in the cradle of the youngest mountain
system of the great Himalaya, within the geographical Land races and wild relatives of cultivated rice are
range of 26° 22′ to 30° 27′ N latitude and 80° 04′ to 88° novel genetic sources of resistance to biotic and
12′E longitude. The total land area of the country is abiotic stress (Table 1). The wild species of rice
147,181 km2 and the altitude varies from 60 m in the constitute a major gene pool for rice improvement.
south to 8,848 m in the north (Mt. Everest). They have shown multiple resistances to pests and
The agriculture sector provides employment to diseases (sheath blight, tungro, blast, and bacterial
more than 80% of the labor force, produces nearly blight). These genes for resistance to biotic and
50% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and abiotic stress are being used by breeders to further
generates a significant part of the export earnings of improve rice productivity.
Nepal. Within this sector, rice is by far the most
important crop. Its importance in the national Distribution of wild rice
economy is obvious as it contributes nearly 20% to
agricultural GDP and 54% to total food grain produc- In the past, rice breeding activities concentrated on
tion of the country. It also meets more than 50% of the varietal improvement through introduction and
total calorie requirement of the Nepalese people. selection. Exploitation of wild and weedy rice has not
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Nepal has been culti- been given due attention.
vated since the Vedic times. Its description is found in
the Vedas and other literature written in 2,800 BC. It is Table 1. Geographical location of varieties possessing
the main crop and the staple food of the people. It is useful traits.
cultivated in a wide range of agroclimatic conditions
Trait Location
and is grown at diverse altitudes ranging from 60 to
3,050 m above sea level, the highest rice cultivation Semidwarfism East Asia
point in the world. Diverse environments from warm Early maturity Southeast Asia
Nitrogen response (lodging East Asia
subtropical in the plains to temperate in the mountain resistance)
region of the Himalayas and the traditional farming Resistance to bacterial blight South/Southeast Asia
systems have contributed to the evolution of a large Resistance to tungro virus South Asia
Resistance to grassy stunt virus South Asia
number of land races in Oryza species. The existence Resistance to ragged stunt virus Asia (from several
of wild rice species and related wild taxa and the diploid species)
richness of local germplasm are evidences of an Resistance to rice green South Asia, Africa
leafhopper
abundant genetic stock of rice in Nepal. Conservation Resistance to brown planthopper South Asia
of such diverse genetic resources could provide a Resistance to stem borer Southeast Asia
valuable basis for developing suitable varieties in the Resistance to gall midge South/Southeast Asia
Tolerance for low night Southeast Asia
future. The present-day rice plant, O. sativa L., temperatures
evolved from natural parents O. rufipogon and O. Tolerance for salinity South Asia
nivara, both of them coexisting in natural swamps of Flood and submergence South Asia
tolerance
the country. Cytoplasmic male sterility East Asia

41
 Mountain
Hill
Terai

Fig. 1. Distribution of wild rice in Nepal.

Table 2. Surveys of wild rice conducted in Nepal. Table 3. Preservation of wild rices at IRRI, Philippines.

Year Purpose Area explored No. Species Samples

1994 Survey of wild rice Ajigara Lake, Gorusinghe 1 O. nivara 10

Lake, Budhi Lake and
Taulihawa area of
Kapilvastu District
1995 Survey of wild rice Chitwan, Rupandehi,
and Kapilvastu districts
1996 Exploration of wild Surkhet, Dailekh, Jajarkot
and cultivated rice Dandeldhura districts
1997 Exploratory survey Chitwan, Rupanehi, and
for possible habitats Kapilvastu districts
of wild rice colection
Members of a collaborative team from IRRI and
the Department of Agriculture, Nepal, led collecting
missions in different locations in Nepal in 1988
(Fig. 1). They collected 40 samples including 18
samples of weedy rice, 9 samples of O. nivara, 4
samples of O. rufipogon, 3 samples of O. granulata, 2
samples of H. aristata, and 4 samples of L. hexandra.
Experts from the Agriculture Botany Division partici-
pated in the exploration missions (Table 2).
Conservation
The wild species are in danger of extinction as their
habitats are being destroyed by human activities.
Wild rice species and local fish, birds, frogs, snakes,
crabs, leaches, snails, and others coexist in swampy
lands and in areas where cultivated rice varieties
grow. Natural introgression of wild and cultivated rice
germplasm is apparently visible. The ecosystem has
2 O. rufipogon 3
3 O. spontanea and 1
hybrid population
4 O. granulata 3
Total 17
maintained a natural balance for sustainable agricul-
ture. However, swampy lands are being drained and
converted into rice fields or artificial fish ponds.
Conservation, either in situ or ex situ, ensures that
varieties are saved for the use of future generation.
The collected wild rices and their related species are
preserved ex situ at IRRI (Table 3).
Wild and weedy rices of Nepal
Weedy rice
Weedy rice known as O. sativa f. spontanea is the
result of mutation or natural crosses between
cultivated species of O. sativa with the annual O.
nivara/O. rufipogon. It is observed in cultivated rice
fields where they mature earlier than local varieties. It
easily shatters and the shattered seeds regenerate
naturally as an obnoxious weed. Weedy rice is a
problem in rice fields of the Hills and the Terai. Black
husked weedy rice from Kathmandu Valley is prone to
shattering and is intermediate between indica and
japonica types, suggesting that its origin might be
due to spontaneous crossing between these two
types. Other forms of weedy rice have also been

42
observed. Presumably, crossing with cultivated
varieties has resulted in various types of weedy rices
with awn/awnless and colored husks. Economic
losses incurred by farmers have not been estimated.
Oryza nivara
It is estimated that this species of wild rice is available
throughout the Terai region of the country. This is
called Jharanga or Tinna by local people. Three
distinct ecotypes of this species have been observed
in plain areas. Semidwarfs are common in seasonally
dry ditches at the edge of ponds or shallow water
depths. It matures in October. The panicle is compact
until seeds are fully mature. The tall type with more
luxuriant plant possesses large panicles resembling
those of O. sativa and occurs in relatively deep water.
This ecotype seems to be more sensitive to photope-
riod, with booting to flowering stages occurring in
mid-October. Panicle initiation of the photoperiod-
sensitive ecotype has also been observed in October.
Oryza rufipogon
Locally known as Tinni, this species is found in low-
altitude areas. Three strains have so far been re-
corded. Two strains possess long anthers and have
open panicles. Heading occurs in October and it
produces many tillers in deep water. Seeds are
collected by tying the culms together, shaking them,
and spreading plastic sheets to catch them. This rice
is eaten during religious ceremonies. It is distributed
in the southern parts of the country. Another strain
has a different photoperiod sensitivity. Flowering
stage varies with location.
Oryza granulata
This is typically a shade-loving wild rice variety
popularly known as Sita Rani dhan. It probably
evolved from the dense sloping forests in the
subtropical regions of South and Southeast Asia.
This species was first observed in the forest of the
Lothar River in Chitwan Valley and in the Chula Chuli
hills within the Churiya range in Jhapa and Ilam
districts. It is adapted to altitudes ranging from 220 to
1,000 m above sea level.
Oryza officinalis
This species exists in Nijgadh and Janakpur areas of
the central development region and in the vicinity of
Sundarpur village, Kanchanpur District, in the far
western region.
Hygroryza aristata
It is one of the genera under the tribe Oryzae and is
found abundantly in the central and eastern parts of
the Terai region. This species is found in Budhi Tal in
Budhi village panchayat of Kapilvastu District.
Leersia hexandra
This species is primarily a weed found in rice culti-
vated areas throughout Nepal.
Project on Safeguarding
Rice Biodiversity
IRRI and the Nepal Agricultural Research Council
(NARC) have taken collaborative initiatives in
safeguarding rice biodiversity. Exploration of wild and
weedy rice is also one of the project’s agenda. This
component will be completed in 1999. Furthermore,
seven national staff members attended a training on
“Field Collection and Conservation of Rice
Germplasm” in 1997.
References
Chang TT. 1985. Crop history and genetic conservation:
rice–a case study. Iowa State J. Res. 59:425-455.
Gupta SR, Upadhyay MP. Katsumoto T. 1996. Status of
plant genetic resources in Nepal.
IRRI (International Rice Research Institute). 1991.
Proceedings of the Third International Workshop on
Rice Germplasm Collecting, Preservation, and Use.
Manila (Philippines): IRRI.
Jackson M, Huggan R. 1993. Sharing the diversity of rice to
feed the world. Diversity 9(3):22-25.
Konishi T. 1983. Cultivation and utilization of major crops
in Nepal. In: Fukuda I, editor. Scientific research on the
cultivation and utilization of major crops in Nepal.
Report on the January Expedition to Observe
Nepalese Agriculture. Tokyo. p 28-39.
NARC (Nepal Agricultural Research Council and [IPGRI]
International Plant Genetic Resources Institute). 1994.
Proceedings of the National Workshop on Plant
Genetic Resources Conservation, Use, and Manage-
ment. NARC and IPGRI.
NRRP (National Rice Research Programme). 1997. 25 years
of rice research in Nepal (1972-1997). Bara (Nepal):
NRRP.
Oka HI. 1988. Origin of cultivated rice. Tokyo: Japan
Scientific Societies Press.
Sharma SD, Sampath S. 1985. Taxonomy and species
relationship. Rice research in India. New Delhi (India):
Indian Council of Agricultural Research.
Shahi BB, Heu MH. 1979. Low temperature and research
activities in Nepal.
43
Shrestha GL, Vaughan DA. 1989. Wild rice in Nepal. Paper
presented at the Third Summer Crop Working Group
Meeting.
Shrestha GL. 1984. Genetic stock of rice in Nepal. Paper
presented at the workshop seminar on plant explora-
tion and related activities.
Vaughan DA. 1988. Joint NARSC-IRRI collection for the
wild relatives of rice in Nepal, 30 Sep-18 Oct 1988.
International Rice Germplasm Center, IRRI, Philip-
pines.
Vaughan DA. 1994. The wild relatives of rice: a genetic
resources handbook. Manila (Philippines): Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute.
137 p.

44
Weedy rice in Vietnam
Duong Van Chin1, Tran Van Hien1, and Le Van Thiet2
1
Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute, Omon, Cantho, Vietnam
2
Regional Plant Protection Centre of South Vietnam, Long Dinh, Tien Giang, Vietnam
Weedy rice is becoming a new pest in rice-growing
areas of Vietnam. Wild rice (e.g. Oryza rufipogon)
exists in Vietnam’s unfarmed land and along canals
and are thought to be progenies of crosses between
wild and cultivated rice. The existence of wild rice in
Vietnam was detected by scientists from IRRI and the
Cuu Long Delta Rice Research Institute (CLRRI) in a
survey conducted during the summer-autumn
seasons of 1994. Higher weedy rice infestations were
observed in the summer-autumn rice crop than in
other seasons of the year. Infestation was very severe
in dry-seeded rice culture but less so in wet-seeded,
zero tillage, and transplanted systems. Weedy rice
was noted for its easy shattering character. Other
features observed were increased height, reduced
tiller number, weak culms, small seeds, and red
pericarps. Controlling weedy rice is difficult because it
mimics cultivated rice and farmers are unable to
distinguish between the two. At present, there is no
effective herbicide to control weedy rice completely
and there is no single method that can control weedy
rices. Since the 1994 survey, research work on this
pest has continued and some papers on the topic
have already been published. These publications are
reviewed in this chapter and findings from additional
experimental work is reported.
Materials and methods
Ten weedy rice accessions were compared with those
of cultivated rice varieties IR64 and OMCS 94. Their
seed dormancy was studied based on germination
tests at 15-d intervals after harvest. A seed longevity
study was also undertaken. Measurements of seed
persistence were done by destructive sampling of 24
seed packets for each accession containing 100 seeds
each placed in the soil at 10 cm depth under two
different water regimes—moist and continuously
submerged conditions. Packets of 100 seeds of weedy
rice were made up by enclosing seeds within 10-cm
plastic transparency frames using fine nylon mesh.
Seeds were tested for germination using distilled
water and paper placed in petri dishes. The remaining
seeds that did not germinate in the petri dishes were
tested for viability by using tetrazolium chloride. The
imbibed seeds were cut longitudinally and then
stained in a solution of 1% triphenyl tetrazolium
chloride for 24 h in darkness. The samples were
transferred to distilled water and examined immedi-
ately. Seeds were dissected and classified on the
basis of these stain characteristics: they are viable if
they stain red or strong pink and dead if they remain
unstained.
In yield loss experiments, seeds of three varieties
of weedy rice—LATA 18, LATT 11, and HCMBC 3—
were sown at 0, 1, 3, 10, 100 ,and 1,000 seeds m–2.
Agronomic traits and yield components were mea-
sured and the relationships between tiller number, dry
matter accumulation of weedy rice, and rice yields
examined.
Results and discussion
Farmers’ perception of weedy rice infestation
More than 90% of the rice-growing area in southern
Vietnam is direct-seeded, whereas more than 90% of
the area in the north is transplanted. Weed and weedy
rice infestations are more serious in direct-seeded rice
than in transplanted rice; therefore, southern Vietnam
was selected as the study site. A 1996 survey
conducted with 4,397 farmers from 128 districts in 18
provinces showed that 67.8% of the respondents had
weedy rice in their rice fields. The most serious
infestations were found in dry-seeded fields, followed
by wet-seeded, zero tillage, and transplanted ones.
Most farmers observed the following characteristics
of weedy rice: taller plants (cited by 89.7% of the
respondents), dark yellow husk (77.4%), small seeds
(76.8%), and easy shattering (88.6%) (MARD 1996).
In a separate survey conducted by CLRRI in
Long An and Binh Thuan provinces during the 1996
summer-autumn seasons, 93% of the farmers said that
45
weedy rice occurred in their fields. In both provinces,
farmers observed higher weedy rice infestation during
summer-autumn than during other seasons. Farmers
stated that dry seeding had led to a high infestation
of weedy rice (61.8%). A majority of the farmers said
that weedy rice was taller than the cultivar (81.9%),
had weak culms (60.2), fewer tillers (58.5%), and
shattered more easily (78.3%) than cultivated rice.
Chin (1997) reported that average yield losses due to
weedy rice in dry-seeded rice were 22.5% and 13.8%
in Long An and Binh Thuan provinces, respectively.
Biology and ecology of weedy rice
Ten accessions of weedy rice were selected for the
study: BT20-1, BT41-2, LATA10, LATA14, LATA16,
LATA18, LATA20, LATA23, LATT 11, and HCMBC3,
and compared with two cultivated varieties OMCS94
and IR64. The agronomic traits of all tested varieties
are presented in Table 1. The growth duration of
weedy rice accessions varied from 95 to104 d and was
similar to that of OMCS 94 and IR64 (97–101 d). The
average height of weedy rice was 99.6 cm, being taller
than cultivated rice (90.6 cm). There were large
differences among accessions in seed shattering.
Varieties with a high level of seed shattering were
LATA10 (59.6%), LATA14 (55.7%), LATT11 (77.9%),
and HCMBC3 (45.3%). HCMBC3 had the longest
awns (5.23 cm), followed by LATA20 (2.49 cm), BT41-
2 (2.23 cm), and LATA16 (1.99 cm). Hull color ranged
from straw yellow and dark yellow to black, but the
pericarp was red. The weedy rice had from 36.3 to 64.5
seeds per panicle. All weedy rice accessions (except
BT20-1 and BT 41-2) had fewer seeds per panicle. All
of them, except BT20-1, had a higher unfilled grain
percentage than IR64 and OMCS94, whereas their
1,000-grain weights were lower than those of culti-
vated rice. Their dormancy was also studied (Table 2).
At 5, 20, and 35 d after harvest (DAH), germination
percentages varied considerably. At 5 DAH, the
germination percentage of cultivated rice was very
low (4.0–7.7%). Weedy rice accessions LATA10,
LATT11, and HCMBC3 had the same dormancy
pattern as that of IR64. Other accessions had higher
germination, ranging from 5.7% to 48.7%.
Among weedy rice accessions, there was an
inverse relationship between a high level of dormancy
and the easy shattering characteristic—i.e., the higher
the shattering percentage, the lower the germination

Table 1. Agronomic traits of 10 accessions of weedy rice vis-a-vis two cultivated rice varieties, 1997
summer-autumn season.

Variety/ Growth Plant Seed Awn length Hull Pericarp

accession duration (d) height (cm) shattering (%) (cm) color color

BT20-1 100 124.9 3.4 0.74 Black Red

BT41-2 98 83.4 5.7 2.23 Straw yellow Red
LATA10 95 91.8 59.6 0.00 Straw yellow Red
LATA14 95 80.1 55.7 0.00 Straw yellow Red
LATA16 95 112.4 1.2 1.99 Straw yellow Red
LATA18 98 96.7 1.0 0.00 Black Red
LATA20 98 109.9 2.3 2.49 Dark yellow Red
LATA23 90 89.6 4.4 0.00 Black Red
LATT11 104 104.9 77.9 0.17 Dark yellow Red
HCMBC3 98 102.6 45.3 5.23 Black Red
OMCS94 97 87.3 0.0 0.00 Straw yellow White
IR64 101 93.8 0.0 0.00 Straw yellow White

Variety/ Panicle Panicles Seeds Unfilled grain 1,000-grain

accession length (cm) plant–1 (no.) panicle –1 (no.) percentage (%) weight (g)

BT20-1 20.7da 6.2 b 64.5 ab 27.9 e 21.9 b

BT41-2 18.4 e 4.5 de 61.0 ab 42.5 b 22.4 ab
LATA10 24.3 a 5.9 b 40.8 def 57.5 a 22.3 ab
LATA14 19.2 e 5.7 bc 29.0 g 54.3 ab 21.2 b
LATA16 22.7 bc 5.6 bc 56.8 bc 45.6 cd 21.4 b
LATA18 21.1 d 6.2 b 40.0 ef 52.2 ab 21.1 b
LATA20 21.7 cd 5.1 cd 49.0 cd 40.3 d 20.2 b
LATA23 21.8 cd 7.1 a 39.5 ef 44.4 d 19.9 b
LATT11 23.8 ab 5.7 bc 47.0 de 50.5 bc 17.0 c
HCMBC3 22.4 bc 3.8 e 36.3 fg 53.9 ab 20.2 b
OMCS94 21.7 cd 5.7 bc 56.3 bc 32.8 e 25.0 a
IR64 22.6 bc 4.1 e 67.8 a 28.2 e 25.2 a
a
Values in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test.

46
percentage at 5 DAH. This is true for accessions
LATA10, LATA14, LATT11, and HCMBC3 and
reflects physiological immaturity of seeds.
At 50 DAH, all weedy rice accessions and
cultivated rice varieties had high germination percent-
ages, ranging from 77.7% to 98.3%. There were
differences among varieties at 65, 80, 95, and 110
DAH. Generally, all varieties in the two groups
displayed a high germination percentage of more than
80%. But by 110 DAH, some weedy rice varieties
exhibited low overall germination percentages—BT41-
2 (53.3%), LATA18 (67.7%), and HCMBC3 (32.0%).
The seed longevity study was carried out under
two water regimes—moist and submerged conditions.
It aimed to evaluate whether seed longevity differs
under moist conditions (which is similar to growing
upland crops in rotation) and submerged conditions
(same as continuously growing three crops of rice per
year) and to find out the rate of loss of seeds buried
in the soil over time. The results are shown in Tables 3
and 4. The reduction in germination percentage (GP)
and viable seed percentage (VSP) was faster under
moist soil conditions than under submerged condi-
tions. After 4 mo of burial under submerged soil
conditions, the average VSP of weedy rice was 57%
as opposed to 27% under moist conditions. This
suggests that creation of an aerobic moist soil
condition (as for upland crops in rotation) will
increase the rate of loss of weedy rice seeds as
compared with the continuously submerged soil
condition of three crops of rice. However, some
weedy rice accessions such as LATT 11, LATA 10,
and LATA 23 maintained a high VSP (51.3%, 63.0%,
and 78.0%, respectively), even under moist conditions
(Table 5, 6).
Yield loss due to weedy rice infestation
Two field experiments were conducted in Tien Giang
and Can Tho provinces. Cultivated rice (IR64) was
wet seeded (150 kg ha–1) and densities of weedy rice
established by manual sowing on the same day of
sowing. Bulked seeds of weedy rice accessions
LATA18, LATT11, and HCMBC3 were examined in
on-farm trials. Seed was sown to establish weedy rice
densities of 0, 1, 3, 10, 100, and 1000 seeds m–2,
cultivated rice being sown at farm rates (approxi-
mately 80 kg ha–1). These sowing densities resulted
on average in 0, 1, 5, 14, 78, and 487 tillers m–2,
respectively, in Tien Giang and 0, 1, 4, 10, 58, and 423
tillers m–2 in Can Tho. Densities of 100 and 1,000
seeds m–2 of weedy rice significantly reduced plant
height of cultivated rices in both locations. In Tien
Giang, there was no difference in rice yield among
treatments with 0, 1, and 3 seeds m–2 of weedy rices.
Yields were significantly lower under treatments of 10,
100, and 1,000 seeds m–2 compared with the check and
the treatment with 1 seed m–2 of weedy rices. Similar
trends were observed in Can Tho. Rice yield began to
decrease only beyond infestations of 10 seeds m–2. In
Tien Giang, yields in the 10-, 100-, and 1,000-seeds m–2
treatments were 4.05, 2.75, and 0.43 t ha–1, compared
with the check yield of 4.53 t ha–1. The corresponding
yields in Can Tho were 4.80; 3.63; 1.18, and 5.27 t ha–1,
respectively (Table 7).
Control measures
Well-prepared land before rice sowing and upland
crop rotation in rice-based cropping systems have
been recommended by policymakers and scientists in
Vietnam to ensure good crop establishment and to
control weeds and weedy rice in rice fields. Large-

Table 2. Germination percentage of 10 accessions of weedy rice vis-á-vis two cultivated rice varieties, 1997 autumn-winter
season.

Variety/ Germination percentage

accession
5 DAHa 20 DAH 35 DAH 50 DAH 65 DAH 80 DAH 95 DAH 110 DAH

BT 20-1 24.3 c 43.7 cd 85.7 bc 94.3 bc 98.0 a 94.3 a 95.0 b 95.3 b

BT 41-2 23.7 c 47.0 c 54.3 f 77.7 e 68.7 f 69.0 c 56.3 e 53.3 e
LATA 10 1.0 e 6.3 h 39.7 g 83.0 de 86.0 de 84.7 b 75.3 cd 84.3 c
LATA 14 6.7 d 39.0 cde 65.0 ef 91.0 cd 87.7 cde 85.7 b 81.0 c 80.3 c
LATA 16 39.7 b 71.3 b 91.0 ab 97.3 ab 97.7 ab 95.0 a 96.0 b 92.0 b
LATA 18 48.7 a 73.0 b 83.0 bcd 90.7 cd 79.0 e 73.7 c 70.7 d 67.7 d
LATA 20 41.0 ab 86.7 a 96.3 a 97.7 ab 99.0 a 98.0 a 99.0 a 95.3 ab
LATA 23 5.7 d 74.7 d 96.0 a 98.3 a 99.7 a 97.0 a 97.3 ab 96.7 ab
LATT 11 1.3 e 19.7 g 71.0 e 84.0 de 94.0 bc 95.3 a 97.0 ab 98.7 a
HCMBC 3 3.7 de 23.0 f 25.7 h 81.3 e 58.7 f 47.3 d 32.0 f 32.0 f
OMCS 94 7.7 d 31.3 ef 72.0 de 93.3 bc 89.7 cd 89.0 b 94.3 b 95.3 ab
IR64 4.0 de 33.0 de 74.7 cde 96.0 ab 98.7 a 96.0 a 97.7 ab 96.3 ab

Values in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test. DAH = days after heading.
a

47
Table 3. Germination percentage (GP) and viable seed percentage (VSP) under moist conditions, 1997-98 winter-spring
seasons.a

After 1 mo After 2 mo After 3 mo After 4 mo

Variety
GP VSP GP VSP GP VSP GP VSP

BT20-1 33.0 cd 76.7 cd 14.3 bc 45.3 cd 8.0 b 46.0 c 7.7 a 27.0 cd

BT41-2 59.7 b 67.3 de 48.3 a 53.7 c 15.3 a 17.8 ef 2.3 b 3.0 f
LATA10 1.3 f 97.0 a 1.0 e 89.0 a 0.3 c 77.3 a 1.0 bc 63.0 b
LATA14 30.7 d 47.7 f 12.3 bc 34.3 d 0.3 c 18.3 ef 1.7 bc 16.7 de
LATA16 73.3 a 79.3 c 16.7 bc 21.3 e 3.7 b 10.3 fg 1.7 bc 3.7 f
LATA18 44.0 c 55.3 ef 18.3 b 34.0 d 1.0 c 9.0 fg 1.0 bc 11.3 e
LATA20 23.0 de 33.0 g 11.3 ef 14.3 e 3.7 b 7.0 g 0.0 bc 0.7 g
LATA23 57.0 b 91.3 b 2.0 de 88.3 a 0.7 c 81.7 a 0.7 c 78.0 a
LATT11 2.0 f 85.3 bc 2.7d e 7.3 b 0.0 c 60.7 d 0.0 c 51.3 b
HCMBC3 15.0 e 64.3 e 4.7 d 35.7 d 0.7 c 23.3 de 1.3 bc 19.7 de
OMCS94 14.0 e 62.3 e 5.0 d 43.0 cd 0.3 c 36.0 cd 1.3 bc 36.7 c
IR64 19.0 e 56.7 ef 2.7 de 20.0 e 0.0 c 18.7 ef 0.0 c 17.7 de

Values in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test.
a

Table 4. Germination percentage (GP) and viable seed percentage (VSP) under submerged conditions, 1997-98 winter-
spring seasons.a

After 1 mo After 2 mo After 3 mo After 4 mo

Variety
GP VSP GP VSP GP VSP GP VSP

BT20-1 34.0 d 87.7 b 26.7 e 85.0 a 26.3 c 64.0 b 27.0 c 70.7 ab

BT41-2 70.0 b 73.3 c 54.7 c 61.0 c 53.3 b 62.7 b 48.0 b 48.0 def
LATA10 8.7 f 87.0 b 3.0 hi 73.0 b 0.0 e 73.7 ab 0.0 e 44.3 ef
LATA14 51.3 c 62.7 cde 14.3 f 42.3 de 9.7 d 42.7 c 1.7 d 51.0 cdef
LATA16 89.3 a 92.3 b 69.3 b 81.7 ab 61.7 b 74.3 ab 48.7 b 61.3 bc
LATA18 53.3 c 69.7 c 40.7 d 51.3 cd 34.3 c 62.3 b 24.0 c 57.7 cd
LATA20 91.7 a 91.7 d 83.3 a 83.7 ab 81.0 a 81.3 a 73.3 a 74.0 a
LATA23 73.7 b 92.0 b 9.0 fg 88.0 a 0.3 e 76.7 ab 0.3 de 55.7 cde
LATT11 5.0 f 100.0 a 1.3 i 87.0 a 0.3 e 83.0 a 0.3 de 76.0 a
HCMBC3 18.0 e 58.3 de 6.7 gh 26.7 f 5.0 d 28.0 d 1.3 de 29.3 gh
OMCS94 35.7 d 63.0 cde 6.7 gh 43.3 de 0.7 e 32.7 cd 0.3 de 39.3 fg
IR64 38.0 d 55.7 e 5.7 gh 34.3 ef 9.3 d 37.0 cd 0.3 de 27.3 h

Values in a column followed by the same lower letter are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test.
a

scale adoption of such techniques is limited, however,
by some socioeconomic and technical factors. The
system of rice seed multiplication and distribution in
Vietnam is very limited. No policy encourages the
government and private sector to produce clean
seeds to meet farmers’ demand. Farmers produce
seeds themselves or enter into exchange agreements
with neighbors. The acceptable standard of weed
infestation in Vietnam is 10 weed seeds kg–1 of
certified rice seeds, but in practice, the level of
infestation is 60.4 weed seeds kg–1. The use of
certified seed for rice production in the entire country
has been reported to be as low as 1.5% (Mai 1997). No
regulations pertaining to weedy rice seed contamina-
tion in rice seed are currently in force.
For water management, CLRRI research suggests
that keeping the water level at 7.5–12.5 cm after rice
establishment can suppress grasses and sedges
successfully, but not broadleaf weeds. Sowing
pregerminated cultivated rice seeds into water during
the winter- spring season at 20–40 cm depth is
practiced by farmers in the Long Xuyen quadrangle
and the Plain of Reeds in the Mekong Delta and weed
and weedy rice infestations are low in this type of rice
culture. Recently, wet seeding has been adopted in
the Ca Mau peninsula during the summer-autumn
season. Farmers there have shifted from dry seeding
to wet seeding to lessen damage caused by weeds.
They fortify levees to keep rain water to a depth of
10–15 cm for soil puddling before sowing.
CLRRI has also introduced the technique of
seedling broadcasting. Rice seedlings are grown in
holes in plastic sheets to a height of 10–15 cm before
being broadcast randomly. This method allows
valuable rice seed to be saved, and gives comparable
rice yield to that obtained with wet seeding. The water

48
Table 5. Average germination percentage (GP) and viable seed percentage (VSP) after burying weedy and cultivated rice
seeds under moist and submerged conditions, 1997-98 winter-spring seasons.

After 1 mo After 2 mo After 3 mo After 4 mo

Rice group
GP VSP GP VSP GP VSP GP VSP

Moist conditions
Weedy rice 33.9 69.7 13.2 48.9 3.4 35.1 1.7 27.4
Cultivated rice 16.5 59.5 3.9 31.5 0.2 27.4 0.6 27.2
Av 25.2 64.6 8.6 40.2 1.8 31.3 1.2 27.3

Submerged conditions
Weedy rice 49.5 81.5 30.9 68.0 27.2 64.9 22.5 56.8
Cultivated rice 36.9 59.4 6.2 38.8 5.0 34.9 0.3 33.3
Av 43.2 70.5 18.6 53.4 16.1 49.9 11.4 45.1

Table 6. Number of tillers and dry matter accumulation by

weedy rice, 1997-98 winter-spring seasons.a

Treatment Tien Giang Can Tho

(no. of
seeds m-2) Tillers m –2
Dry weight Tillers m–2 Dry weight
(no.) (g m–2) (no.) (g m–2)

0 0.0 f* 0.0 f 0.0 e 0.0 e

1 1.0 e 3.2 e 1.0 e 5.5 d
3 5.0 d 13.7 d 4.0 d 16.4 c
10 14.0 c 29.4 c 10.3 c 23.4 c
100 77.5 b 91.8 b 57.5 b 97.6 b
1000 487.0 a 552.9 a 422.8 c 491.5 a
a
Values in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different by
Duncan’s multiple range test.

Table 7. Growth and yields of cultivated rice variety IR64 under competition with weedy rice
(1997-98 winter-spring season).a

Tien Giang Can Tho

Treatment
(no. of Plant height Plant height Yield Plant height Plant height Yield
seeds m–2) at 60 DAS at 75 DAS (t ha–1) at 60 DAS at 75 DAS (t ha–1)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

0 77.8 a* 82.7 a 4.53 a 85.0 ab 97.5 a 5.27 a

1 77.5 a 82.8 a 4.50 a 85.8 a 96.5 a 5.40 a
3 78.7 a 82.3 a 4.35 ab 84.5 ab 94.5 ab 5.23 a
10 78.0 a 84.0 a 4.05 b 84.5 ab 95.5 ab 4.80 b
100 66.6 b 73.7 b 2.75 c 80.8 b 91.8 b 3.36 c
1000 60.0 c 68.1 c 0.43 d 72.8 c 79.5 c 1.18 d
a
Values in a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different by Duncan’s multiple range test. DAS = days
after sowing.

49
level at the time of broadcasting ranges from 5 to 10
cm, which is sufficient to suppress weeds particularly
grasses and weedy rice (Luat 1998).
Research and extension using clean seeds,
proper land preparation and water management, crop
rotation, biology and ecology of weedy rice, seed
bank management, and judicious use of herbicides
should be the main focus of weedy rice management
in the future.
50
References
Chin DV. 1997. Occurrence of weedy rice in Vietnam. In:
Proceedings of the 16th Asian-Pacific Weed Science
Society Conference, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Mai V. 1997. The importance of weed management in the
context of IPM in rice. Paper presented at the FAO
Regional Workshop on Improved Weed Management
in Rice, 3-6 Jun 1997, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
MARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development).
1996. Statistical data of weedy rice occurrence in
South Vietnam in 1995-1996. Vietnam: Plant Protec-
tion Department, MARD.
Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.)
in Peninsular Malaysia
B.B. Bakar1, M.A. Bakar2, and A.B. Man3
1
ISB, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
2
Crop Protection Division, Department of Agriculture, Jalan Gallagher, 50840 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3
Rice Research Centre, MARDI, Kepala Batas, 13200 Seberang Perai, Malaysia
Weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) or padi angin, as they
are known locally in Malaysia, were first detected in
Tanjung Karang rice fields in 1988 (Wahab and
Suhaimi, pers. commun.). Since then, these rices have
been found in other areas in Muda, Besut, Kerian,
Sungai Manik, and Seberang Perai. (Fig. 1). Weedy
rice is a threat to production of direct-seeded rice in
the country, resulting in up to 74% losses in heavily
infested rice fields (Watanabe et al 1996, Azmi and
Abdullah, unpubl. data). Studies by Abdullah et al
(1991), Vaughan et al (1995), Watanabe et al (1996),
and Mislamah et al (1997) indicate considerable
morphological variation and ecotypic differentiation
among weedy rice accessions prevailing in Malaysian
rice-growing regions (granaries). This paper reports
on the origin and current status of infestation, spatial
Fig. 1. Infestation pattern of weedy rice accessions in
major rice granaries in Peninsular Malaysia.
pattern of distribution, and management of weedy
rices in Peninsular Malaysia.
Origin of weedy rices
In general, Malaysian weedy rices possess morpho-
logical traits similar to those of the modern cultivated
rice, except for some characteristics that mimic
traditional and wild varieties—tall stature, long
internodes, and colored pericarp. Some accessions
also have “primitive” traits (e.g., grains with awns and
black or brown pericarp) normally associated with
wild rices (M.Z. Abdullah, pers. commun.).
Weedy rices in Malaysian rice fields can be
divided into two groups: (a) populations occurring
sympatrically with wild rices and (b) populations
found in other localities where no wild rices exist. The
former are believed to have emerged from natural
hybrids between wild and cultivated rices. However,
the relative rarity of O. rufipogon in the Tanjung
Karang granary tends to discount the hypothesis of
hybridization as the main mechanism for the occur-
rence of weedy rices in this area (M.Z. Abdullah, pers.
commun.).
The origin of weedy rices in Malaysia remains
debatable. Limited studies by Vaughan et al (1995)
and Abdullah et al (1996) indicate that weedy rices are
genetically very similar to their cultivated counter-
parts based on random amplified polymorphic DNA
(RAPD) analyses and are distinctly different from
Malaysian wild rice (O. rufipogon Griff.). In fact, crop
mimicry among weedy rices, especially with the most
popular cultivar MR84, was very prevalent. Although
there was evidence of introgression from wild rice to
cultivated rice, Abdullah et al (1996) argued that
weedy rices in Malaysia evolved as a result of indirect
selection for easy-shattering types during periods of
volunteer seeding—that is, grains that dropped
before or during harvest were the main seed source
for the next crop. In the Tanjung Karang granary,
51
distinct weedy rice ecotypes are present (Vaughan et
al 1995). Abdullah et al (1996) therefore hypothesized
that weedy rices in the Malaysian granaries evolved
from cultivated rice in two possible ways: either by
spontaneous mutation of genes controlling shattering
or by hybridization among cultivars and subsequent
selection favoring shattering phenotypes.
Morphological diversity and taxonomic
affiliation of weedy rices
Weedy rice accessions in the Malaysian granaries are
heterogeneous for many traits, especially morphologi-
cal ones. No less than 125 accessions have been
collected and identified so far from Tanjung Karang,
Muda, Besut, Seberang Perai, Kerian, and Sungai
Manik regions. Some of the major morphological traits
of these accessions are shown in Table 1. While Azmi
et al (1994) did not record considerable variation
among their collections of weedy rice accessions in
Muda in terms of panicle length, number of spikelets
panicle-1, number of unfilled grains, and 1,000-grain
weight, subsequent collections throughout Peninsu-
lar Malaysia did reflect variation in leaf color, plant
height, angle of flag leaf, panicle length, panicle size,
panicle structure (open or compact), grain shape and
size, and others. Preliminary morphometric analysis of
these accessions allowed grouping on the basis of
trait combinations (Table 1). Gross differences in
panicle type and grain characteristics represent key
taxonomic characters useful in differentiating weedy
rice accessions. Grain shapes and sizes of weedy rice
accessions ranged from awnless to very long awns,
while the pericarp can be purplish to reddish. Table 2
shows some of the undesirable agronomic traits of
weedy rices. Our studies indicated that weedy rice
accessions from the Tanjung Karang granary were
different from those found in Besut or Muda. In
studies of weedy rices in Muda and Tanjung Karang,
Watanabe et al (1996) reported heavy grain losses not
only directly from weedy rice infestations in the field
Table 1. Selected morphological traits of weedy rice accessions in Malaysian granaries.
Accession Plant height Panicle type
(no.) (cm)
20 137 Open, easy shattering
15 120 Open, easy shattering
47 121 Compact, drooping,
easy shattering
22 130 Compact, drooping,
easy shattering
21 119 Compact
52
but also from increased lodging, which may
lead to total grain loss.
Spatial pattern of distribution of
weedy rices
Extensive field surveys conducted in 1996-98
by Mislamah (Table 3) indicated consider-
able variations in the extent of infestation of
weedy rices among granaries. In the Tanjung
Karang and Besut granaries, more than 50%
were infested with weedy rices. Pockets of
infestations were also recorded in the
granaries of Kerian-Sungai Manik in the
state of Perak. In Muda, weedy rices were
very common only in the Yan District and
infestation levels observed were similar to
those reported by Watanabe et al (1996) in
more than about 400 ha. Other districts
experienced restricted infestations in
pockets. Such nonuniformity in the scale of
infestation was further reflected in quantita-
tive assessment of the abundance and
distribution of selected weedy rice acces-
sions among granaries (Table 4). Most
accessions registered a variance-to-mean
ratio and Lloyd’s patchiness index of >1,
indicating restricted distributions while
others showed a uniform distribution across
granaries (Table 5, Fig. 2). Further analysis
and experimentation is needed to explain the
underlying factors controlling such patterns
of distribution.
Management of weedy rices
No single method of control can effectively
eliminate weedy rice. Azmi et al (1994b) and
Watanabe et al (1996) proposed that
successful management of weedy rices
requires an integrated approach combining
Angle of flag leaf Grain characteristics
Horizontal Awned, reddish tinge, light
straw, grain color
Semi-erect Awned, brown grain
Semi-erect Awnless, dark straw, grain
color
Semi-erect Short awns, straw, grain
color
Horizontal Awned, pigmented grains
Table 2. Selected traits and evolutionary characteristics of Table 5. Estimation of mean (m), variance (v), variance-to-
weedy rices in Malaysia. mean ratio (vmr), Lloyd’s mean crowding (m*), and Lloyd’s
patchiness (lp) of weedy rices in Peninsular Malaysia.
Trait/characteristic Interference in rice
production
Weedy m v vmr m* Ip
Long culm Causes lodging, competitive rice
edge over rice
Short, pigmented grain Reduces rice quality PA1 5.0 10.0 2.0 6.0 1.2
Colored pericarp Reduces rice quality PA2 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 1.0
Presence/absence of awns Reduces rice quality PA3 4.0 16.0 4.0 12.0 3.0
Crop (rice) mimicry Difficult to identify for control PA4 13.5 449.0 33.0 14.0 1.04
purposes PA5 12.0 2.0 0.17 11.08 0.92
Threshability with Reduces rice yields, increases . . . . . .
spontaneous shattering seed bank in soils . . . . . .
Seed dormancy, longevity, Erratic germination patterns, . . . . . .
and viability difficult to control or to reduce PA125 2.0 0.00 0.00 2.00 0.50
seed bank, adapts to wet-
seeded fields
Tolerance for common Chemical control less effective
rice herbicides Lloyd’s mean crowding
140
X
120
Table 3. Estimated areas (ha) of weedy rice infestation in
Malaysia (1996-98).a
100
Granary 1996 1997 1998

Tanjung Karang 9,660 36,644 ? 80

Kerian-Sungai Manik n n n
Seberang Prai # 40 #
Muda 300 225 <50 60
Besut 10,000 12,000 ?
Kemubu n n n
a
n = negligible hectarage, # = not detectable, ? = incomplete data. 40

20

Table 4. Quantitative indices of different weedy rice

accessions in Malaysia. 0

Accession RDa RF RA IV SDR

Lloyd’s mean density
PA1 1.6 25.0 2.0 29.6 14.8
PA2 0.8 12.5 2.0 13.8 6.9 Fig. 2. The relationship between Lloyd’s mean density and
PA3 1.6 12.5 4.0 15.1 7.6 Lloyd’s mean crowding of weedy rices in Malaysia. X =
PA4 8.5 25.0 13.5 46.9 23.5 Iwao line.
PA5 7.5 25.0 6.0 38.5 19.3
. . . . . .
. . . . . . or paraquat at low doses have been shown to be
. . . . . . effective in promoting germination and subsequently
PA125 1.89 20.0 1.0 23.96 7.65 killing weedy rice seedlings prior to crop planting.
a
RD = relative density, RF = relative frequency, RA = relative abundance, IV Enhanced crop seeding rates of 80–100 kg ha–1, above
= importance value, SDR = summed dominance ratio. the optimum rate of 60 kg ha–1 in infested fields, also
suppress weedy rice infestations. Where possible, the
practice of dry seeding in heavily infested fields
both direct and indirect control measures (Details of should be replaced with wet seeding or tranplanting
this approach are discussed by Azmi et al, this rice cultures; volunteer seedlings should likewise be
volume.) removed. Zainal and Azmi (1994) and Azmi and
An important long-term approach in the manage- Abdullah (1997) reported that farmers resorting to
ment of weedy rice is to ensure that seed bank transplanting rice culture in weedy rice-infested areas
populations are consistently in decline. Thorough had minimal or no recurrent problems with weeds.
land preparation regimes of 2–3 rounds of tillage Another important aspect of weedy rice control is
augmented by blanket or spot sprays with glyphosate the use of clean and certified seeds. This is an

53
achievable target, although only about 65% of rice
owned by Malaysian farmers is currently certified
clean seeds. Good husbandry practices (e.g., use of
weed-free combine harvesters and other farm
equipment) will also contribute to the management of
weedy rice in Malaysia.
References
Abdullah MZ, Vaughan DA, Mohamad O. 1991. Wild
relatives of rice in Malaysia: their characteristics,
distribution, ecology and potential in rice breeding.
MARDI Report No.145. Serdang (Malaysia):
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute. 28 p.
Abdullah MZ, Vaughan DA, Watanabe H, Okuno K. 1996.
Origin and diversity of weedy rice (padi angin). In:
Watanabe H, Azmi M, Md. Zuki I, editors. Ecology of
major weeds and their control in direct seeding rice
culture of Malaysia. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS
Collaborative Study (1992-96). Serdang (Malaysia):
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute. p 167-181.
Azmi M, Abdullah MZ. 1997. A manual for the identifica-
tion and control of padi angin (weedy rices) in
Malaysia. Serdang (Malaysia). 30 p.
54
Azmi M, Watanabe H, Abdullah MZ. 1994a. Morphologi-
cal characteristics of padi angin. Paper presented at
the Padi Angin Workshop, 18 May 1994, MARDI
Research Centre, Penang. 17 p.
Azmi M, Watanabe H, Abdullah MZ, Zainal AH. 1994b.
Padi angin, an emerging threat to direct-seeded rice.
Proceedings of the Congress on Science and Technol-
ogy. Malaysia. p 29-36.
Azmi M, Abdullah MZ, Mislamah AB, Baki BB. 1998.
Management of weedy rices in Malaysia. Paper
presented at the International Symposium on Weedy
Rices, 10-11 Aug 1998, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
12 p.
Mislamah AB, Baki BB, Khairuddin HI. 1997. Spatial
pattern analysis of weedy rices in Sawah sempadan
rice granary, Selangor, Malaysia. Paper presented at
the 16th Conference of the Asia-Pacific Weed Science
Society, 8-12 Sep 1997. 4 p.
Vaughan DA, Watanabe H, Abdullah MZ, Okuno K. 1996.
Evolution and genetic diversity of Malaysian weedy
rice. Proceedings of the 15th Asian Pacific Weed
Science Society, 8-12 Sep 1997. 4 p.
Watanabe H, Azmi M, Zuki Md I. 1996. Ecology of major
weeds and their control in direct-seeded rice culture of
Malaysia. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Collaborative
Study (1992-96). Serdang (Malaysia): Malaysian
Agricultural Research and Development Institute.
202 p.
Zainal AH, Azmi M. 1994. Kawalan kultura Padi Angin [in
Malay]. Paper presented at the Padi Angin Workshop,
18 May 1994, MARDI Research Centre, Penang. 7 p.
Wild and weedy rice in Thailand
P. Vongsaroj
Weed and Agronomy Division, Department of Agriculture, Bangkhen, Bangkok, Thailand
Weedy rice is considered a problem weed in rice in
Thailand, whereas wild rice is not a serious threat.
Belonging to the same species as cultivated rice,
weedy rice is very difficult to control. It competes
strongly with cultivated rice, reducing rice yield and
the presence of red grain lowers rice quality. Higher
milling costs are incurred to remove the red pericarp,
which reduces the percentage of whole rice grain
(Austin 1979). In Thailand, weedy rice is called Khao
Pee in the south and Yah Sangae in the north,
whereas wild rice is referred to as Khao Pa. Wild rice
normally persists in uncropped land and is sometimes
mistaken as a weed. It reportedly causes yield losses
ranging from 60% to 80%; almost no yield is obtained
when the wild rice populations achieve densities of
150 plants m–2 (Fig. 1). The wide habitat range of both
wild rice and weedy rice contributes to their persis-
tence in Thailand and both are widely distributed
throughout the country.
Origin
It is widely hypothesized that weedy rice may have a
variety of origins. One possible source is introgres-
sion between wild and cultivated rices, and both
Yield of rice (t/ha)
3 (Vongsaroj 1985), whereas Khao Pa and Khao Pee
2 (Table 3) and weedy rices are of greatest concern in
1
0 weedy rice among farms is likely to be accomplished
0 50 100 150
Wild rice population (no. m–2)
Fig. 1. Relationship between wild rice O. rufipogon
population and grain yield of deepwater rice Leb Mue Nang
111, Phitsanulok, Thailand, 1984 wet season.
forms of weedy rice, Khao Pee and Yah Sangae,
exhibit similar morphological traits to local cultivars in
the south and central region of Thailand, respectively
(Vongsaroj 1976). A second origin of weedy rices is
through the segregation of “off-types” from exten-
sively planted cultivars, especially nonphotosensitive
varieties. These forms pose less of a problem to
farmers since they do not readily shatter. A third and
minor source of weedy forms are volunteer plants
from previous crops, being recruited from the soil
seed bank.
Characteristics
Wild and weedy rice varieties have a red pericarp,
exhibit awns, and are free shattering. Their seeds
shatter readily and seed dormancy period has been
observed in some populations (Vongsaroj 1976).
Habitat
Weedy and wild rice varieties share the same habitats.
Chitrakom et al (1995) found both forms in a wide
range of environments including deep and shallow
water, swamps, transient pool, and dry conditions
(Table 1), and in open and shaded areas (Table 2),
depending on the species. Yah Sangae, which infests
central Thailand, exists in deepwater areas and pools
occur in shallow flooded habitats. In Thailand, wild
rices are widely distributed throughout the country
provinces such as Singh Buri, Prachin Buri, and
Songhla (Vongsaroj 1976). Field infestations have
been observed extensively where direct seeding has
been applied (Vongsaroj 1985). The distribution of
200
by several means, including water, cattle, machinery,
and as contaminants of new varieties (Chitrakom et al
1995).
55
 Table 1. Number and percentage (in parentheses) of wild rice species found in different habitats
(Chitrakom et al 1995).

Habitatsa
Species
Deep ponded Shallow ponded Swamp Pool Dry Others
water water

O. rufipogon 111 (40) 152 (24) 12 (4) 1 (0.5) 6 (2) –

O. nivara 8 (12) 52 (75) 5 (7) – 4 (6) –
spontanea forms 13 (7)54 (69) 8 (10) – – 3 (4)
O. officinalis – 1 (12.50) – 6 (75) – 1 (12.5)
O. ridleyi – 1 (12.5) – 3 (50) 1 (25) –
O. granulata 33 (30) 60 (57) 10 (9) 2 (2) 2 (2) –

Values in parentheses are percentages.

a

Table 2. Number and percentage (in parentheses) of wild

rice species found in different shading conditions
(Chitrakom et al 1995).a

Shading conditions
Species
Open Partial Full Mixture
shade shade

O. rufipogon 267 (93) 17 (6) 3 (1) –

O. nivara 70 (92) 3 (4) – 3 (4)
spontanea forms 7 (91) 6 (8) 1 (1) –
O. officinalis 2 (22) 6 (67) 1 (11) –
O. ridleyi – 4 (80) 1 (20) –
O. granulata 2 (25) 3 (38) 1 (20) –
Unclassified 104 (88) 11 (9) 1 (1) 2 (2)

Control traits (e.g., Khao Niew Dam, a cultivar with

Many methods are available for the control of wild
and weedy rices, but none are highly effective on
their own.
1. Cleaning rice seeds by winnowing or before
planting to remove weed seeds may make a
contribution, but a more effective alternative is
the use of clean seed that is uncontaminated
with weedy forms..
2. Stale seed bed preparation by careful land
preparation can be used to reduce wild rice
and weedy rice populations. Two plow
cultivations should be done after the majority
of the weedy rice seedlings have emerged
following an initial cultivation. A third plowing
may be necessary, followed by land leveling
before direct seeding. Puckridge et al (1988)
demonstrated the efficacy of control of wild
rice and weedy populations; but the main
constraint to adoption by small-scale farmers
was the high cost involved.
3. Puckridge at al (1988) also recommended the
planting of cultivars with distiguishing color
purple stems and leaves) to differentiate the
crop from weedy forms and so aid manual
weeding. However, this tactic will only be
successful in the long term if hybridization
with wild rice is rare or prevented by other
means, for instance, through choice of
planting date.
4. Alternative methods of planting have been
recommended to spatially separate naturally
occurring weedy rice from the cultivated form
and facilitate weeding. While drill seeding and
between-row weeding can enhance yield in
wild rice-infested areas (Table 4), adoption of
drill seeding has been largely prohibited by
economic considerations. Use of pregermi-
nated direct-seeded rice can also reduce wild
rice and weedy rice populations (Table 4).
5. As reported by the Department of Agriculture,
herbicides such as alachlor, butachlor, and
molinate can effectively control weedy rices
during seed bed preparation (Vongsaroj et al
1976).

56
 Table 3. Number and percentage (in parentheses) of wild species found in different regions in Thailand
(Chitrakon et al 1995).

Speciesa
Region Total
A B C D E F G

Central 61 7 7 4 2 1 13 95
(65) (7) (7) (4) (2) (1) (14) (100)
East 9 1 10 0 0 0 5 25
(36) (4) (40) (0) (0) (0) (20) (100)
Northeast I 28 23 20 0 0 0 4 75
(37) (31) (27) (0) (0) (0) (5) (100)
Northeast II 31 30 10 0 0 0 9 80
(39) (38) (13) (0) (0) (0) (11) (100)
North I 24 3 7 2 0 7 2 45
(53) (7) (16) (4) (0) (16) (4) (100)
North II 81 9 19 0 0 3 29 141
(57) (6) (14) 0 0 (2) (21) (100)
West 34 4 2 0 0 0 15 55
(62) (7) (4) (0) (0) (0) (27) (100)
South I 6 1 1 1 0 0 6 15
(40) (7) (7) (6) (0) (0) (40) (100)
South II 8 0 2 0 1 0 28 39
(21) (0) (5) (0) (2) (0) (72) (100)
Bangkok 5 0 0 2 1 0 0 8
(63) (0) (0) (25) (12) (0) (0) 100
Total 287 78 78 9 4 11 111 578
a
A = O. rufipogon, B = O. nivara, C = spontanea forms, D = O. officinalis, E = O. ridleyi, F = O. granulata, G = unclassified species.

Table 4. Grain yield of cv LMN 111 under different treatments to control wild rice,
Phitsanulok, Thailand, 1982-86 (Puckridge et al 1988).

Mean grain yield (t ha–1)a

Treatment
1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Broadcast on plowed soil 0.11b 0.36 0.46b 0.57 0.37d

Rows at 50 cm hoeing between rows – – 1.01ab 0.50 0.82cd
Rows at 25 cm hoeing between rows – – – 0.41 0.53d

Broadcast after plowing 0.69a 0.55 – – –

Broadcast after shallow tillage – 0.36 1.26a 0.69 0.49d
Rows at 50 cm hoeing between rows – – 1.63a 0.76 1.56abc
Rows at 25 cm hoeing between rows – – – 0.66 1.08bcd

Broadcast after plowing 0.87a 0.64 – – –

Broadcast after shallow tillage – 0.61 – – –
Dry seed broadcast on puddled soil – – 1.44a 0 1.62ab
Pregerminated seed broadcast on – – 1.64a 0.63 2.24a
puddled soil

Data are mean grain yield over successive-season yields fom a field trial in an area naturally infested with wild rice.
a

Means followed by the same letter are not significantly different.

References Puckridge DW, Chankasom L, Vonsaroj P, Thongbai P,

Austin EF. 1979. Selected bibliography of red rice and other
wild rices (Oryza spp.). The Texas Agriculture
Experiment Station. College Station, Texas (USA):
Texas A & M University. 59 p.
Chitrakom C, Vutiyano C, Pusuwan P. 1995. Geographical
distribution, habitat conditions and character variations
of wild rice in Thailand. Thai. Agric. Res. J. 13(2):125-
135.
Chinawong S. 1988. Effect of tillage and sowing
methods on control of wild rice. In: Proceedings of the
1987 International Deepwater Rice Workshop. Manila
(Philippines): International Rice Research Institute.
p 593-598.
Vongsaroj P. 1976. Wild rice at Prachin Buri [in Thai]. Thai
Weed Sci. Club J. 1(2):20-23.
Vongsaroj P. 1985. Biology and distribution of wild rice and
their control. Int. Commun. Dep. Agric. 34(1):48-49.

57
Geographic distribution, ecology, and
morphology of wild and weedy rice
in Lao PDR
S. Appa Rao 1 , V. Phetpaseuth 2 , C. Bounphanousay2 , J.M. Schiller1 , and M.T. Jackson 3
1
Corresponding author, Lao-IRRI Project, P.O. Box 4195, Vientiane, Lao People’s Democratic Republic (PDR)
2
Department of Agriculture and Extension, (DAE), P.O. Box 811, Vientiane, Lao PDR
3
International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
The Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) lies
in the tropics, between 10°10′ and 22°10′ N latitude
and 100° 20′ and 107°50′ E longitude. Elevation ranges
from about 200 m above sea level in the major rice-
growing plains along the Mekong River Valley to
about 1,300 m in the Bolevan Plateau of Champassak
Province. Annual rainfall ranges from 1,500 to 3,000
mm, but, in most provinces in the Mekong Valley,
1,500–2,000 mm of rainfall is received, with about 75%
occurring from May to October. In the northern
provinces of Luang Prabang and Sayabouly, rainfall is
between 1,200 and 1,300 mm. August and September
are generally the wettest months.
Rice belongs to the genus Oryza. Of the 23
species in this genus, two are cultivated—Oryza
glaberrima Steud., which was domesticated in West
Africa and remains locally important, and O. sativa L.,
which has its origins in South and Southeast Asia,
and is now cultivated worldwide (Oka 1988, Khush
1997). The Lao PDR lies within the center of origin of
Asian rice where several wild and cultivated forms are
common.
To conserve and use this diverse rice germplasm,
a systematic collection of wild and cultivated rice from
Lao PDR was begun in 1995 by the Lao Department of
Agriculture and Extension (DAE) of the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry (MAF), in partnership with
the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). All
134 districts in the 17 provinces and a special region
(Xaisomboun) were visited. More than 10,000 samples
of cultivated rice and 203 samples of wild and weedy
rice have been collected (Appa Rao et al 1996,
1997a,b, 1998). In addition, 22 samples of wild rice
were collected in 1987 by IRRI and DAE from
Vientiane and Luang Prabang provinces. Of the 21
wild species occurring in the genus Oryza, seven
have been found in the Lao PDR. Of these, three were
collected for the first time. This paper describes the
morphology of wild and weedy rice collected in the
Lao PDR, its geographic distribution, and the
ecological conditions under which it was found.
Materials and methods
Rice germplasm was collected jointly by extension
officials from MAF and researchers from IRRI. For
this purpose, each province was considered a unit
and each district, a subunit. Collecting was done in
two to five districts in each province in each year of
the project. The MAF collectors have had no
previous experience in germplasm collection. All
potential collectors therefore attended a week-long
training course before the collection trip, scheduled to
coincide with crop maturity. The provincial coordina-
tors and collectors from each district also participated
in the training course. Staff from the Germplasm Unit
of NARC and the IRRI germplasm collector visited the
sites and worked with the teams. This increased
collection efficiency and enabled collectors to
undertake independent collecting trips. The NARC
team members, while traveling, also collected
germplasm, particularly from remote areas.
Germplasm collecting missions were conducted
from August to December. The aim was to collect as
many species as possible from diverse environmental
conditions. Mature seeds were collected from many
clusters (Vaughan and Chang 1995). At times,
developing seeds at various stages of maturity were
also collected. If mature seeds were shed completely,
seeds from the soil crevices (from the ground) around
the plants were taken. In some cases, vegetative parts
with roots were collected; these were grown in pots in
a net house at NARC. The collected seed samples
were dried in the shade and preserved in cold storage
at NARC and at the International Rice Genebank (IRG)
located at IRRI headquarters in the Philippines.
Morphological characters were studied at the time the
samples were collected, and the same traits were
59
Table 1. Samples of wild and weedy rice collected from the Lao PDR and their geographic distribution.

Oryza species No. of samples Geographic distribution

O. nivara Sharma et Shastry 74 Throughout Lao PDR; concentrated in the central

and southern regions
O. rufipogon Griff. 41 Throughout Lao PDR; concentrated in the central
and southern regions
O. granulata Nees et Arn. ex Watt 6 Luang Prabang, Oudomxai, Savaran provinces
O. officinalis Wall ex Watt 6 Khammouane and Savannakhet provinces
O. ridleyi Hook. f. 1 Champassak Province
O. minuta Presl. et Presl. (to be confirmed) 3 Savannakhet Province and Vientiane Municipality
Weedy forms 40 Southern and central regions
Yet to be identified 32

assessed from plants grown at NARC. All the wild rice production is very high. Propagation is through
samples collected were preserved at 4 °C at NARC in seeds. Considerable variations were observed both
Xaithany, Vientiane, and at IRG, following FAO within and among populations. It contains the AA
conservation and use standards (Jackson 1997). genome and has a very close phylogenetic relation-
ship to O. sativa and O. rufipogon (Vaughan 1994). O.
Results and discussion nivara belongs to the primary gene pool as there is
no barrier for crossing with cultivated rice—i.e., it is
Geographic distribution and morphology of wild easy to transfer characters to the cultivated form. It
and weedy rice has provided a dominant gene for resistance to
Wild and weedy rice was distributed throughout the grassy stunt virus biotype 1 (Khush 1997). O. nivara
country (Table 1) but was found in larger populations is considered to be the progenitor of cultivated rice O.
and more frequently in the southern and central sativa.
agricultural regions (Fig. 1). The weedy forms were
found in the central and southern regions but not in
the northern region.
Oryza nivara. The most common wild rice, O.
nivara, was found in Vientiane Municipality and in
the provinces of Champassak, Attaspeu,
Savannakhet, and Khammouane (Fig. 1). In the
northern region, it was occasionally found in
Houaphan and Bokeo provinces. O. nivara is an
annual species that flowers from early August to mid-
October. It is generally found growing along edges of
shallow ponds, tanks, irrigation canals, roadside
ditches, and swamps. These places are seasonally
dry; water is usually up to 30 cm deep. It was also
found growing along the bunds of rainfed lowland
rice fields.
*
Oryza nivara plants are semierect to decumbent, O. ridleyi
with plant height varying from 40 to 150 cm. Tillers
*
come mostly from the basal nodes; the basal intern- * O. officinalis *
odes are spongy; the panicles are not well exserted; * O. minuta
O. sativa f. spontanea
and the crop has few primary and secondary branches
with the following characteristics: compact to O. nivara

semiopen (varies considerably from very compact to O. rufipogon

widely open); awns strong, thick, 5–8 mm long; rachis O. granulata
stout; spikelets 6–8 mm long, 2–3 mm wide, 1–2 mm *
thick. Panicles and spikelets resemble the cultivated
form (Fig. 2), except for spikelet shattering. Rhizomes Fig. 1. Geographic distribution of wild and weedy rices in
are absent, spikelets are highly fertile, and seed the Lao PDR.

60
 Oryza rufipogon. This is the most frequently
occurring wild rice found in the provinces of
Champassak, Attapeu, Savannakhet, Khammouane,
and Vientiane, and in Vientiane Municipality (Fig. 1).
This species was usually found in canals, swamps,
flooded areas, lakes, and ponds, which were either
permanently or semipermanently deep (Fig. 3). In
Champassak Province, a huge pond of about 10 ha
near the edge of a forest in Pathoumphon District was
occupied, along with sedges, by this wild rice. O.
rufipogon has these characteristics: 2–4 m tall, long
internodes, decumbent to floating, forms a perennial
root stock; produces adventitious roots and nodal Fig. 2. Morphology of O. nivara.
tillers; panicles well exserted and very loose with
primary and secondary branches; awns 5–10 cm long;
anthers 3 mm long; spikelets slender, 7–9 mm long,
2.0–2.5 mm wide, 1.6–1.9 mm thick (Fig. 3); seed set
poor, some spikelets sterile and highly shattering. It
flowers from mid-October to the end of November,
about 6–8 wk later than O. nivara. Most of the
populations collected appear to be strongly photope-
riod-sensitive. Some appear to be annuals (Sato 1994).
Plants of O. rufipogon are uprooted and dumped on
the bunds by the local people so they can catch fish.
The common Asian wild rice, O. rufipogon, is the wild
progenitor of O. sativa.
The morphology of some O. rufipogon popula- Fig. 3. Morphology of O. rufipogon.
tions was similar to that of O. nivara, although at
times O. nivara plants, which were found in perma-
nently deep water, tend to be perennial. The only Kalum District of Sekong Province, O. granulata
morphological difference between O. nivara and O. thrives in well-drained mountain slopes, under
rufipogon was observed in their anther; the former partially to completely shaded conditions of thick
has shorter anthers (<2 mm) with very high seed forests and in areas with annual shrubs and creepers,
production, the latter has longer anthers (>3 mm) with or in and around upland rice fields. Though it was
low seed production. Considerable variation in observed to flower throughout the year, peak
morphological characters occurs in O. rufipogon. flowering occurs from August to September. O.
Spontaneous interspecific hybrids between O. nivara granulata has these characteristics: 60 cm tall, fewer
and O. rufipogon were observed in Pathoumphon tillers, broad leaves short and lanceolate; peduncles
District, Champassak Province. The perennial and long, small, panicles well exserted; no primary and
annual ancestors of O. sativa were O. rufipogon and secondary branches; 4–5-mm-long spikelets (Fig. 4),
O. nivara (Oka 1988, Khush 1997). This species lemma and palea with granulated surface; no awns.
contains a diploid chromosome number (2n = 24) and Two distinct forms were found in Xieng Ngeun
has the AA genome (Table 2). An accession of O. District of Luang Prabang Province—the leaves in
rufipogon from Hainan Island, China, provided the one form were dark green; in the other, purple
cytoplasmic male sterility gene that was a key pigmentation was present on the leaf sheath, leaf
component in the development of hybrid rice (Lin and blade, and peduncle. Seed production is very low.
Yuan 1980). Several accessions were shown to have This species produces rhizomes and is propagated
resistance to six Philippine races of bacterial blight vegetatively; it thus behaves as a perennial. The
(Khush 1997). This species has been used as a source diploid chromosome number (2n) is 24, but its genome
of culm elongation ability in IRRI’s deepwater rice group is unknown. Its perennial habit and anaerobic
breeding program. nature will be useful in developing a perennial upland
Oryza granulata. Found only in the northern rice.
region, particularly in the provinces of Luang Oryza officinalis. In 1996, O. officinalis was
Prabang, Oudomxai, and Xieng Khouang and in collected for the first time in the Lao PDR, from

61
Table 2. Chromosome number, genome group, and potential use of wild rice collected from the Lao PDR (adapted from
Vaughan 1994, Brar and Khush 1997).

Oryza species Chromosome Genome Useful or potentially useful traits

no. group

O. nivara Sharma et 24 AA Resistance to grassy stunt virus, blast, stem rot; etc.
Shastry cytoplasmic male sterility; drought avoidance
O. rufipogon Griff. 24 AA Resistance to bacterial blight, sheath spot, tungro; tolerance
for acid soil; source of cytoplasmic male sterility, perennial
habit, stem elongation
O. granulata Nees 24 ?? Resistance to bacterial blight, brown planthopper; shade
et Arn. ex Watt tolerance, adaptation to aerobic soils
O. officinalis Wall 24 or 48 CC or BBCC Resistance to thrips, brown planthopper, whitebacked
ex Watt planthopper, stem rot, tungro
O. ridleyi Hook. 48 ?? Resistance to yellow stem borer, whorl maggot, blast, bacterial
blight, tungro
O. minuta J.S. Presl. 48 BBCC Resistance to thrips, sheath blight, brown planthopper,
et C.B. Presl. bacterial blight, blast, green leafhopper, whitebacked
planthopper

Mahaxai District in Khammouane Province (Lu 1996,
Appa Rao et al 1997a). The species was found on the
edge of a ditch beside an open canal near a farmer’s
rice field. It was growing in association with several
other species. It has these characteristics: growth
erect, 2 m tall; leaf sheath margins pubescent;
peduncles 12-cm-long, panicle well exserted (basal
panicle branches whorled with spikelets inserted half
way [or more] from base); spikelets 5 mm long; no
awns (Fig. 5). Seed production is very low. Though it
produced short rhizomes, no traces of the plants were
found by December, when the pond dried up and
cattle had destroyed the vegetation. Propagation
appears to be through seeds and rhizomes. In 1997, it
was also collected from Savannakhet Province (Appa
Rao et al 1998). However, only five accessions of
seed samples were collected. At each site, there were
a few plants. Diploid and tetraploid forms of this
species have been reported (Vaughan 1994). Chromo-
some numbers are either diploid (2n=24) with genome
group CC or tetraploid (2n=48) with genome group
BBCC. There was no sign of introgression between
cultivated rice and O. officinalis.
Oryza ridleyi. This species was found in
Champassak Province, 53 km south of Pakse on the
Khong-Pakse road. The site was completely shaded,
and the plants were growing under bamboo thickets
and other trees on the bank of a canal. Soils at the

Fig. 4. Morphology of O. granulata.

62
 Fig. 5. Morphology of O. officinalis.
site were very soft and highly organic; water was
almost stagnant to slowly moving. The occurrence of
O. ridleyi was infrequent; only one accession (seed
and vegetative stalk) was collected. However, farmers
in the area said it is common, but they were unable to
identify another population. Oryza ridleyi has these
characteristics: erect tufted herb growing to a height
of 150 cm; profusely tillering from base; panicles
poorly exserted; primary branches very few, no
secondary branches; spikelets 10 cm long, 2 mm wide,
with rows of trichomes down the length of the papery
palea and lemma; no awns (Fig. 6). Seed production is
very low and propagation is mainly through rhizomes,
which remain dormant during the dry season.
Fig. 6. Morphology of O. ridleyi.
Oryza minuta. Two populations of O. minuta
were collected from Phonehong District, Vientiane
Province (from a roadside ditch), and from
Atsaphangthong District, Savannakhet Province (in a
rainfed lowland rice field). The identities of these
species need to be confirmed because they possess
some characters that are similar to those of O.
officinalis. Oryza minuta grows up to 150 cm tall,
produces several basal tillers but no nodal tillers, and
has leaf blades, both sides of which produce dense
long hairs giving a velvety appearance, with the ligule
rounded and glabrous. Its panicles are well exserted,
with primary and secondary branching, and
semiloose; awns are absent; spikelets are 4.2 mm long
and 1.8 mm wide with good seed fertility. Propagation
is through seeds and stolons; the latter continue to
produce new shoots in the presence of moisture. As it
was reported for the first time in Lao PDR, its occur-
rence needs to be confirmed. Characters such as grain
shape and size resemble those of O. officinalis. Oryza
minuta is reported to be resistant to blast, brown
planthopper, and tungro virus (Brar and Khush 1997).
Spontaneous interspecific hybrids (weedy
forms). Wild species growing in and along the
borders of farmers’ fields flower before, after, or at the
same time as O. sativa. In some cases, the cultivated
and wild forms flower at the same time, leading to the
production of spontaneous hybrids. Several hybrids
and their derivatives are more vigorous than the wild
forms with which they grow; some occupy disturbed
habitats and form separate colonies. Intermediate
weedy forms were found mostly near or along with
cultivated rice. In the southern and central agricul-
tural regions, spontaneous interspecific hybridization
and different degrees of introgression were observed.
Several populations, which appeared to be intermedi-
ate forms between wild and cultivated rice, were
discovered (Appa Rao et al 1997c). They had charac-
ters similar to those found in both wild and cultivated
63
 Fig. 7. Plants of wild, weedy, and cultivated rice growing together in a field.

Fig. 8. Variation in panicle and grain characters of weedy forms of rices.

rice. Until flowering, the weedy intermediate forms
resembled the cultivated forms in most flowering
characteristics, whereas their panicle and grain
characters differed In several fields, wild, weedy, and
cultivated forms were growing together in the same
rainfed lowland field (Fig. 7). The weedy forms also
produced panicles and grains that resembled those of
cultivated forms but these were considerably smaller
than those observed in cultivated forms (Fig. 8). Some
of the dominant characters of cultivated rice such as
leaf sheath pigmentation prevailed. Segregation for
length and color of awns and size and shape of
panicles and grains was also observed. Wide varia-
tions in panicle shape and size, grain size, and awn
length were observed (Fig. 8). Continuous variation
from wild to cultivated forms was noted in popula-

64
tions near the Phone Ngam Rice Research Station
Pakse District, Champassak Province. These popula-
tions provide clear evidence of gene flow between
wild and cultivated rice. The perennial O. rufipogon
and the annual O. nivara also coexisted in some
places. Where they coexisted, the intermediate forms
of O. nivara and O. rufipogon were found. The
annual O. nivara not only hybridized with cultivated
rice O. sativa but also introgressed often with the
perennial O. rufipogon at sites where annual and
perennial species occurred sympatrically.
Based on variation in six morphophysiological
characteristics and in 14 isozyme loci, Suh et al (1997)
proposed that weedy rice of the japonica type, similar
to the cultivated form, had originated from old rice
cultivars that had reverted to a weedy form. Wild rice
was not differentiated into indica or japonica forms,
although weedy rice showed some differentiation into
similar types (Oka 1988). However, based on morpho-
physiological characters and DNA polymorphism,
Kato (1996) reported that the indica-japonica forms
had differentiated into wild rice populations in the
Mekong River basin before domestication, and that
indica and japonica cultivars were domesticated from
annual and perennial types of O. rufipogon, respec-
tively.
Potential uses of wild rice
Farmers in the Lao PDR have considerable knowledge
of wild rice found in the country. They usually refer to
it as forest rice (Khao Pa), bird rice (Khao Nya Nhok
or Khao Neng), elephant rice (Khao Shan), or weedy
pond rice (Nia Non). Although the local people
themselves do not use the wild rice, their cattle and
poultry often eat the seeds or vegetative parts of the
plant. Wild rice has already furnished some important
traits for rice improvement. These include the
cytoplasmic male sterility gene from O. rufipogon, a
key component for developing hybrid rice, and a gene
for resistance to grassy stunt virus from O. nivara. At
IRRI, hybrids have been successfully produced from
crosses between cultivated rice and most species in
the genus Oryza (Brar and Khush 1997). Recent
advances in biotechnology enable the transfer of
genes from wild rice to cultivated rice, with a view to
developing improved varieties capable of withstand-
ing harsh environments and warding off pests and
diseases. Lines derived from crosses involving O.
officinalis and cultivated rice have been included in
international trials. Several species have rhizomes,
enabling them to survive during the tropical dry
season. This perenniality trait from O. rufipogon is
being used to develop perennial upland rice. Some
resistance to insects and diseases seems to be
species-specific; all accessions of a species may
therefore exhibit resistance. In addition, wild rice is
useful in basic research. Wild rice will be used only if
a trait of interest cannot be found in cultivated
varieties. Using genes from wild germplasm requires
repeated backcrossing to the female cultivated parent
to eliminate undesirable traits transferred from the wild
germplasm, such as spikelet shattering and poor plant
type. Wild rice needs to be evaluated to identify new
genes and useful coadapted gene complexes. For a
more effective use of wild species, there is a need for
genomic analysis to predict crossability, production of
interspecific hybrids, growing a large segregating
population, and appropriate screening to identify
stress-resistant plants.
Genetic erosion and conservation
The distribution of wild species in the Lao PDR
appears to depend on the history of cultivation. In
areas with a long history of cultivation, there were
more (and larger) populations of wild species relative
to areas brought under cultivation only recently. This
may be because wild rice also grows well under
conditions suited to the growth of cultivated rice.
Species of O. officinalis, O. ridleyi, and O.
minuta were probably the first to be recorded in the
Lao PDR; their occurrence, however, was very
infrequent. Unless special efforts are made to con-
serve them, they may be lost as more of their habitats,
such as ponds and ditches, are rapidly being con-
verted into rice fields or commercial areas. The
destruction of forests where O. granulata occurs may
lead to the extinction of this species. New populations
were noted in abandoned lowland rice fields where
wild, weedy, and cultivated forms were found. The
flowing water must have transported the seeds that
were shed elsewhere. The wild and weedy forms were
found mainly during the rainy season. Annual weedy
forms, however, were recently observed in the dry
season along irrigation canals in and around Vientiane
and Khongxedon. O. nivara and O. rufipogon occur
abundantly as they appear to be well adapted to Lao
conditions. The mature seeds are shattered and buried
in soil crevices at varying depths (Fig. 9). They also
have varying degrees of seed dormancy. While
grazing, buffaloes trample on the seeds, burying them
deeper into the soil. These factors contribute to
survival and extensive distribution.
In situ conservation may allow populations to
continue their evolution within the natural environ-
ment (Ford-Lloyd and Jackson 1986). Populations of
O. rufipogon, O. nivara, and their intermediate forms
are being conserved at a site (Fig. 10) in Vientiane
Municipality in collaboration with the National
65
 Fig. 9. Seeds of wild and weedy rices shattered and buried in soil crevices.

Fig. 10. In situ conservation site in Vientiane Municipality.

Institute of Genetics, Mishima, Japan. Oryza ridleyi,
O. officinalis, and O. minuta should be similarly
preserved and given an opportunity to evolve.
Wild and weedy rice as weeds
in rice fields
Wild rice species, particularly the annual O. nivara
and the perennial O. rufipogon, tend to grow nearer
farmers’ fields where traditional rice varieties were
cultivated. At times, they directly invade the rice
fields. In rainfed lowland rice fields, O. rufipogon and
O. nivara are the most common wild rice species,
which occur as weeds, capable of causing consider-
able yield losses through competition, particularly in
Champassak and Savannakhet provinces and in
Vientiane Municipality. Though O. officinalis occurs
in rainfed lowland rice fields in Savannakhet and
Khammouane, it is very sporadic and its population

66
size is so small that it cannot cause significant yield
losses. Oryza ridleyi does not grow near or in rice
fields and cannot be considered as a weed. Oryza
granulata grows in rainfed upland rice fields or along
the bunds. The interspecific hybrids from O.
rufipogon and O. nivara crossed with cultivated rice
occur in rice fields and mimic cultivated rice until seed
set; they are difficult to eradicate. Often, the weedy
forms mature earlier than the cultivated forms and the
former species shatter seeds that remain in the soil
(because of seed dormancy) until the next season.
Sometimes, seeds of the weedy forms are carried by
water to new areas; when they occupy the entire field,
farmers simply abandon the area. As none of the wild
and weedy forms have purple leaf blades, growing a
cultivated variety with a purple leaf blade would
enable identification of wild and weedy types at the
seedling stage.
Acknowledgment
Financial support from the Swiss Agency for Devel-
opment and Cooperation is gratefully acknowledged.
References
Appa Rao S, Bounphanousay C, Vandy P, Kongpanh K,
Bounmy S, Schiller JM, Viravanh P, Jackson MT.
1996. Collection and classification of rice germplasm
from the Lao PDR. Part 1: Southern and central
regions-1995. Vientiane: Lao-IRRI Project. 116 p.
Appa Rao S, Bounphanousay C, Kanyavong K,
Phetpaseuth V, Sengthong B, Schiller JM, Thirasack S,
Jackson MT. 1997a. Collection and classification of
rice germplasm from the Lao PDR. Part 2: Southern
and central regions-1996. Vientiane: Lao-IRRI Project.
208 p.
Appa Rao S, Bounphanousay C, Phetpaseuth V, Jackson
MT. 1997b. Collection and preservation of rice
germplasm from southern and central regions of the
Lao PDR. Lao J. Agric. For. 1:43-56.
Appa Rao S, Bounphanousay C, Phetpaseuth V, Jackson
MT. 1997c. Spontaneous interspecific hybrids in
Oryza in Lao PDR. Int. Rice Res. Notes 22:4-5.
Appa Rao S, Phetpaseuth V, Kanyavong K,
Bounphanousay C, Sengthong B, Schiller JM,
Jackson MT. 1998. Conservation of Lao rice
germplasm at the International Rice Genebank,
IRRI, Philippines. Collection period: October 1997
to February 1998. Vientiane: Lao-IRRI Project. 145
p.
Bao-Rong Lu. 1996. A report on collecting of wild Oryza
species in Lao PDR and Cambodia, 2-13 Oct 1996.
Genetic Resources Center. Manila (Philippines):
International Rice Research Institute.
Brar DS, Khush GS. 1997. Alien introgression in rice.
Plant Mol. Biol. 35:35-47.
Ford Lloyd BV, Jackson MT. 1986. Plant genetic
resources: an introduction to their conservation and
use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Jackson MT. 1997. Conservation of rice genetic
resources: the role of the International Rice
Genebank at IRRI. Plant Mol. Biol. 35:61-67.
Kato Y. 1996. The indica-japonica differentiation in wild
rice population in the Mekong River based on
character and DNA polymorphism. MS thesis,
Shizouka University, Japan. 76 p.
Khush GS. 1997. Origin, dispersal, cultivation and
variation of rice. Plant Mol. Biol. 35:25-34.
Lin SC, Yuan LP. 1980. Hybrid rice breeding in China.
In: Innovative approaches to rice breeding. Manila
(Philippines): International Rice Research Institute.
p 35-51.
Oka HI. 1988. Origin of cultivated rice. Tokyo: Japan
Scientific Societies Press/Elsevier. 254 p.
Sato YI, ed. 1994. Ecological-genetic studies on wild
cultivated rice in tropical Asia (4th survey). Tropic
3(3/4):189-245.
Suh HS, Sato YI, Morishima H. 1997. Genetic character-
ization of weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) based on
morphology, isozyme, and RAPD markers. Theor.
Appl. Genet. 94:316-321.
Vaughan DA. 1994. The wild relatives of rice: a genetic
resources handbook. Manila (Philippines):
International Rice Research Institute. 137 p.
Vaughan DA, Chang TT. 1995. Collecting the rice gene
pool. In: Guarino L, Ramanatha Rao V, Reid R,
editors. Collecting plant genetic diversity—
technical guidelines. Wallingford (UK): CAB
67
Sources of wild rice and their control
in Myanmar
Saw Ler Wah Win and Khin Nwe Nwe Win
Myanmar Agricultural Service, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Myanmar

Myanmar is situated in the center of the world’s
original rice-growing countries. The country is rich in
rice genetic resources. Records show that more than
2,000 different rice varieties had been cultivated
throughout the country under diverse geographic and
climatic conditions. However, with the introduction of
modern rice varieties in the 1970s in favorable areas to
increase overall rice production, some traditional rice
cultivars were no longer cultivated and became
obsolete. The situation was worsened by a standing
regulation that allows the growing of only 14 local
improved and modern varieties (Table 1).
Fortunately, these obsolete varieties can be
stored under a short- and medium-term storage
program in a seed bank that was established in 1992
with financial assistance from the Japan International
Cooperation Agency. Because genetic traits cannot
be regained once they are lost, germplasm collection,
evaluation, and preservation activities are further
extended to cover other major cultivated crops of the
country.
The use of wild rice in plant breeding has been
tried since the early part of the 20th century (Capinpin
and Magnaye 1951, Ting 1993), but its practical
application and usefulness in developing modern rice
cultivars and hybrid rice were realized only in the
1970s and onward. In recent years, interest in wide
hybridization has increased substantially and,
consequently, efforts have focused on collecting and
conserving the wild relatives of rice. More than 18
collecting missions in 11 countries over the past 5 yr
have assimilated a substantial number of wild
relatives of rice (Vaughan 1991).
History of wild rice collection
The very first collection of wild rice in Myanmar was
started in 1947 by U Thein Lwin, who was only
interested in collecting herbarium specimens. He had
collected Oryza granulata, O. barthii, O. meyeriana,
O. rufipogon, and O. officinalis. To conserve wild rice
germplasm, collecting trips were made only in

Table 1. Local improved and modern varieties recommended for cultivation in Myanmar.

High-yielding Ayeyar- Bago Yangon Mon Sagaing Manda- Magway Kachin Kayah Kayin Chin Tanin- Rakhine Shan
variety wady lay tharyl

Manaw-thu-kha √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Shwe-war-tun √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Inma-yebaw √ √ √ √ √ √
Thi-htut-yin √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Manaw-hayi √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Hmawbi-2 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Kyaw-zay-ya √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
A-yar-min √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Sin-shwe-war √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Sin-thin-gi √ √ √ √ √ √ √
IR747 √ √
Lone-thwe hmwe √ √ √
Yatana-aung √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Othersa √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Other varieties include Sin-Akayi, Yar-2, Yaynet-5, Shwe-man-1, and Shwe-ta-soak.

a

69
November and December 1959, when K. Katsuya
visited several states and divisions of Myanmar. He
collected three Oryza species—O. rufipogon, O.
officinalis, and O. granulata. On the same mission, he
also collected a salt-tolerant species, Porteresia
coarctata, on the Dawe River bank in Tanintharyi and
on the Thanlwin River bank in Mon State. Porteresia
was reported to be closely related to Oryza. Then, in
1973 and 1974, Dr. A. Perez was sent to Myanmar by
the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) to join
officials from the Myanmar Agriculture Service (MAS)
in collecting missions to gather traditional rice
germplasm. During two visits, they were able to
collect some wild rice in lower Myanmar. At the time, it
was believed that not enough information on wild rice
had been documented. MAS and IRRI therefore
planned and executed three more collecting missions
in Myanmar, with the approval of the government of
the Union of Myanmar. This time, the collecting
team’s main focus was on wild rice for long-term
conservation, evaluation, and use. This paper was
written on the basis of information compiled by Dr.
D.A. Vaughan (former IRRI geneticist) and his team
during collecting missions undertaken between 1990
and 1992.
Distribution of wild rice
Since rice is widely adapted to different agroecolo-
gical conditions, the collecting mission tried its best
to cover most of the rice-growing areas. These areas
are grouped into three different regions based on
prevailing climatic conditions: (1) coastal and deltaic
region (humid and hot) for Ayeyarwady, Bago, and
Yangon divisions and Mon State; (2) central dry zone
(hot and dry) for Mandalay, Magway, and Sagaing
divisions; and (3) hilly regions (cold and relatively
drier than central and coastal regions) for Shan and
Chin states (Fig. 1). Wild rice collections were made in
50 townships. The soil and weather conditions and
general characteristics of the whole region and
individual townships are shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Oryza rufipogon was quite common in the
lowland areas of Ayeyarwady and Yangon divisions
as a deepwater wild rice. On the other hand, O. nivara
was more commonly found in the seasonally dry
pools along roadsides in the rainfed areas of Bago
Division. In the drier divisions of Magway, Mandalay,
and Sagaing, few populations of wild rice were found.
O. granulata was found in shady sloping forested
areas of upland habitats, whereas O. officinalis was
70
confined to partially shaded, lower, and seasonally
wet areas. In Ayeyarwady delta, O. officinalis was
mostly found in many locations near rice fields and
along river banks. Based on information derived from
present and past wild rice-collecting missions and on
preserved herbarium specimens, Dr. Vaughan mapped
out the distribution of these three species (Figs. 2-4).
Characteristics of Oryza rufipogon
Stem
Semierect, sometimes erect and decumbent. Culm hard
but sometimes soft and spongy. Culm strength
moderately strong or intermediate or maybe weak.
Internode color mostly light gold and also green or
purple green or purple. Color of nodal septum light
yellow with shade of purple.
Leaf
Basal leaf sheath mostly purple, green, or light purple.
Inside color of leaf sheath pale green or purple.
Texture pubescent or scabrous, leaf angle mostly
intermediate, sometimes erect or horizontal or
descending. Leaf color mostly green, sometimes pale
green, dark green, or yellowish green. Auricle present,
pale green, sometimes green and purple, pubescent,
long, occasionally medium shape. Ligule pubescent,
fringe of hair, mostly two-cleft, acute to acuminate,
whitish or purple, collar pale green or purple.
Inflorescence
Panicle spreading and loose, sometimes compact or
intermediate, sterile lemma generally has straw or gold
color or purple dot. Lemma and palea have either gold
color or gold furrow on straw color, sometimes straw,
brown, or reddish to light purple or black. Awn mostly
long and fully awned, sometimes short and partly or
fully awned, red and sometimes straw or brown, soft
or rigid. Apiculus at flowering time is mostly purple,
sometimes straw, brown, or red. Stigma color mostly
purple and maybe light green or yellow.
Grain
Sterile lemma mostly triangular or linear, apex acute,
surfaces of lemma and palea nondistinctly granulated,
pubescent, short hairs. Apiculus at harvest is brown
furrow on straw, pubescent. Seed coat red and also
variable purple or white. Rachilla has “comma” shape,
nonpersistence of pedicle, large embryo, nonwaxy
endosperm, low fertility.
Table 2. Soil characteristics of several rice-growing regions in Myanmar.

State/division/ pH Texture OM/organic carbon EC

township (%)

Yagon Division
Kawmu Moderately acid (5.5) Loam, silty loam, Low, 0.48–1.08 Low, 0.019–0.022
clay and loam
Kayan Moderately acid Silty loam, silty Low, 0.03–0.54 0.119–0.275
(5.74–7.10) clay loam
Talkkyl Moderately acid, strongly Silty clay loam, sandy Very low, 0.18–0.67 0.149–0.616
acid (3.44–5.76) loam, loam, silty loam
Hlegu Moderately acid (5.62) Silty clay loam Low, 0.87 0.014
Mingaladon Moderately acid (5.30) Clay loam, loam, Low, 0.42–1.83 Low, 0.048
silty loam
Bago Division
Pyay 4.36-5.79 Loam, silty clay loam, 1.22 0.01–0.02
sandy clay loam
Oaktwin Moderately acid (5.28) Loam Low, 0.52 0.04
Bago Strongly acid Loam, sandy loam – –
Daik-U Moderately acid Silty loam, silty – –
(4.96–5.36) clay loam

Magway Division
Aunglan 6.25–7.99 Clay, sandy clay loam Low, 0.66–0.36 0.05–0.12
Taungdwingyi 6.25–7.99 Clay loam – –

Mandalay Division
Pyinmana Neutral, slightly acid Sandy loam Low, 0.182–0.72 0.032-0.052
(6.80–7.35)

Ayeyarwady Division
Pathein (East) Very strongly acid (3.99) Clay loam Low, 1.53 High, 0.930
Wakema Strongly acid, moderately Silty clay loam, Low, 0.10–0.14 0.10
acid (4.98–5.69) silty loam
Myaungmya Moderately acid Silty clay, silty Low, 2.12 0.373
(3.75–4.81) clay loam
Pathein (West) Slightly acid Silty clay, sandy loam Low, 0.24–1.36 0.110–0.289
Hinthada Strongly acid Clay, silty clay Very low, 0.42–0.66 Very low, 0.05–0.13

Shan State
Hsipaw Moderately acid Clay, sandy clay Low 0.16–1.87 Low 0.016–0.061
Slightly acid

Sagaing Division
Homalin Moderately acid Clay, loam Medium low 0.012–0.040
Slightly acid

Mon State
Mawlamyine Moderately acid (5.50) Loam, silty loam, Low medium 0.18–0.083
silty clay loam

Habitat
Common weeds of deepwater rice in lowland areas of
Ayeyarwady, Bago, and Yangon divisions. Highly
adapted to areas that are deeply inundated at certain
times of the year.
Characteristics of Oryza officinalis
Stem
Semierect or erect. Culm hard, sometimes soft and
spongy, moderately strong, intermediate, or weak.
Internode color light gold and also green. Color of
nodal septum light yellow and also shade of purple.
Leaf
Basal leaf sheath green or purple, sometimes light
purple and purple. Inside color of leaf sheath pale
green and sometimes purple. Leaf texture mostly
coriaceous or herbaceous, pubescent, and also
scabrous. Leaf angle mostly horizontal, sometimes
intermediate or descending. Leaf color dark green,
sometimes pale green or green. Auricle present,
mostly pale green, pubescent, short, sometimes
medium to long. Ligule pubescent or fringe of hair or
ligule, mostly truncate or acute to acuminate and
sometimes 2-cleft, whitish. Collar color pale green.

71
Table 3. Rainfall and temperature data in regions visited by wild rice-collecting missions.

Rainfall Temperature oC
State/
division Normal 1997 Summera Rainya Colda

Days mm Days mm Max Min Max Min Max Min

Chin 104 1,790 111 1,908 25.4 9.1 22.2 15.0 21.2 3.2
Sagaing (Lower) 85 1,742 81 1,732 37.2 19.4 34.0 25.0 32.3 13.7
Sagaing (Upper) 48 873 43 713 35.1 16.0 33.1 24.6 31.8 11.9
Bago (West) 111 1,206 73 882 38.2 20.8 31.9 24.5 32.7 16.2
Bago (East) 130 3,288 105 3,813 37.6 20.4 30.4 23.2 32.0 16.5
Magway 64 934 51 773 40.4 18.5 34.2 23.1 34.4 12.3
Mandalay (North) 58 973 43 687 38.5 20.4 34.4 25.8 32.7 14.0
Mandalay (South) 84 1,350 84 1,336 38.4 20.1 32.5 23.3 32.8 14.4
Mon 138 4,861 125 5,329 35.8 22.0 30.1 23.3 33.1 18.2
Yangon 136 2,713 116 2,947 38.0 20.6 30.9 23.8 32.5 17.7
Shan (South) 96 1,242 91 1,283 28.8 12.8 24.3 17.1 24.2 7.6
Shan (North) 84 1,443 83 1,176 32.4 9.3 30.2 20.6 29.0 5.0
Ayeyarwady 132 3,095 107 3,283 36.6 21.3 30.9 24.2 31.6 17.1

Summer time, mid-February to mid-May; rainy season, mid-May to mid-October; cold season, mid-October to mid-February.
a

Inflorescence
Spreading panicle, sometimes compact or intermedi-
ate. Sterile lemma color is mostly straw, sometimes
gold and purple, low seeders, has soft hairs and no
panicle branching, wooly panicle. Base panicle is well
exserted, sometimes partly or just exserted. Lemma
and palea color gold or gold furrow on straw, some-
times straw, brown spot on straw, brown furrows on
straw, or brown. Awn has straw color, mostly soft and
sometimes rigid. Apiculus at flowering time straw and
sometimes brown or red. Stigma mostly purple and
sometimes light purple.
Grain
Sterile lemma mostly triangular and also linear-like or
linear, apex acute, both lemma and palea surface
nondistinctly granulated; pubescent with short hair.
Apiculus color at harvest time is mostly brown furrow
on straw, pubescent, mucro present. Red seed coat,
comma-shaped rachilla, nonpersistence of pedicle,
large embryo, nonwaxy endosperm.
Leaf
Sheath pulvinus shade of purple, purple dots,
colorless, or green. Basal leaf sheath mostly green.
Inside leaf sheath pale green or purple, herbaceous.
Leaf texture pubescent and scabrous. Leaf angle
mostly horizontal and occasionally erect. Leaf color
green, pale green, or dark green. Auricle present,
mostly green, also pale green or purple, pubescent.
Ligule pubescent, fringe of hair, 2-cleft, whitish; collar
color pale green.
Inflorescence
Wooly panicle base, panicle well exserted. Sometimes
moderately well exserted or just exserted or partly
exserted. Loose panicle, low seeders. Panicle texture
hispid axis, soft hairs or hairless, no panicle branch-
ing. Lemma sterile, color mostly straw, also gold
lemma, palea color mostly brown. Awn long and fully
awned, red, sometimes straw. Texture of awn rigid,
also soft. Apiculus at flowering time mostly red,
stigma color purple.

Habitat
Well adapted in partially and seasonally wet habitats
of deltaic lower Myanmar. Found in several locations
adjacent to rice fields and along river banks.
Characteristics of Oryza nivara
Stem
Mostly decumbent, sometimes erect or semierect.
Culm mostly soft and spongy, sometimes hard.
Internode color mostly purple but sometimes green or
light gold. Nodal septum color mostly shade of purple
and light yellow.
Grain
Sterile lemma mostly linear, sometimes triangular or
linear, apex acute, medium. Lemma and palea surfaces
nondistinctly granulated; short-haired. Apiculus color
at harvest brown furrow on straw, pubescent,
glabrous, mucro present; red seed coat; comma-
shaped rachilla, persistent pedicle, embryo medium
size, waxy endosperm.
Habitat
Rainfed and seasonally dry pools along roadside
areas of Bago Division.

72
Wild rice control
Myanmar has a total cultivated area of about 12.3
million ha, including approximately 5.9 million ha of
rice in 1996-97. Rainfed lowland rice accounted for
56% of the rice area; irrigated rice, 26%; deepwater
rice, 5%; and upland rice, a little more than 3%. The
remaining 10% was classified under late-sown,
summer rice, and terrace and problem soils. Rice
yields were about 3.1 t ha–1 in rainfed lowland areas,
1.7 t ha–1 in upland areas (Maung Mar et al 1991), and
1–2 t ha–1 in deepwater areas (Escuro et al 1982, Ohn
Kyaw et al 1977).
A diagnostic survey was conducted in December
1991 to find out the reasons for the low rice yield in
deepwater areas. The survey team, composed of IRRI
and CARI scientists, identified and ranked the
problems of deepwater rice (in order of importance) as
(a) water-related, (b) weeds and soil physical proper-
ties, and (c) pests such as stem borers and paddy
crabs (Fujisaka et al 1992). In combating weeds of
deepwater rice, where wild rice is the most common,
the following weed control methods were widely
adopted wherever feasible:
• Land preparation should be done properly to
combat wild rice infestation. Normal practices
include 1–2 rounds of plowing, followed by 1–
4 harrowings, depending on the density of the
weed population. In some regions, animal-
drawn rollers will follow harrowing.
• Hand weeding should be done at the seedling
stage in areas with less risk of flood damage.
• Direct-seeded rice (either dry or wet) should be
alternated with late-season transplanted rice, in
which old rice seedlings are transplanted as
water recedes. Land is thoroughly prepared
and a certain water depth is maintained during
the growing season to control wild rice and
other weeds such as Scirpus grossus and
Belaria longipotia.
• Growing summer rice in the postmonsoon
season if fields are heavily infested with wild
rice. In this method, fields are bunded to retain
water and rice seedlings are transplanted.
• Increasing seeding rate to 70–140 kg ha–1 to
achieve better crop competitiveness with wild
rice.
• Burning straw in the dry season and cutting
weeds under water using a long-handled sickle
in flooded fields in the wet season. When
water recedes at the end of the wet season,
land can be prepared for growing either rice or
upland crops. To more effectively control wild
rice, the following research activities were
suggested by the survey team: (a) assess
losses due to wild rice, (b) test the use of
pigmented rice cultivars so as to distinguish
them from wild rice at the seedling stage, (c)
assess farmers’ alternate use of deepwater dry-
seeded rice and late-season transplanted rice
to determine optimum rotation, (d) examine
farmers’ control of wild rice during fallow
periods to see if improvements are possible, (e)
determine the degree of wild rice contamination
in farmers’ rice seed, and (f) test the effective
ness of higher seeding rates.
References
Capinpin JM, Magnaye AM. 1951. Hybridization of
cultivated and wild rice. Philipp. Agric. 34:219-229.
Escuro PB, U Ohn Kyaw, U Aung Kha. 1982. Status of
deepwater rice varietal improvement. (unpubl.)
Maung Mar, Tun Saing, Tin Hlaing, Palis RK. 1991.
Rainfed lowland rice. (mimeogr.)
Fujisaka S, Maung Mar, Aye Swe, Ler Wah, Moody K,
Chit Thein, Tint Lwin, Palis RK. 1992. Rice in
Myanmar: a diagnostic survey. Myanmar J. Agric. Sci
4(1).
Ting Y. 1993. Wild rice of Kwangtung and new variety bred
from the hybrid of wild rice with cultivated rice. Sun
Yat Sen Univ. Agron. Bull. 3:1-22.
Vaughan DA, Than Sein, Khin Maung Nyunt, Tin Maung
Tun. 1993. Collection and conservation of traditional
and wild rice in Myanmar. Myanmar J. Agric. Sci.
5(1):7-14.
73
Weedy rice in the Philippines
A.M. Baltazar1 and Joel D. Janiya2
University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines
1
International Rice Research Institute, Los Baños, Philippines
2
The occurrence of weedy forms of rice (genome A) in
the Philippines was first reported by Second in 1991 in
a farmer’s field in Batasan, Mindoro, an island
province in the southwestern part of Luzon. Second
(1991) described this new form of rice as having “dark
brown, pilous glumes and medium-sized smooth awns
which shattered although still at milky stage.” It
appeared only in the previous year and has appar-
ently evolved in the area (Second 1991). In these same
areas in Mindoro, the appearance of two populations
of Oryza officinalis growing with cultivated rice was
reported in 1963 by Tateoka and Pancho (Tateoka and
Pancho 1963). Second, who went to Mindoro in 1991
to verify this report, found this new weedy form of
rice in addition to O. officinalis (Second 1991).
Since then, several surveys have been conducted
to determine the occurrence and extent of distribution
of weedy rice in the Philippines. Fajardo and Moody
(1995) surveyed 1,917 fields in two provinces (Nueva
Ecija and Tarlac) in Central Luzon from October to
November 1993. They found rice off-types growing in
8% of these fields and weedy rice growing in 4% of
them. They estimated red rice infestation levels to
range from 1% to 30%. Another survey conducted in
the southern island of Iloilo showed that, of 300
fields, 204 (67%) had rice off-types, 163 (54%) had
weedy rice types, and 149 (49%) had red rice (Moody
et al 1997). In a neighboring island in Baybay, Leyte,
Platino (1996) found weedy rice growing in 184 (75%)
of 247 fields with infestation levels within the 1–48%
range. In Platino’s (1996) survey, most of the fields
where weedy rice was found were planted to direct-
seeded rice. The other surveys (Fajardo and Moody
1995, Moody et al 1997) did not indicate whether the
fields surveyed had transplanted or direct-seeded
rice.
While these surveys are limited and do not give a
complete picture of the extent of distribution of weedy
rice in the Philippines, they do indicate the increasing
number of fields where weedy rice is found.
Description of weedy rice
In terms of gross morphology, weedy rice looks like
cultivated rice. However, all of the surveys conducted
in the Philippines reported that weedy rice grows
taller than cultivated rice and it has longer and wider
leaves. Weedy rice reached a height of 140–150 cm,
whereas cultivated rice grew to 115–120 cm (Guzman
1996). Because it is tall, weedy rice lodged and its
panicles drooped (Guzman 1996). It germinated and
emerged at the same time as cultivated rice, but it
flowered earlier and its seeds matured 4–5 days earlier
than did those of cultivated rice. The grains shattered
at or even before maturity. Weedy rice also produced
fewer leaves, tillers, panicles plant–1, and grains
panicle–1 than cultivated rice. The grains were smaller
and the pericarp shorter than those of cultivated rice
(Guzman 1996).
Based on grain color and morphology, Rao and
Moody (unpubl.) identified 10 types of weedy rice in
Central Luzon and Iloilo, while Platino (1996) identi-
fied 16 types in Baybay, Leyte. Rao and Moody
(unpubl.) described the two most common types as
those with (1) short grain-brown hull-red pericarp and
(2) long grain-brown hull-red pericarp. Fajardo and
Moody (1995) described certain weedy rice grains
having a straw hull and others with a black hull, with
or without awns. The black-hulled grains had the
most awns, with 30% having awns longer than 2.0 cm.
Platino (1996) identified four types of weedy rice
based on grain color and morphology as awnless,
with pericarp (44%), awned with red or white pericarp
(19%), awnless with white pericarp (13%), and
awnless with gold pericarp (6%).
From the above reports, weedy rice in the
Philippines is (1) taller, with longer, droopy leaves and
panicles than cultivated rice; (2) its seeds shatter at or
even before maturity; and (3) grains are awned or
awnless, with red or white pericarp (grains of culti-
vated rice have no awns).
75
Possible origin and reasons for occurrence
of weedy rice
Weedy rice is found in the tropics where wild rice is
found, supposedly a product of natural outcrossing
between wild rice and cultivated rice (Morishima et al
1991). Since red rice (with AA genome) and Oryza
rufipogon are not common in the Philippines, Second
(1991) suggested that the weedy rice found in
Mindoro could have been formed because rice
varieties with potential weediness (awned, shattering,
red pericarp) are present in the doubled-haploid line
populations derived from a cross between IR64 and
Azucena, a traditional japonica cultivar in the
Philippines. Second (1991) also indicated that mixtures
of traditional varieties, which are commonly of the
japonica type, in IR varieties are frequent in the San
Jose area of Mindoro.
The origin of weedy rice where no wild rice grows
remains unknown (Morishima et al 1991). Researchers
suggest that, in addition to natural outcrossing
between wild and cultivated rice, the existence of
weedy rice may also be explained by the following:
(1) the cultivar is not homozygous and still segregat-
ing, (2) the cultivar degenerates because of continu-
ous use, (3) impurities are present in seed and
planting materials, (4) volunteers from the previous
crop appear, and (5) mutation occurs (Moody 1994).
Extent of weedy rice infestation
Currently, weedy rice does not seem to be a major
problem in the Philippines. A majority of the fields
where weedy rice was found showed infestation
levels of less than 1% to no more than 30% (Fajardo
and Moody 1995), with only one field in Leyte having
an infestation level of 48% (Platino 1996). Weedy rice
occurs more commonly in fields planted to direct-
seeded rice. It does not grow in transplanted rice
fields where the floodwater level is adequate. More-
over, if the seed source or transplanting materials are
pure and free from weedy rice contaminants, then
weedy rice does not pose any threat. In her survey,
Platino (1996) attributed the weedy rice that she found
in a few transplanted rice fields to contaminated
planting materials. In a survey of major weeds in
rainfed transplanted rice fields in three villages in
Nueva Ecija, weedy rice was found in only one village
and it ranked only ninth among the 10 most dominant
weeds (Baltazar et al 1998).
Seventy-five percent of the 3.4 million ha planted to
rice in the Philippines is transplanted and 25% is
direct-seeded (BAS 1993). This probably explains the
currently low levels of infestation of weedy rice in the
76
Philippines. While it does not pose a major threat to
Philippine rice fields now, it is important to recognize
that weedy rice infestation could increase with direct
seeding and mechanical harvesting (Second 1991).
The shift to direct-seeded rice is increasing in certain
provinces in the Philippines. In Nueva Ecija, Central
Luzon, farmers shifting from transplanting to direct
seeding (weed seeding) have increased from 27% in
1986 to 56% in 1991 (Erquiza et al 1990, Revilla et al
1993). The increasing scarcity of labor for transplant-
ing and of water supply due to increasing industrial-
ization (and now the El Niño phenomenon) can result
in more farmers shifting to direct seeding, which does
not require as much flooding as transplanted rice in
the first 2 wk after planting. With broadcast seeding
and direct seeding, weedy rice can enter fields
through impure seed sources and may continue to be
a problem through volunteer reinfestation. Seed
shedding and shattering allow its use as a continuous
source of propagules in the soil, resulting in rapid
infestation. A study in the United States showed that
one red rice plant can produce 1,500 seeds in 1 yr
(Huey 1978). This is aggravated by a common farmers’
practice of using their own seeds as planting materi-
als, which may be contaminated with weedy rice,
instead of certified foundation seeds. Mechanical
harvesting can also increase contamination because
the weedy rice seeds are harvested together with
cultivated rice seeds.
Damage and competition caused
by weedy rice
Because weedy rice germinates and emerges at the
same time as cultivated rice and because it is taller,
weedy rice competes more efficiently than cultivated
rice for sunlight. Its similarity with cultivated rice in
terms of morphology and physiology makes it a
strong competitor for other basic growth resources
such as water and nutrients. This results in reduced
yields of cultivated rice.
Preharvest shattering and shedding of weedy rice
seeds contaminate harvested rice, decreasing the
grade, market quality, and commercial value of
cultivated rice grain. To our knowledge, no study has
yet been conducted to assess the impact of weedy
rice infestation on rice yields in the Philippines. In the
United States, where dry seeding is the major method
of rice establishment, red rice has been one of its
worst weeds since rice culture started in 1846. Losses,
in grain yield and quality, to the U.S. rice industry
have been estimated at about US$50 million each year
(Kwon et al 1991). In a competition study, Kwon et al
(1991) determined that each red rice plant competing
with season-long rice can reduce grain yield by about
220 kg ha–1. The number of red rice plants that rice can
tolerate without a yield loss is less than 2 m–2,
particularly for short-statured cultivars. At 35–40 red
rice plants m–2, yields can be reduced by 60% for tall
cultivars and by 90% for short cultivars. This is much
higher than yield losses from other grass weeds such
as sprangletop (Leptochloa spp.) (Kwon et al 1991).
Control and management practices
Preventive and cultural management practices are the
major means of controlling weedy rice in the Philip-
pines. Probably the most important is the use of clean
seed, seed that is free from weedy rice contaminants.
This will prevent the entry of red rice to a farm. To
ensure a good crop, farmers in the Philippines
commonly use seeds from their previous harvest as
planting material. In Iloilo Province, 89% of 300
farmers surveyed by Moody et al (1997) use their own
seed as planting material; only 10% use other seed
sources. The degree of purity of the farmers’ seeds is
not known, or if the 10% who use other seed sources
use certified foundation seeds. It is therefore critical
that farmers be made aware of the importance of using
clean, uncontaminated seed as planting material.
Probably because the occurrence of weedy rice is
attributed in part to degeneration of the cultivar from
continuous use, farmers who use their own seed for
planting material change their seed source regularly. A
majority (62%) of the farmers in Iloilo change seeds
every year, whereas 30% change seeds every 2 yr.
Only about 1% change seeds every 3–4 yr (Moody
et al 1997).
Other cultural practices employed by farmers in
Iloilo to minimize weedy rice infestation involve (a)
removal of dropped weedy rice seeds from the ground
and (b) roguing of off-types and weedy rice types
(Moody et al 1997). Because it is not easy to distin-
guish weedy rice from cultivated rice at the vegetative
stage, one has to wait until the reproductive stage to
rogue it out; however, damage from competition will
have occurred by then.
Farmers in Iloilo also sort out the weedy rice
seeds or soak or dry their seed prior to planting
(Moody et al 1997). It is not clear how soaking or
drying can minimize or prevent weedy rice infestation.
Others used herbicides, but there was no information
on what herbicides were used (Moody et al 1997).
Only 1% of the 300 farmers surveyed by Moody et al
(1997) did not attempt to manage or control weedy
rice in their fields.
Flooding suppresses germination and growth of
weedy rice. Thus, the two major cultural practices of
growing rice in the Philippines, flooding and trans-
planting, are also practices that minimize weedy rice
infestation. A good and adequate control and supply
of irrigation water are thus key factors in the manage-
ment of weedy rice. But the increasing demand for
water by industrial and urban sectors, aggravated by
prolonged drought due to the El Niño phenomenon,
results in increasing scarcity of water available for
agriculture. Thus, farmers in the Philippines will have
to depend less on flooding as a way of managing
weedy rice and will have to explore alternative
methods. In the United States and other countries
with adequate irrigation, red rice is controlled by wet
seeding and continuous flooding combined with
preplant application of molinate (Smith 1989, Baker
and Sonnier, 1983).
In dry-seeded rice in the United States, manage-
ment programs to control red rice include (1) the use
of weed-free seed, irrigation water, and equipment; (2)
crop rotation and control of red rice in the rotation
crop; (3) mechanical cultivation; (4) water manage-
ment; and (5) herbicides. A crop rotation system of 2
yr soybean and 1 yr rice or 1 yr sorghum, 1 yr
soybean, and 1 yr rice reduces red rice infestation in
rice (Smith 1989). There is currently no available
postemergence herbicide that can control red rice
selectively in rice because of the morphological
similarity between red rice and rice. The soybean-rice
or sorghum-rice rotation system allows selective
chemical control of red rice in the rotation crop to
reduce red rice infestation in the subsequent rice
crop. Herbicides used to control red rice in soybean
include alachlor, metolachlor, metribuzin, or pendi-
methalin applied preplant (Khodayari et al 1987).
Newer postemergence compounds include imazaquin,
mefluidide, imazethapyr, and clethodim (Nastashi and
Smith 1989). The postemergence grass herbicides
fluazifop, quizalofop, haloxyfop, and sethoxydim
applied at the 4- to 5-leaf stage or at advanced stages
to suppress seed germination are also effective
(Salzman et al 1989). The latest research being
evaluated includes the use of imazaquin-resistant and
glufosinate-resistant rice to manage red rice in the
United States (Gealy, pers. commun.).
References
BAS (Bureau of Agricultural Statistics). 1993. Costs and
returns of palay production in the Philippines. CRS
Report. 2A. Quezon City (Philippines): BAS.
77
Baker JB, Sonnier EA. 1983. Red rice and its control. In:
Weed control in rice. Manila (Philippines): Interna-
tional Rice Research Institute. p 327-333.
Baltazar AM, Martin EC, Casimero MC, Bariuan FV,
Obien SR, de Datta SK. 1998. Major weeds in rainfed
rice-onion cropping systems in San Jose, Nueva Ecija,
Philippines. IPM-CRSP Working Paper No. 98-1.
Blacksburg, VA (USA): Virginia Tech University. 22 p.
Erquiza A, Duff B, Khan C. 1990. Choice of crop establish-
ment technique: transplanting vs wet-seeding. IRRI
Res. Pap. Ser. 139. 10 p.
Fajardo FF, Moody K. 1995. Rice off-types in Central
Luzon, Philippines. Int. Rice Res. Notes 20:9-10.
Guzman MP. 1996. Germination, life cycle and gross
morphology of two types of weedy rice (Oryza sativa
L.). Unpublished BS thesis, Visayas Stage College of
Agriculture, Leyte, Philippines. 46 p.
Huey BA. 1978. Red rice control program for Arkansas. In:
Eastin EF, editor. Red rice: research and control. Texas
Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull. 1270:41-45.
Khodayari K, Smith Jr., RJ, Black HL. 1987. Red rice
(Oryza sativa) control with herbicide treatments in
soybean (Glycine max). Weed Sci. 35:127-129.
Kwon SL, Smith Jr., RJ, Talbert RE. 1991. Interference of
red rice (Oryza sativa) densities in rice (O. sativa).
Weed Sci. 39:169-174.
Moody K. 1994. Weedy forms of rice in Southeast Asia.
Paper presented at the Padi Angin Workshop, 18 May
1994, MARDI, Penang, Malaysia. 8 p.
Moody K, Escalada MM, Heong KL. 1997. Weed
management practices of rice farmers in Iloilo,
Philippines. In: Heong KL, Escalada MM, editors.
Pest management of rice farmers in Asia. Manila
(Philippines): International Rice Research Institute.
p 143-160.
78
Morishima H, Shimamoto Y, Sato T, Yamagishi H, Sato YI.
1991. Observations of wild and cultivated rices in
Bhutan, Bangladesh and Thailand. Report of study
tours in 1989-1990. Mishima (Japan): National
Institute of Genetics. 73 p.
Nastashi P, Smith Jr., RJ. 1989. Red rice (Oryza sativa)
control in soybean (Glycine max). Weed Technol.
3:389-392.
Platino ND. 1996. Survey and characterization of different
types of weedy rice in Baybay, Leyte. Unpublished
BS thesis, Visayas Stage College of Agriculture,
Baybay, Leyte. 35 p.
Revilla IM, Estoy GF, Salazar FV. 1993. Snail management
practices of rice farmers in Nueva Ecija, Philippines.
Nueva Ecija (Philippines): Philippine Rice Research
Institute.
Salzman FP, Smith Jr., RJ, Talbert RE. 1989. Control and
seed head suppression of red rice (Oryza sativa) in
soybean (Glycine max). Weed Technol. 3:238-243.
Second GA. 1991. Report on Oryza officinalis as a weed
and a new genome. A weed which appeared last year.
Report on observations made by Dr. Gerard Second on
a trip to San Jose area (Occidental Mindoro), weekend
of 19-20 Oct 1991. International Rice Research
Institute, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines. 5 p.
Smith Jr., RJ. 1989. Cropping and herbicide systems for red
rice (Oryza sativa) control. Weed Technol. 3:414-419.
Tateoka T, Pancho JV. 1963. Report on exploration for wild
species of Oryza in the Philippines. (January-March
1963). 13 p.
Weedy rice in Sri Lanka
B. Marambe1 and L. Amarasinghe2
Department of Crop Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
1

Plant Protection Center, Department of Agriculture, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

2

In most Asian countries, rice is still the prime mover of slopes. A major part is also situated in narrow inland
the economy, particularly in rural areas. However, the valleys of the highly dissected middle peneplain in
crop’s importance in the national economy dwindles the mid-country wet zone.
as the share of the agricultural sector in national
income declines concurrently with faster growth of Weed flora of rice lands and their control—a
nonfarm income. general overview
The total agricultural sector in Sri Lanka ac- Since time immemorial, crop productivity has been
counted for 18% of the gross domestic product in reduced by weeds, insect pests, and diseases.
1997 (CB 1997), to which rice contributed about 5%. Farmers have constantly looked for ways and means
Rice farming is practiced by approximately 1.8 million to protect their crops. The intensification and
farmers (10% of the population) and rice accounts for optimization of farming techniques have resulted in a
45% of the per capita calories in the Sri Lankan diet. marked increase in crop production, and crop
Since rice is the staple carbohydrate of Sri Lankans, protection has thus become more sophisticated.
its importance to the nation’s economy cannot be
overlooked. This is reflected in the highest priority
given to rice production by past and present adminis-
trations. The main objective continues to be an
increase in production to attain self-sufficiency.
Although Sri Lanka has not yet achieved this goal,
the country has made substantial progress in local
rice production during the past two to three decades.
The fundamental factors that led to productivity gains
are the introduction of high-yielding varieties,
adoption of improved rice technology, and expansion
of the area grown to rice.

The rice environment

Ampara
Rice lands in Sri Lanka, which account for approxi-
mately 0.75 million ha (CB 1977), are distributed in a
multitude of environments characterized by variable
seasonal rains and different soil, elevation, tempera-
ture, and drainage patterns. Of the total rice area, 15%
is situated in the low-country wet zone, 53% in the
low-country dry zone, 14% in the intermediate zone,
and 16% in the mid-country wet zone (Fig.1).
Fig. 1. Map showing major regions of rice cultivation in Sri
Most of the rice lands are located in inland Lanka. A = low-country wet zone (15% of the total extent),
valleys and valley bottoms where soils are clayey; the B = intermediate zone (16% of the total extent), C = low-
water table of these soils rises to the ground level country dry zone (53% of the total extent), W.Z. = mid-
country wet zone (16% of the total extent). The area
during the rainy season. A limited portion is located highlighted is the Ampara District where weedy rice was first
on the coastal plains, the floodplains, and terraced observed in 1997.

79
 Rice is grown under a diverse range of soil
conditions, varying from well-drained to poorly
drained lowlands where soil is often submerged.
These environmental conditions have enhanced the
growth of a diverse range of weed flora comprising
terrestrial, semiaquatic, and aquatic species. More
than 134 species belonging to 32 families have been
reported as weeds in various rice soils in Sri Lanka
(Weerakoon and Gunawardana 1983). A more compre-
hensive study on the occurrence of weeds in several
low-country wet zone areas has also been reported by
Chandrasena (1988). These investigations indicate
that the diversity of weeds is greatest for the Poaceae,
with more than 70 species reported, followed by
Cyperaceae, which included more than 55 species.
Other families that included 10–20 species as rice
weeds are Scrophulariaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae,
Amaranthaceae, and Commelinaceae. Of this wide
range of weed species, only 9–10 may be considered
as economically important in lowland rice cultivation.
These include Echinochloa crus-galli, Isachne
globosa, Leptochloa chinensis, Ischaemum rugosum,
Cyperus iria, C. difformis, C. rotundus, Fimbristylis
littoralis, Monochoria vaginalis, and Ludwigia
octovalvis.
It has been reported that 20–30% of rice yields
are lost due to weed competition (Velmurugu 1980,
Gunasena 1992). The degree of loss could be greater,
however, depending on agronomic practice, type of
rice culture, and availability of water (IRRI 1995).
Under extremely high weed pressure, yield losses
have been reported to be as high as 80% (Amara-
singhe et al 1998). Moody (1994) reported that
appropriate weed management strategies are urgently
needed to maintain a stable rice yield and to reduce
production costs. The estimated rice production
losses in South Asia when crop protection measures
are not practiced clearly indicate that losses caused
by weeds are much higher than those caused by
diseases or animal pests (Oerke 1995). Losses are
usually higher in rainfed lowlands than in irrigated
lowlands. In an irrigated lowland environment, greater
losses are encountered in well-drained soil than in
poorly drained soil and during the short rainy season
than during the long rainy season.
The use of herbicides is a common method of
weed control in direct-seeded rice fields of Sri Lanka.
Propanil is the most widely used herbicide (Amara-
singhe and Marambe 1998). However, some inherent
problems associated with propanil application, such
as a narrow application window, lack of rain fastness,
and buildup of resistance in E. crus-galli (Marambe et
al 1997), continue to affect its efficacy. Marambe et al
80
(1997) also reported that propanil not only failed to
effectively control the existing Echinochloa popula-
tions, it also enhanced the germination of seeds of
this grass weed in the soil bank, resulting in greater
weed competition. Recent research has indicated that
clomazone is effective in controlling E. crus-galli
populations that are resistant to propanil.
Weedy rice in Sri Lanka
Weedy rice is a new pest in Asia’s rice-growing
countries (Chin 1997). Weedy rice types in tropical
areas are reported to be progenies of crosses between
wild rice and cultivated rice or the product of degrada-
tion of cultivated rice (Chin 1997). In Korea, Park et al
(1997) observed weedy rice mainly invading dry-
seeded rice lands at an alarming rate, the result of a
shift from transplanting to direct seeding. There are
no reports of weedy rice in Sri Lanka. However, the
presence of wild rice has been mentioned several
times in the literature (Chandrasena 1988).
Chin (1977) reported that one major feature of
weedy rice is its shattering trait. This would result in
higher population densities in the soil seed bank, thus
rendering control more difficult. The other major
characteristics of weedy rice are tallness, low tillering
ability, and a high percentage of red rice (Chin 1997)
and unfilled grains (Table 1).
Weedy rice populations were first observed in Sri
Lanka in 1997 in Ampara District located in the
southeastern part of the country. Ampara is a major
rice-growing area covering about 67,000 ha of rice
land (DA 1997). In 1997, the district accounted for 9%
of the total rice cultivated in Sri Lanka; average yield
was 3.4 t ha–1. Unlike other rice-growing regions,
Ampara has noncalcic brown soils (Haplustalf) that
can be easily plowed under dry conditions. Hence,
dry sowing is a common method of rice establishment
there. In fact, more than 50% of the land cropped to
rice in this region is dry-sown. Most of the dry-sown
tracts are seeded at a high rate of 150–300 kg ha–1 (the
government recommends only 100 kg ha–1) to
compensate for natural thinning of the stand during
the germination and establishment phases and to give
the rice plant a competitive advantage over weeds.
Farmers in this area also produce seed to meet their
own seeding requirement, thus increasing the risk of
contamination by seeds of weedy rice.
Except for a few preliminary studies, no organized
research has been carried out on weedy rice after it
was first reported in 1997. The considerable presence
of weedy rice now threatens rice-growing areas in Sri
Lanka. Preliminary surveys in 1997-98 indicate that
approximately 200 ha of cultivated land in Ampara
 Table 1. Characteristics of weedy rice identified in Ampara District, Sri
Lanka.a

Awn Culm Panicles Seeds Filled Germination

length length plant–1(no.) panicle–1 (no.) grains (%) (%)
(cm) (cm)

0-2 115 ± 7 2±1 82 ± 3 28 ± 3 10.2 ± 10

2-4 102 ± 12 1 ± 0.5 90 ± 2 30 ± 3 15.0 ± 8
4-6 122 ± 8 2±1 78 ± 5 15 ± 6 22.8 ± 5
6-8 95 ± 14 2±1 81 ± 2 21 ± 2 20.4 ± 6
a
Data are means ± standard error.

District have been seriously invaded by weedy rice One factor contributing to the expansion of
species. In addition, several scattered patches of weedy rice populations in Sri Lanka is the large-scale
weedy rice have been observed throughout the adoption of dry seeding as indicated by Park et al
eastern province of Sri Lanka. (1997) for Korea. Unlike wet seeding, dry seeding
On the basis of awn length, four different types promotes the establishment of volunteer seeds of
of weedy rice are found in the direct-seeded rice fields weedy rice. However, puddling, followed by the
in Ampara. The other characteristics of the weedy rice application of paraquat (a total contact-type herbi-
types identified are presented in Table 1. All types cide) before sowing, successfully controlled weedy
shattered within 2–3 wk after panicle emergence, rice populations. Continuous adoption of this practice
indicating further enrichment of the seed bank in the in some weedy rice-infested areas has helped farmers
soil. A majority of the seeds were unfilled, however, maintain weedy rice populations at acceptable levels.
and the filled grains had a low germination rate 4 wk The occurrence of weedy rice in new areas has been
after shattering. Extension agents in Ampara esti- reported recently, however, indicating a possible
mated that yield loss in cultivated rice caused by expansion into new areas under rice cultivation.
competition from weedy rice could exceed 40%.
Chin (1977) reported that weedy rice infestation is Weedy rice as a threat to increased rice
dangerous because the seed bank in the soil in- production in Sri Lanka
creases over time. Self-regeneration is difficult to Sri Lanka has yet to achieve self-sufficiency in rice.
contain and no selective herbicide is effective for Current rice production, about 2.5 million t yr–1, has
controlling weedy rice. Several studies support Chin’s met only 85% of the total demand. The annual
(1977) findings: most rice herbicides failed to control increase in demand as a result of increased population
the emergence of weedy rice seedlings at the 2–3- or is now about 25,300 t. Rice production therefore has
4–5-leaf stage of weeds (Table 2). Park et al (1977), to increase by nearly 50% to meet the total demand
however, reported that molinate and thiobencarb within the next 25 yr (MALF 1995). To achieve such
inhibited germination of weedy rice seeds. an increase at the present level of cultivation, yield
per hectare has to increase from 3.5 to 4.5 t. This has
been set as the national short-term goal. This targeted
Table 2. Efficacy of selective rice herbicides in controlling
of weedy rice (% control over untreated control). yield increase would come from increased cropping
intensity and the production of high-quality seed.
The area planted to short-maturing cultivars will be
Growth stage
Herbicide Ratea expanded and broadcasting will replace transplanting.
(kg ai ha–1) 2–3 leaf 4–5 leaf All these strategies are not new; they have already
(% control) been incorporated in past efforts to increase rice
Propanil (360 g L–1) 8.0 5 0 yields. Under these circumstances, profuse weed
Quinclorac (250 g L–1) 0.8 5 0 growth is inevitable and yield losses from weeds are
Fenoxaprop-P-ethyl 0.3 10 0 tremendous.
(12.5 g L–1)
Thiobencarb (400 g L–1) 5.0 5 5 The presence of weedy rice, which is morphologi-
+ propanil (200 g L–1) cally similar to cultivated rice, aggravates weed
Oxadiazon (80 g L–1) 3.5 5 5 management problems in direct-seeded rice fields of
+ propanil (230 g L–1)
Sri Lanka. The resistance of weedy rice to selective
a
Rate of commercial product recommended by the Department of herbicides now in use poses a serious threat to the
Agriculture, Sri Lanka.

81
country’s rice production system. Thus, urgent
measures have to be taken to educate farmers on the
potential damage of weedy rice and on possible
mechanisms (such as the use of weed-free certified
seed) to reduce its impact.
References
Amarasinghe L, Marambe B. 1998. Weeds and weed
management in lowland rice cultivation in Sri Lanka.
In: Proceedings of a multidisciplinary international
conference. Sri Lanka (supplement).
Amarasinghe L, Marambe B, Rajapakshe RPAD. 1998.
Effect of quinclorac on weed control and yield of rice
(Oryza sativa) in mid-country region of Sri Lanka. Sri
Lankan J. Agric. Sci. 36: 24-34.
CB (Central Bank of Sri Lanka). 1997. Annual report.
Peradeniya (Sri Lanka): CB.
Chandrasena JPNR. 1988. Floristic composition and
abundance of rice field weeds in four low-country wet
zone districts of Sri Lanka. Trop. Pest Manage. 34:
278-287.
Chin DV. 1997. Occurrence of weedy rice in Vietnam. In:
Proceedings of the 16th Asia-Pacific Weed Science
Conference. Malaysia: Asia-Pacific Weed Science
Society. p 243-245.
DA (Department of Agriculture). 1997. Agriculture
implementation programme. Peradeniya (Sri Lanka):
DA.
Gunasena HPM. 1992. Weed research in Sri Lanka:
annotated bibliography. Sri Lanka: Department of
Agriculture. 123 p.
82
MALF (Ministry of Agriculture, Lands & Forestry). 1995.
National policy framework for agriculture, lands, and
forestry. Peradeniya (Sri Lanka): MALF.
Marambe B, Amarasinghe L, Senaratne GRPB. 1997.
Propanil-resistant barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-
galli L. Beauv.) in Sri Lanka. In: Proceedings of the 16th
Asia-Pacific Weed Science Conference. Malaysia: Asia-
Pacific Weed Science Society. p 222-224.
Moody K. 1994. Weed management in wet-seeded rice in
tropical Asia. In: Integrated management of paddy and
aquatic weeds in Asia. FFTC Book Series No 45.
Taipei: Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the
Asian and Pacific region. p 1-9.
Oerke E-C. 1995. Estimated crop losses due to pathogens,
animal pests and weeds. In: Oerke E-C, Dehne H-W,
Schonbeck F, Weber A, editors. Crop production and
crop protection. New York: Elsevier. p 720-735.
Park KH, Lee MH, Kim SC, Kim KM. 1997. Growth habit
of weedy rice and its possible chemical control. In:
Proceedings of the 16th Asia-Pacific Weed Science
Conference. Malaysia: Asia-Pacific Weed Science
Society. p 238-242.
Velmurugu V. 1980. A review of weed control in rice. In:
Proceedings of a rice symposium. Peradeniya (Sri
Lanka): Department of Agriculture. p 109-132.
Weerakoon WL, Gunawardana SDIE. 1983. Rice weed flora
in Sri Lanka. Trop. Agric. 139:1-14.
Control of red rice
H. Sadohara1, O. Watanabe1, and G. Rich2
Kumiai Chemical Industry Co., Ltd., 4-26, Ikenohata 1-Chome, Taitoh-ku, Tokyo 1108782, Japan
1

Valent USA Corporation, Memphis, TN, USA

2

Red rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a serious problem in Table 1. Efficacy of several herbicides on red rice and
commercial rice when applied at preemergence (source:
commercial rice-producing areas in the United States, Life Science Research Institute of Kumiai Chemical
Italy, and Brazil, resulting in a reduction in grain yield, Industry Co., Ltd., 1978).a
grade, and quality. Rice herbicides cannot provide
Dosage Red rice Commercial rice
sufficient control of red rice because this species has Treatment (g ai ha–1)
the same characteristics as commercial rice. Red rice Ab Bc Kinmaze IR8
differs from commercial rice in the color of rice seed
Thiobencarb 300 6 10 2 9
(deep red to pink in red rice vs light pink in commer- Butachlor 10 9 10 6 10
cial rice). At tillering and during later growth stages, Pyriphenop-sodium 10 9 9 9 9
red rice can be distinguished from commercial rice by 2,4-PA 30 9 9 10 10
its pubescent, light green leaves; profuse tillering; a
Evaluation scale: 0 = no control, 10 = complete kill. bRed rice A = yellow,
taller and later maturing growth; long, slender awnless, large seed (Brazil). cRed rice B = brown, awned, large seed (Brazil).
panicles; and heavy shattering of grain (Dodson 1989,
Smith et al 1977). This chapter describes the biological
activities of several herbicides against red rice under
greenhouse conditions and discusses practical Table 2. Efficacy of several herbicides on red rice and
control methods (cultural management, herbicide commercial rice when applied at postemergence (source:
control) adopted in the United States. Life Science Research Institute of Kumiai Chemical
Industry Co., Ltd., 1978).a

Intersubgenus selectivity of herbicide

Dosage Red rice Commercial rice
Treatment (ppm)
A greenhouse test was conducted to evaluate the Ab Bc Kinmaze IR8
efficacy of several herbicides on red rice when applied
at pre- and/or postemergence. Propanil 10,000 4 4 2 4
MCPA 3,000 7 7 8 7
Paraquat 100 9 10 9 10
Preemergence application Glyphosate 300 10 9 6 8
Two biotypes of red rice and two types of commercial Dalapon-sodium 3,000 7 6 5 6
Alloxydim-sodium 1,000 9 9 9 9
rice (Kinmaze/japonica rice IR8/indica rice) were Prometryn 3,000 8 88 6
seeded in Wagner pots (1/5,000 a and chemicals were Bentazone 3,000 0 0 1 0
applied into 3-cm-deep water. Results indicate Maleic hydrazide 3,000 8 8 8 8
differences in susceptibility between commercial rice a
Evaluation scale: 0 = no control, 10 = complete kill. bRed rice A = yellow,
and red rice after thiobencarb or butachlor treatment awnless, large seed (Brazil). cRed rice B = brown, awned, large seed (Brazil).
(Table 1).

Postemergence application Practical control measures

Commercial rice and red rice were grown in plastic
pots (11 × 11 cm) and chemicals were applied at the
2.3–3.2 leaf stage of the plants. Results showed no
differences in activity (Table 2).
In the United States, especially in Louisiana, several
control methods were recommended (Table 3).
Test 1
A split-plot design was used in the experiment, with
the main plot treatment being the length of the

83
Table 3. Methods to control red rice in Louisiana (source:
staff of Rice Experimental Station, Louisiana State
University, pers. commun.) Application Flooding Reflooding
A
Cultural control Water management Land preparation
Cultural control/ Thiobencarb, molinate Seeding
B
rice herbicide
Soybean herbicide Clethodim, dimethenamid,
metolachlor, etc. C
Nonselective herbicide Paraquat, glyphosate,
dalapon
Seed heading Maleic hydrazide D
suppression
Nonselective herbicide Glyphosate (Round-up
Ready Rice), glufosinate
With herbicide- (Liberty Link Rice), Fig. 1. Cultural management and thiobencarb application.
tolerant ricea imidazolinone herbicide
(Imi-Rice)

Under evaluation.
a

postseeding drainage period (0, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 Results indicate that the stand density of Mars
d). Thiobencarb was applied as a preplant surface was not influenced by the treatments. In the case of
treatment at the rate of 4.4 kg ai ha–1. Presprouted red rice, however, there were significant differences
Mars was sown into flooded plots and the plots were between means of stand density. The preplant
drained 2 d after seeding and reflooded according to a surface spray on a dry seedbed or postflooded
drainage schedule. It was found that the longer treatment after puddling gave a significant reduction
drainage period improved the stand density of Mars, in stand density (Table 5).
but it also resulted in an even higher increase in stand
density of red rice, about 20 times as much red rice in
plots drained for 13 d compared with those continu-
ously flooded. The thiobencarb treatment had no Table 5. Effect on stand density of thiobencarb method of
application.
effect on the stand density of Mars, but it signifi-
cantly reduced red rice stand density; there was 3–4 Time of Density (no. of plants ft–2)
times as much red rice in the untreated plots as in the Seedbed application
Mars Red rice
thiobencarb-treated plots (Table 4).
A. Not dragged Preflood 34.5 4.3 a
Test 2 B. Not dragged Postflood 37.3 13.5 ab
Not dragged None 44.0 28.0 b
This test evaluated various methods of application of C. Dragged Pre-dragging 55.3 27.5 b
thiobencarb as a preplant treatment in water-seeded D. Dragged Post-dragging 31.8 8.3 a
rice. Figure 1 explains cultural management and Dragged None 47.3 26.5 b
thiobencarb application.

Table 4. Length of drainage-herbicide test: effects on stand density (source: Baker et al

[nd]).

Stand density (no. of plants ft–2)

Length of
drainage Mars Red rice
(d)
Thiobencarb Untreated Av Thiobencarb Untreated Av

0 40.0 42.8 41.4 2.0 5.5 3.8

3 61.5 66.5 64.0 7.8 26.0 16.9
5 69.5 69.5 69.5 10.8 38.5 24.6
7 77.5 95.5 86.5 27.3 87.0 57.1
9 71.0 90.8 80.9 27.8 94.5 61.1
11 81.0 97.5 89.5 51.0 134.0 92.5
13 97.3 88.8 93.0 42.0 114.3 78.1
Av 71.1 78.8 24.1 71.4

84
 Conclusions
3-5d
Application Flooding Reflooding
Thiobencarb treatment in combination with reflooding
within 3 to 5 d after drainage may be recommended to
Land preparation Seeding control red rice in the United States (Fig. 2).
3-5d

References
Dragging
Baker JB et al. Chemical control of red rice in rice. p 172-
187.
Fig. 2. Recommended methods of applying thiobencarb to Dodson WR. 1989. Red rice. La. Agric. Exp. Stn. Bull.
control red rice. 50:206-226.
Smith RJ et al. 1977. Weed control in U.S. rice production.
In: U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook. 497 p.

85
Biological control of rice weeds
using fungal isolates
K. Yamaguchi, K. Ishihara, and S. Fukai
Life Science Laboratory, Mitsui Chemical Inc., 1144 Togo, Mobara City, Chiba 297-0017, Japan

In 1996, rice was planted on almost 2 million ha in
Japan, giving a total yield of 10.3 million t.
Barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli and E.
oryzicola), Japanese bulrush (Scirpus juncoides), and
several broadleaf weeds are common weeds in
Japanese rice fields. Kuroguwai (Eleocharis
kuroguwai), arrowhead (Sagittaria trifolia), and
Cyperus weeds are also troublesome. These weeds
are a constant threat to rice production, causing huge
yield losses. Chemical herbicides have been used to
control weeds because they were effective and labor-
efficient. Extensive herbicide use, however, is
reportedly causing environmental pollution. Alterna-
tive methods of weed control are sometimes used with
biological control.
DeVine (Phytophthora palmivora) against
strangler vine, Collego (Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides f. sp. aeschynomene) against
northern jointvetch, BioMal (C. gloeosporioides f. sp.
malvae) against round-leaved mallow, and Camperico
(Xanthomonas campestris pv. poaceae) against
annual bluegrass have been registered as
bioherbicides. Also, several biological control
projects focusing on rice weeds have been reported in
Asian countries. This chapter reports on the use of
two potential biological control agents in rice fields,
Drechslera monoceras (against barnyardgrass) and
Epicoccosorus nematosporus (against kuroguwai).
precultured with each fungus was put into a test tube
and incubated with seedlings. Herbicidal activity was
evaluated within 2 wk in a chamber. Isolates of
Drechslera species were found to have herbicidal
activity against barnyardgrass (Ishihara et al nd). The
most effective isolate, MTB-951 (Ishihara et al nd),
identified as D. monoceras (syn. Exserohilum
monoceras), showed a herbicidal effect on
barnyardgrass but not on rice (Table 1, 2).
Drechslera monoceras grows well in a sub-
merged liquid medium but does not form conidia in
liquid at all. This fungus sporulates only when the
surface of mycelia is exposed to the air. We have
generated a two-phase system using biomass support
particles (Yamaguchi et al nd) for conidia production
of D. monoceras (Fig. 1). Under this system, conidia
of MTB-951 were produced in quantities of 6.5 g of
dry cell liter-1 of growth medium, which contains 109
conidia.
For the field study, D. monoceras MTB-951 was
formulated as dried powder (Yamaguchi 1993)
consisting of conidia and mineral, which can be kept
at 25 °C for more than 8 mo. Field trials were con-
ducted in transplanted rice fields and in direct-seeded
Table 1. Pathogenicity of D. monoceras MTB-951 on
barnyardgrass.

Biological control of barnyardgrass Genus Echinochloa Echinochloa Echinochloa Echinochloa

Species crus-galli crus-galli oryzicola colonum
Variety crus-galli formosensis
Barnyardgrass is the most common weed in Japanese + + + +
rice fields. We have been looking for potential
biological control agents (Suzuki 1987). More than
10,000 fungal isolates were obtained from diseased
weeds in fields. Fusarium spp., Phoma spp., and Table 2. Pathogenicity of D. monoceras MTB-951 on
Drechslera spp. were mainly isolated from lesions of cultivated rice.
barnyardgrass. A rapid screening method for herbi- Type Japonica Japonica Javanica Indica
cidal activity in fungal isolates, using test tubes under Cultivar Nipponbare Koshihikari Earytall Blue
sterile conditions, was established. Barnyardgrass Peter Bonnet
– – – –
was seeded on agar medium. A mycelial agar disc

87
 First phase Conidia
(mycelium growth)

Second phase
(conidiation)

Fig. 1. A two-phase system using biomass support particles.

Transplanted rice field Direct-seeded rice field rice fields. MTB-951 powder killed more than 90% of
Reduction in dry weight of barnyardgrass (%)
the barnyardgrass (Fig. 2) without injuring the rice
100
seedlings.
Leaf stage
1
80 Biological control of kuroguwai
0.5
Kuroguwai is one of the most troublesome weeds in
60 Japan. Its tubers lie dormant in the soil and new stems
appear with a lack of uniformity, which makes it
40 difficult to control. Epicoccosorus nematosporus was
discovered as a potential biological control agent
20
against kuroguwai (Arita et al nd). When flowering
0 stems appeared, the conidia suspension was sprayed
0 3 10 0 3 10 onto the kuroguwai so that the number of forming
Inoculum density (x 107 conidia m–2) tubers is decreased. In collaboration with Dr. Suzuki
Fig. 2. Control effect of MTB-951 powder on barnyardgrass
of the Agricultural Extension of Japan, we succeeded
in rice fields.

88
Table 3. Composition of medium used for conidia References
production of E. nematosporus through jar fermentation.

Sucrose (mg L–1) 500 Arita M et al., Japan Patent Application No. 1-300810.
NaNO3 (mg L–1) 400 Ishihara K et al., Japan Patent Application No. 6-150987.
.
KH2PO4 (mg L–1)
MgSO4 7H2O (mg L–1)
200
100
Ishihara K et al., Japan Patent Application No. 9-301812.
Suzuki H. 1987. The biological control of plant diseases.
KCl (mg. L–1) 100
Yeast extract (mg L–1) 500 FFTC Book Series No. 42.
Bacto-peptone (mg L–1) 500 Yamaguchi K et al., Japan Patent Application No.8-958185.
Oatmeal extract (mL L–1) 300
pH 5.8

in isolating these biological control agents and in

mass-producing the conidia of E. nematosporus. The
conidia produced by jar fermentation using a liquid
medium (Table 3) were capable of infecting kuroguwai.

Conclusions
Drechslera monoceras MTB-951 and E.
nematosporus were potential bioherbicides against
barnyardgrass and kuroguwai, repectively. The
herbicidal activity of the fungal isolates collected from
rice fields against wild and weedy rice will be evalu-
ated in the near future.

89
Management of weedy rice
(Oryza sativa L.): the Malaysian experience
M. Azmi,1 M.Z. Abdullah,1 B. Mislamah,2 and B.B. Baki3
1
Rice Research Center, MARDI Kepala Batas, 13200 Seberang Prai, Malaysia
2
Crop Protection Division, Department of Agriculture, Jalan Gallagher, 50840 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
3
Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

A weedy form of rice, locally known as padi angin, is
a new threat to the rice industry in Malaysia. Padi
angin refers to the easy-shattering weedy types of
rice that infest direct-seeded rice fields. It is consid-
ered a threat in the direct-seeded fields of Projek Barat
Laut Selangor (PBLS), Besut, and the Muda irrigation
area of peninsular Malaysia (Fig. 1). Infestation of
padi angin in the Muda area varied across years and
seasons. Except in 1993, higher infestation was
observed in the first season than in the second
season (Fig. 2, D. Kamaruddin, 1997, pers. commun.)
because less rainfall was available during the first
season, especially at the early crop stages. This
condition favored the growth of volunteer crops. In
the second season, proper land preparation was
carried out because there was plenty of water from
irrigation and rainfall. Padi angin was one of the major
weed species identified in the Muda rice area (Fig. 3,
Area infested (ha)
350
Season I
300
Season II
250

200

150

100

50

0
1993 1995 1996 1994
1997
Year
Fig. 2. Infestation of padi angin in the Muda area,
Malaysia.

Area infested (ha)

8000

Season I
6000
Season II

4000

2000

0
Echinochloa spp.

Others
C. difformis
C. digitatus
Padi angin
S grossus
M crenate
L. Chinensis

Weed species

Fig. 3. Infestation of various weed species in Muda area,

Fig. 1.
1 Rice-producing areas in Peninsular Malaysia. seasons I and II, Muda area, Malaysia.

91
D. Kamaruddin, 1997, pers. commun.; Mislamah,
unpubl. data). However, this weed was observed to
pose a threat in dry direct-seeded rice fields due to a
shortage of water. This problem with padi angin was
more localized in nature compared with other weed
species and was apparently related to cultural
practices.
Padi angin propagates by seed shedding. Its
initial establishment in fields is inevitably through
natural seed shedding. However, the widespread use
of broadcast seeding and combine harvesters has
intensified and aggravated the problem of padi angin.
Farmers experience yield losses in broadcast crops
because of the spontaneous shattering characteristics
of padi angin (Abdullah et al 1994). The undesirable
traits of padi angin are listed in Table 1.
Early harvesting could save padi angin grains,
but, since cultivated rice is still not fully ripened, the
overall quality of padi will be affected, including the
quality of milled rice. A delay in harvesting may lead
to severe yield losses and buildup of padi angin seed
banks in fields. This is highly undesirable because a
high population of padi angin in the next season can
result in a drastic yield reduction. Watanabe et al
(1996) reported that, with 35% infestation of padi
angin, rice yield was 3.2 t ha–1, only about 50-60% of
yield capacity. Serious infestation caused a yield loss
of 74% in direct-seeded rice (Azmi et al 1994b). Under
heavy infestations, lodging of padi angin will result in
total yield loss of the rice crop.
Identification of padi angin
Wide morphological variations of padi angin exist in
direct-seeded rice fields. Md. Zuki and Kamaruddin
(1994) have identified eight accessions of padi angin
Table 1. Undesirable traits and evolutionary characteristics of padi angin.a
Type of characteristic Traits Characteristics
Morphological Culm Long
Grain Short, pigmented grain,
colored, pericarp
Awn Presence/absence
Plant mimicry Mimics cultivated rice
Ecological Threshability Spontaneous shattering
Dormancy Seed dormancy
Seed longevity Viable in soil for
several months
Germination Variable
Physiological Herbicide Tolerant
Selectivity Normally used in rice
cultivation
a
Modified from Watanabe (1995).
92
existing in the Muda area. In PBLS, seven padi angin
variants have been isolated and described by Wahab
and Suhaimi (1994). These accessions showed
differences in leaf, grain color, presence/absence of
awn, panicle type (compactness), panicle length, and
grain size.
The morphological characteristics of padi angin
in the Muda area are described by Azmi et al (1994a),
based on panicle structure (presence or absence of
awn, open and compact panicles). Some accessions
have colored grains. The grains showed variations in
type, similar to those seen in modern cultivated rice
grains. Some padi angin accessions have grains with
purple to reddish seed coats or pericarps, a character-
istic observed in red rice grain (Diarra et al 1985). At
maturity, padi angin plants are not hard to identify—a
slight hand grip can easily cause grain shattering from
the panicle. By using this method, a plant with no
shattered grain is considered an off-type or volunteer
crop and not padi angin.
Control of padi angin
The adoption of direct-seeding culture makes weed
infestation one of the most serious and costly
problems of rice production in Malaysia. In recent
years, weed control has become more challenging in
Muda and PBLS because of the emergence of padi
angin. No single technique can now effectively
control padi angin because both cultivated and
weedy rice crops have similar growth characteristics.
So far, integrated weed control systems involving
indirect and direct control measures have been
adopted. Indirect control measures include the use of
clean and certified seeds, proper land preparation,
variety choice, and water management, whereas direct
Type of interference
Cause lodging, competitive edge over rice
Reduce rice quality
Difficult to identify
Reduce rice yield, increase seed bank in soil
Difficult to control
Difficult to reduce size of seed bank
Adapt to wet-seeded fields
Less effective with chemical control
Respondents (%) weed management (IWM) is a good method for
70 reducing padi angin populations in seriously infested
60 Muda fields because farmers failed to reduce weedy rice
50 PBLS populations using single methods of control (Fig. 4,
40 Watanabe 1995).
30
Indirect control
20 The size of the seed bank plays an important role in
10 determining the severity of infestation by padi angin.
0 Therefore, proper land preparation must be done to

No reply
No control
Manual weeding
Change variety
Transplanting

Intensive land preparation

Herbicide at land preparation
Wet seeding

reduce this seed reservoir. Azmi et al (1994b) sug-

gested sequential tillage operations during land
preparation to reduce the padi angin population in
direct-seeded fields (Fig. 5). Initial tillage should be
shallow enough to encourage good germination of
padi angin seeds and subsequent tillage must be
thorough enough to ensure that all volunteer
seedlings are killed. In addition, a preplanting
herbicide spray with either paraquat or glyphosate is
occasionally needed to prevent a high density of
Fig. 4. Results of a survey on control methods for padi volunteer seedlings and padi angin.
angin in Muda and Projek Barat Laut Selangor (PBLS) rice
areas. Table 2 shows that three rounds of tillage at 10-d
intervals were effective in reducing the padi angin
population regardless of seeding rate (>60 kg ha–1).
control measures include manual weeding and No single weed control package was sufficient for
chemical application. A selective herbicide for the controlling weedy rice. Therefore, manual weed
control of padi angin is still nonexistent. Integrated control measures are necessary to eliminate the

Stubble and straw are burned

after harvesting (1-7 d
after harvesting)

Dry rototilling/shallow tillage

(1st tillage) (27 d before
sowing)

Herbicide spray (17-13 d

before sowing)

Dry/wet rototilling (2nd

tillage)(10-7 days before
sowing)

Wet rototilling (3rd tillage) Reduced population in direct- Hand-weeding of survivors Cutting of panicles of Weed-free crop
followed by land leveling seeded rice (20-30 DAS) survivors (60-80 DAS) (100-110 DAS)
(0-1 d before sowing)

Draining excess water and

sowing of pregerminated
seeds (seed rate>100 kg ha-1)

Flooding (7-14 d after sowing

[DAS])

Control in ditches and levees

Fig. 5. Integrated approach to control padi angin in direct-seeded rice fields in Projek Barat Laut Selangor, Malaysia. DAS =
days after sowing (modified from Azmi and Abdullah 1997).

93
Table 2. Effect of tillage technique and seeding rate on rice production in previously padi angin-infested fields, Projek
Barat Laut Selangor, Malaysia.a

Yield (kg ha– 1)

Treatmentb Seeding Av yield
rate Sungai Tanjung Tanjung (kg ha–1)
(kg ha–1) Lemanc Karangd Karange

Tillage I Tillage II Tillage III 0 0 943 0 314

(30 DBSf) (15 DBS) (1 DBS) 60 1897 3995 4960 3617
120 2657 3333 4769 3586
180 3406 3297 4461 3722

Paraquat Tillage I Tillage II 0 0 955 0 318

spray (24 DBS) (1 DBS) 60 3065 3081 4728 3625
(30 DBS) 120 2643 3328 4753 3575
180 2809 3050 5100 3653

Tillage I Paraquat Tillage II 0 0 920 0 307

(30 DBS) spray 60 2734 3509 5028 3757
(10 DBS) (1DBS) 120 3287 3114 5043 3815
180 2983 3328 4919 3743

Glufosinate Tillage I Tillage II 0 0 941 0 314

+ metasulfuron (10 DBS) (1 DBS) 60 2775 4225 4980 3993
(30 DBS) 120 2454 3700 4980 3591
180 2861 3389 4941 3730

Tillage I Glufosinate+ Tillage II 0 0 1014 0 338

(30 DBS) metasulfuron (1 DBS) 60 3040 3550 5088 3893
(10 DBS) 120 2273 3328 5573 3725
180 3910 3112 5189 4070
a
Azmi and Abdullah (1998). bNormally, final tillage is followed by land leveling and sowing of rice seeds. cSeason I/1994. dSeason II/1993. eSeason II/1994.
f
DBS = days before sowing.

surviving padi angin. A very high seed rate (exceed- high-vigor seeds can result in faster and better
ing 100 kg ha–1) can be practiced even though it does seedling establishment. Varietal choice may help
not contribute to a yield increase; farmers practice it control padi angin infestation because some rice
as insurance against establishment uncertainties, varieties have shown a differential competitive ability
while helping to suppress the weed species. Normally, against some padi angin accessions. A short-maturing
seeding rates within the 80-100 kg ha–1 range are variety, IR64, gave the highest yield under serious
sufficient in padi angin-infested areas (Fig. 6). Where weedy rice infestation (Fig. 6). Also, harvesting IR64
possible, dry seeding and the use of volunteer early enough, while padi angin is at the flowering
seedlings in heavily infested areas should be avoided
and replaced with wet seeding or transplanting.
Farmers in the infested areas in PBLS who had Yield (kg ha-1)
1400
reverted to transplanting methods had completely
prevented the regeneration of padi angin (Azmi and 1200
Abdullah 1998). 1000
Besides tillage, good water management practices 800
are an important prerequisite for controlling padi
600
angin and other weed species. For effective control,
water must be brought in as early as 5 d after sowing 400
in contrast to 14 d after sowing in dry-seeded rice. 200
The use of clean and certified seeds in direct- 0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
seeded rice could possibly prevent the spread of padi
Seed rate (kg ha-1)
angin into a new area. Therefore, farmers should use a
new stock of seeds or, if necessary, certified rice Fig. 6. Effect of seeding rates on yield in a direct-seeded
seeds from a reliable seed source. High-quality or rice field heavily infested with padi angin.

94
stage, will indirectly help reduce the padi angin seed
bank. However, this practice may lead to a mixture of
green grains (from padi angin), thereby resulting in
poor-quality grain.
Another important factor in preventing the
spread of padi angin is the imposition of some
regulatory measures such as limiting the movement of
combine harvesters from one rice area to another.
Farm machines from infested areas should be cleaned
so that they are free from weed seeds before moving
into a new area.
Direct control
Rice farmers have resorted to manual weeding to
partly overcome padi angin problems in the field. At
flowering stage, selective hand weeding is possible
because padi angin can be easily distinguished from
the rice crop; padi angin is generally taller, with
narrow yellowish green leaves and open culm angle,
and flowers earlier than the cultivated ones. Selective
weeding was most effective in controlling padi angin
in the Sekinchan area during early crop growth
(Abdul Hamed et al 1994). However, padi angin
population must be closely monitored, particularly
those which mimic the planted variety.
Chemical control of padi angin is difficult due to
its similarities with cultivated rice. Lo (1994), however,
reported that presowing treatment with molinate at 4.5
kg ai ha–1 reduced padi angin infestation. Molinate
applied 3 d before sowing was more effective than
that applied 5 d before sowing. Herbicide incorpo-
rated into the soil was more effective than surface
application. Preseeding incorporation of molinate at
4.5 kg ai ha–1 for the control of padi angin in wet-
seeded rice culture has been proposed.
Conclusions
The speedy spread of padi angin in Malaysia serves
as a warning to other rice-growing countries in the
region. The Malaysian weedy rice has most probably
evolved from cultivated rice, but this may not be true
in other countries. Padi angin infestations in Malay-
sia, which were related to direct seeding and volun-
teer cropping practices, warrant further investigation.
Comprehensive weed control measures (Table 3)
should be adopted to prevent a reemergence of padi
angin in badly infested areas.
References
Abdul Hamed B, Nasir MA, Mohd Asrore K, Idrus AH.
1994. Status dan kawalan padi angin di Projek Barat
Laut Selangor [in Malay]. Paper presented at the Padi
angin Workshop, 18 May 1994, Malaysian Agricul-
tural Research and Development Institute, Seberang
Perai. 3 p.
Abdullah MZ, Vaughan DA, Watanabe H, Okuno K. 1997.
The origin of weedy rice in Muda and Tanjung Karang
areas in Peninsular Malaysia. MARDI Res. J.
24(2):169-174.
Azmi M, Abdullah MZ. 1998. A manual for the identifica-
tion and control of padi angin (weedy rice) in
Malaysia. Serdang, Selangor: Malaysian Agricultural
Research and Development Institute. 30 p.

Table 3. Weed control options for reducing padi angin infestation in direct-seeded rice.a

Field operation/cultural Population of padi angin

practice High Low
Effectivenessb Remarkc

Herbicide application Not applicable Applicable 4 A

during land preparation
Land preparation Poor Excellent 5 AB
Seed purity Contaminated Pure 3 C
Seed vigor Low High 2 C
Cultivation method Dry seeding Transplanting 5 AB
Wet seeding Broadcasting Row seeding 3 BE
Seed rate Low density High density 2 D
Water management Saturated/dry Standing water 2 AD
Herbicide use in rice Foliage-soil treatment-soil incorporation 1 A
Manual weeding None Intensive 5 A
Fertilizer applicationd Unweeded After weed control 1 D
Harvestingd Early to late Right time 1 CF
a
Watanabe et al 1996. bEffectiveness: 1 = less effective, 5 = very effective. cA = reduce padi angin and volunteer
seedling populations, B = uniform crop establishment, C = prevent padi angin contamination, D = better crop
establishment and give competitive advantage over padi angin, E = facilitate manual weeding, F = avoid grain
shattering of padi angin. dCorrect time of operation for maximum efficiency.

95
Azmi M, Watanabe H, Abdullah MZ. 1994a. Morphologi-
cal characteristics of padi angin. Paper presented at
the Padi angin Workshop, 18 May 1994, Malaysian
Agricultural Research and Development Institute,
Seberang Perai. 17 p.
Azmi M, Watanabe H, Abdullah MZ, and Zainal AH.
1994b. Padi angin, an emerging threat to direct-seeded
rice. In: Proceedings of the Malaysian Congress of
Science and Technology. Kuala Lumpur: Confederation
of Scientific and Technological Association in
Malaysia. p 29-36.
Diarra A, Smith JR, Talbert RE. 1985. Interference of red
rice (Oryza sativa) with rice (O. sativa). Weed Sci.
33:644-649.
Lo NP. 1994. Chemical control of padi angin. Paper
presented at the Padi angin Workshop, 18 May 1994,
Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development
Institute, Seberang Perai. 4 p.
96
Md. Zuki I, Kamaruddin D. 1994. Status dan kawalan padi
angin di kawasan Muda [in Malay]. Paper presented
at the Padi angin Workshop, 18 May 1994, Malaysian
Agricultural Research and Development Institute,
Seberang Perai. 12 p.
Wahab AH, Suhaimi O. 1991. Padi angin, adverse effects
and methods of eradication [in Malay; English
abstract]. Teknol. Padi 7:27-31.
Watanabe H. 1995. Weedy rice problems in Southeast Asia
and control strategy. In: Proceedings of the 15th Asian-
Pacific Weed Science Society Conference. Tokyo:
Asian Pacific Weed Science Society. p 68-80.
Watanabe H, Azmi M, Md. Zuki I. 1996. Ecology of major
weeds and their control in direct-seeding rice culture of
Malaysia. MARDI/MADA/JIRCAS Collaborative
Study (1992-96). (unpubl.)
Weedy rice: approaches to ecological appraisal
and implications for research priorities
M. Mortimer, S. Pandey, and C. Piggin
International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
In a generic way, the term “weedy rice” refers to
populations of annual Oryza species that diminish
farmer income both quantitatively through yield
reduction and qualitatively through lowered commod-
ity value at harvest. Weedy rice occurs in all major
rice-growing areas in the tropics, and is particularly a
problem in the direct-seeded rice agriculture of Latin
and North America, the Caribbean, Africa, and South
and Southeast Asia. Historically, however, the most
well-known noxious form of weedy rice is red rice
(Giglioli 1956)–Oryza sativa L. possessing caryopses
with a pigmented pericarp (Craigmiles 1978). Smith
(1988) recorded that early competition from relatively
low infestations (10–20 plants m–2) of red rice may
result in crop losses of up to 50% and, in Latin
America, it has been estimated that 24 plants m–2 may
cause yield losses of 75% (Fischer and Ramirez 1993).
The widespread, commercially undesirable presence
of red grains requires intense milling to remove the
pericarp, resulting in a higher proportion of broken
grains and lower final head yield (Baker and Sonnier
1983).
Characteristically, weedy rice is a superior
competitor to crop cultivars due to early vigor, greater
tillering, and greater height of plants. As a close mimic
of rice, especially in the early stages of the crop,
weedy rice is most easily recognized in the field at
harvest by examination of panicles (easy shattering)
and grain (e.g., with awns and red pericarps). Popula-
tions are highly variable, however, showing continu-
ous independent variation in many characters,
including heading and shattering time, tiller number
and development, plant height, seed dormancy, awn
length, and caryopsis pigmentation (dark red through
red/pink to white). While weedy rice may be closely
related to or are ecotypes of O. sativa, other Oryza
species also constitute weeds and Holm et al (1977)
listed seven Oryza species as weeds of rice. In Africa,
both O. barthii A. Chev. and O. longistaminata A.
Chev. & Roehr. pose major problems to rice cultiva-
tion. Widely distributed, from Botswana to Ethiopia to
Senegal, they are closely related and often found in
the same habitat (Vaughan 1994). Oryza barthii is an
annual, while O. longistaminata is a rhizomatous
perennial, and both species have vigorous growth
and produce grains that shatter easily.
Weedy rice species are thus examples of feral rice
species that may be closely or more distantly related
to cropped rice cultivars. Phenotypically, the two
principal undesirable traits of weedy rice are colored
pericarps and early grain shattering. Pericarp colora-
tion results in lowered grain quality in most rice
markets, while early shattering reduces harvestable
yield. Where these traits occur, either singly or in
combination with traits for competitiveness against
cultivated rice, further yield reduction ensues. When
present in weedy rice, seed longevity in the soil is an
additional character that enables population persis-
tence over cropping seasons.
Comparisons of intra- and interpopulation
variabilities in weedy rice belonging putatively to the
same species or complex indicate considerable
heterogeneity in trait combinations among plants
(Morishima and Barbier 1990). However, three life-
history characteristics may be posited as key traits in
conferring weediness—seed shattering, competitive-
ness, and seed dormancy—and, simplistically, seven
discrete weedy biotypes may be distinguished in a
binary (+/–) classification of these traits. When
pericarp color is included in this list, 15 biotype
combinations may arise. Because biometrical inherit-
ance may underlie most, if not all, of these characters,
however, continuous variation may be evident in all
four trait dimensions, as is often recorded in compara-
tive studies (e.g., Watanabe et al 1996, Zainal and
Azmi 1996).
The origins of weedy rice
There are three principal mechanisms by which a
species may be incorporated into a weed flora—
preadaptation, evolution, and alien immigration
97
(Mortimer 1994). Elucidation of the origin of weedy
rice is complex, however, from both ecological and
evolutionary perspectives, because all three mecha-
nisms may be involved in different and varying
degrees, depending on geographic and regional
locations and current and past agronomic practices.
The evolutionary response through ecotypic
differentiation and hybridization with wild relatives is
undoubtedly a primary source of weedy rice in Asia
and Africa. Rice (O. sativa L.) in Asian countries is
thought to be derived from common wild rice (O.
rufipogon Griff. = Asian form of O. perennis Moench)
and hybrid progenies between cultivated rice and wild
relatives are often weeds in lowland rice (Morishima
and Barbier 1990). Wild rice exhibits wide variation in
life-history traits and its annual type (sometimes
designated as O. nivara or O. sativa f. spontanea,
2n=24, genome AA) is adapted to disturbed habitats
characterized by a prolonged dry season (Oka 1988)
and often exhibits substantial seed dormancy.
Bidirectional introgression between wild and culti-
vated rice has been observed (Oka and Chang 1961).
Weedy rice is clearly preadapted to the habitat of
direct-seeded rice, since it possesses many of the
same life-history characters as the crop cultivar.
Populations of weedy rice have been found to occur
allopatrically in temperate regions beyond the
geographic range of wild rice (Oka 1988) but also
sympatrically in Malaysia and Indonesia, where
differentiation of annual or intermediate types of
common wild rice has rarely occurred (Abdullah et al
1991). In a comparative study of Malaysian weedy
rice, DNA fingerprinting showed clear taxonomic
separation of wild rice from weedy rice which, in turn,
was closely related to the prevailing cultivar
(Abdullah et al 1994). The rapid emergence (about 5
yr) of weedy rice was argued to be a consequence of
an earlier and deliberate practice of volunteer seeding
supplemented by seed broadcasting to fill gaps.
Malaysian cultivars tend to drop seeds at harvest
time because of their easy threshing characteristics
and successive seasons of volunteer seeding are
likely to have selected for easy-shattering ecotypes,
which may also have hybridized with sown cultivars.
In the absence of introgression of genes confer-
ring weedy traits from wild relatives to weedy rice,
three explanations may be advanced to explain the
occurrence of weedy rice outside of the habitat range
of naturally occurring wild rice—immigration of
weedy rice by seed dispersal, cultivar breakdown due
to high mutation rates at loci conferring weediness
traits and subsequent selection of weedy forms, or
heterozygosity within cultivars used by farmers or
98
conserved as on-farm seed. The presence of weedy
(red) rice in North America has been postulated to be
the result of introduced seed from Asia (Parker and
Dean 1976) and Patry et al (1977) have argued that
weedy rice has evolved in the Camargue in France by
as yet unknown genetic mechanisms of cultivar
degradation.
The underlying invasive mechanisms for the
genesis of weedy rice in farmers’ fields are therefore
invasion of preadapted annual wild rice (aided by
contaminated farmer seed, machinery movement,
commerce); segregation and selection of “weedy”
characters in existing cultivars; and selection of
hybrids following introgression of genes from wild,
annual, or perennial rice into sown cultivars. A
meticulous, comparative genetic analysis is necessary
to identify the extent to which any or all of these
mechanisms may have been involved in the evolution
of a weedy rice population.
Ecological appraisal in the management
of weedy rice
From a management point of view, long-term strate-
gies of weedy rice management ultimately hinge on an
understanding of the genesis of within-field weedy
rice phenotypes. If cultivar breakdown (mutation and
segregation) or hybrid production through gene flow
(seed or pollen) from neighboring feral rice popula-
tions is a principal source of weedy rice phenotypes,
programs directed at maintaining cultivar integrity and
feral population management are an essential prereq-
uisite to long-term weed control. Implementing policy
at these levels will require combined and collaborative
action among agricultural agencies.
Whatever their origin, weedy rice infestations in
farmers’ fields require a management program aimed at
local eradication at the field level. The justification for
this is that (1) weedy rice is likely to be extremely
competitive or poor yielding or both, (2) low infesta-
tion densities can cause economic yield loss in the
crop, and (3) infestations can increase rapidly. Weed
management, however, is inherently difficult since
there is a need to use control measures that select
differences between crop and weed populations, both
of which are closely related. When discussing weedy
rice management, some authors have placed consider-
able emphasis on prohibiting the incorporation of
seed into the buried seed bank because of seed
longevity, while others have pointed to the impor-
tance of crop seed cleaning. In a comparison of the
relative efficacy of different techniques for weedy rice
control in Malaysia, Watanabe et al (1996) pointed to
the need to combine individual weed control practices
as tactics of an integrated weed management ap-
proach, as followed for red rice management (Smith
1992). Of considerable relevance to this design is an
ecological appraisal of the factors that determine the
population growth rate of weedy rice populations and
the relative importance of plant recruitment from
(1) seed remaining dormant in the soil over crop
seasons, (2) immigration through crop seed contami-
nation, and (3) seed return from plants in the previous
crop. Weedy rice populations are likely to vary in the
degree of seed longevity in the soil (possibly in
relation to depth of burial and cultivation practices)
(Noldin 1997), the amount of seed dispersal both
through contaminated crop seed and to the ground at
crop harvest, and the magnitude of seed production
(fecundity). In the Philippines, farmers describe
weedy rice as what appears “spontaneously” (Moody
1991) and their use of farm-saved seeds is often
limited to three cropping seasons, as crop “off-types”
increase in abundance. Replacement of seed with a
commercial cultivar enables renewal with a clean seed
stock that becomes progressively contaminated as
seed is saved and used over successive harvests.
One hypothesis suggested by this practice is that
such weedy rice/off-type populations have short
persistence in the soil and contamination of the farmer
seed stock arises because some weedy rice seed does
not shatter and is retained at harvest, the proportion
increasing over seasons because of competitive
superiority. An important intervention point in the
management of weedy rice in this case is clearly the
use of “clean seed.” On the other hand, if seed
longevity is a major characteristic of a weedy rice
population, management to reduce the size of the
buried weed seed bank may be as important as, or
more important than, the use of clean seed in the long
term.
Eradication of a weed species in a field requires
that populations, on average, decline over successive
seasons, with the long-term goal of exhausting seed
reservoirs in the soil. In consequence, the seasonal
rate of population growth (or infestation rate), l, must
be less than 1, where l = Nt+1/Nt and Nt and Nt+1 are the
weed densities at season t and t+1, respectively (see
Mortimer 1994). l represents an index of “weediness”
in that it measures the change in population size over
a season of growth for a given population of a weed
species in a particular habitat. l is determined by the
survival of plants between each stage in the life
cycle—from seed to seedling to adult plants and the
fecundity of the adult plants, through seed produc-
tion and/or clonal reproduction (tiller, rhizomes,
tubers, etc.). Habitat characteristics affect l by
changing these survival and fecundity values. For
example, repeated tillage before direct seeding of rice
will reduce the chance of a seed shed in the previous
season producing a seedling in the subsequent crop;
likewise, a postemergence herbicide will reduce the
chance of a seedling surviving to flower and disperse
seeds. The traits of seed shattering, dormancy, and
competitiveness, mentioned earlier, all affect l as they
are fitness components that directly influence plant
survival and reproduction.
In the absence of effective selective
postemergence chemical control, techniques to
minimize weedy rice infestations necessarily focus on
(1) lowering the chance of emergence of weedy rice
seedlings at crop establishment and (2) preventing
subsequent seed return to the soil from surviving
plants at maturity. In practice and for example, the
former may include repeated (wet and dry) tillage to
provide clean seedbeds, rotation of crop establish-
ment methods (transplanting, water seeding, wet
direct seeding), and cultivar selection to enable early
flooding in water management during crop establish-
ment. All of these practices reduce the chance of plant
survival (as seed or seedling). Techniques to prohibit
seed return are the use of clean seed and manual
weeding (roguing) usually before or at panicle
initiation when skilled farmers can recognize weedy
rice by a combination of vegetative characters. The
net effect of these techniques can be expressed in
terms of reduced seed production of surviving plants.
In evaluating tactics for managing weedy rice in
any particular region, six related questions need to be
answered:
1. What is the relative contribution of each of
the different sources of recruitment of weedy
rice (e.g., seed rain, buried seed, seed saved
and sown with the crop) to future population
growth rate?
2. What is the scale of seed return to the soil
under current cropping and weed management
practices by both seed shattering and the use
of contaminated crop seed?
3. How persistent are buried seed populations?
4. How do these demographic factors interact in
determining infestation rate (l)?
5. To which demographic factor(s) is l most
sensitive? This will aid identification of weed
control intervention point(s) that will have the
greatest effect in lowering l.
6. What is the cost-effectiveness of the different
control options?
99
 A seventh and supplemental question is, How
much ecotypic variation is present in weedy rice
populations in relation to the above and to what
extent does this variation in life-history traits deter-
mine l? These questions can be answered by consid-
ering the population dynamics of weedy rice in
relation to economic criteria and analysis. Pandey et al
(this volume) illustrate the approach. The rigor of this
methodology demands a detailed understanding of
the demography of weedy rice populations, which
may vary considerably in attributes contributing to
weediness. To assess the significance of such
variation in relation to infestation rate and to underpin
economic models for the management of weedy rice,
simple sensitivity analyses of the population dynam-
ics of weedy rice can be completed as follows.
Figure 1 illustrates the life cycle of a weedy rice
population where the population is stage-structured
and recognizes that seed-producing plants may arise
from either seeds incorporated in the buried seed
bank in the soil or seed sown together with the crop.
When surveyed close to crop harvest, established
weedy rice populations comprise flowering plants and
a seed bank of different ages. In this example, seeds
are classified into those that are one-crop-season-old
(produced the previous season) and older seed
(greater than or equal to two seasons old). To
determine how the presence of a seed bank affects the
population dynamics of weedy rice, the flowering
plants are divided into those establishing from seeds
shed to the ground (new seeds), those establishing
from each of the two ages of seed in the seed bank
(one season old and greater than or equal to two
seasons old), and those recruited from seeds sown
with the crop. The arrows indicate transitions made
between each life stage and illustrative survival or
fecundity values are given for each transition, since,
as far as we are aware, no complete life-cycle studies
have been made on individual weedy rice popula-
tions. Moreover, this approach assumes that plants
are recruited in a single cohort and that seeds in the
buried seed bank have a constant death risk indepen-
dent of age.
The data in Figure 1 can be summarized in a stage
projection matrix for this life cycle (Table 1) and the
infestation rate for the given set of parameter values
can be calculated. For this example, l is 168, represent-
ing a very high per-season multiplication rate. By way
of explanation, one flowering plant will add 900 seeds
to the seed bank. Of these, 90 will go to the S1 seed
bank (900 × 0.1) and 144 will produce flowering plants
the next season (900 × 0.2 × 0.8 × 1.0). The remaining
100 seeds from the flowering plant will be harvested
100
by the farmer and 24 of those (100 × 0.3 × 0.8 × 1.0)
will also produce flowering plants. This means that
one flowering plant in season 1 has produced 168
flowering plants in season 2 and added 90 seeds to
the S1 seed bank.
This matrix can also be used to predict how l will
be affected by numerical changes in transitions
throughout the life cycle. For each stage in the life
cycle, an elasticity index can be calculated, which in
essence is a measure of the relative change in l (its
sensitivity) in response to small changes in a matrix
element, calculated for each element. As the numerical
value of an elasticity index increases toward unity,
changes in the associated matrix element have a
greater effect on l. The elasticity indices of a projec-
tion matrix sum up to unity, so elasticities can be
examined to find out which are the largest in a set and
with which transitions they are associated. Further-
more, matrices of different populations or different
species can be compared to see whether they differ in
dominant values. The theory and method of calcula-
tion of elasticities are described by Cochran and
Ellner (1992) and are applicable to any stage-struc-
tured plant population.
Table 2 shows the elasticities associated with the
stage projection matrix given in Table 1 derived from
Figure 1. Elasticities are grouped to indicate major
pathways influencing l. It can be seen that l for this
population is most susceptible to changes in the
value for transition of plants derived from new seed in
the direct pathway (from the previous crop P1 or via
farmer-saved seed P4, via seed production, germina-
tion, etc.) and changes in other transitions have
relatively little effect. Thus, weed management
practices should concentrate most on lowering
transitions p4, p5, p6, and p7 (Fig. 1).
Table 3 illustrates the sensitivity analysis for a
corresponding population with a much slower
infestation rate. Inspection of the elasticity matrix
indicates that l is most sensitive to changes in
parameters in the direct pathway for P1 plants. The
effect of a lowering of p1 to 0.01 (e.g., by improve-
ments in seed cleaning) has not surprisingly dimin-
ished the importance of the direct pathway for P4
plants in contributing to l. In this example, the
probability of recruitment from one-season-old seed
(p2) was increased and the analysis also highlights
the sensitivity of l in this population to this change.
Following the above approach, scenarios of
weedy rice management can be easily simulated by
focusing on the expected impact of specific weed
management practices on particular transition stages
in the life cycle. Such an approach remains a theoreti-
 Seed carryover 0.3
with farmer-
saved seed

Soil seed bank

0.1

p2

Seeds >– 2 season-old S2

p2; 0.1
Seeds = 1-season-old S1
p2
p2; 0.1
100 100 100 100
New seeds in soil

900 900 900 900 0.2 0.2 0.2

p5

Flowering Flowering Flowering Flowering

plant P4 plant P3 plant P2 plant P1 Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling

p7 p6
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

Vegetative plant

Vegetative plant

Vegetative plant

Vegetative plant

Fig. 1. The life cycle of a weedy rice population. The arrows indicate the transitions made between each life stage and the
survival and fecundity values given are per square meter for a cropping season (183 d). (See text for details but note that
parameter values are approximated and not based on a detailed case study.)

Table 1. The stage projection matrix for the life cycle illustrated in Figure 1.

Season t

S1 (seeds 1 S2 (seeds >2 P1 (plants from P2 (plants P3 (plants from >2- P4 (plants from
season old) seasons old) new seed) from 1-season- season- seed sown
old seed) old seed) with the crop)

S1 – – 90 90 90 90
S2 0.1 0.1 – – – –
Season P1 – – 144 144 144 144
t+1 P2 0.08 – – – – –
P3 – 0.08 – – – –
P4 – – 24 24 24 24

101
Table 2. Elasticities for the projection matrix in Table 1. A table entry of <1d-5 indicates a value less than 0.00001. (See
text for details and Figure 1.)

a) Elasticity matrix Season t

S1 (seeds 1 S2 (seeds >2 P1 (plants from P2 (plants P3 (plants from >2- P4 (plants from
season old) seasons old) new seed) from 1-season- season- seed sown
old seed) old seed) with the crop)

S1 – – 0.0002 <1d-5 <1d-5 <1d-5

S2 <1d-5 <1d-5 – – – –
Season P1 – – 0.7341 0.0002 <1d-5 0.1224
t+1 P2 0.0003 – – – – –
P3 – <1d-5 – – – –
P4 – – 0.1224 <1d-5 <1d-5 0.0203

b) Elasticity groupings Season t

S1 (seeds 1 S2 (seeds >2 P1 (plants from P2 (plants P3 (plants from >2- P4 (plants from
season old) seasons old) new seed) from 1-season- season- seed sown
old seed) old seed) with the crop)

S1 – – ISSB ISSB ISSB IFSS

S2 ISSB ISSB – – – –
Season P1 – – DP SSBP SSBP DP
t+1 P2 RSB – – – – –
P3 – RSB – – – –
P4 – – DP SSBP SSBP DP

Cell Elasticity grouping

ISSB Input to the soil seed bank

IFSS Input to farmer-saved seed
DP Contribution from direct seasonal
pathway P1 and P4 plants
SSBP Contribution of plants recruited from
the soil seed bank P2 and P3 plants
RSB Recruitment from the soil seed bank

Table 3. Sensitivity analysis of a weedy rice population showing a slow infestation rate, l = 1.14.

a. Parameter values

Parameter (Fig. 1) Value

P1 0.01
P2 0.2
P3 1.0
P4 10.0
P5 0.1
P6 0.8
P7 1.0

b. Elasticity matrix
Season t

S1 (seeds 1 S2 (seeds >2 P1 (plants from P2 (plants P3 (plants from >2- P4 (plants from
season old) seasons old) new seed) from 1-season- season- seed sown
old seed) old seed) with the crop)

S1 – – 0.1517 0.0529 0.0111 0.0015

S2 0.0379 0.0080 – – – –
Season P1 – – 0.3588 0.1252 0.0265 0.0036
t+1 P2 0.1794 – – – – –
P3 – 0.0379 – – – –
P4 – – 0.0036 0.0013 0.0003 >0.0001

102
cal exercise, however, until such time as the popula-
tion ecology of individual weedy rice populations is
quantified.
Conclusions
Weedy rice in Southeast Asia is a relatively new
phenomenon. In Malaysia, weedy rice infestations
were first reported in 1988 (Wahab and Suhaimi 1990),
in the Philippines in 1990 (Second 1991), and in
Vietnam in 1994 (Chin 1995). Conversely, red rice in
the Americas has been a persistent problem for many
decades (Goss and Brown 1939, Craigmiles 1978).
Weedy rice poses a severe threat to rice production in
Southeast Asia as a consequence of the continuing
adoption of direct seeding in the face of water and
labor shortages (Ho 1994). As a result, there is an
urgent need to discuss and develop research priori-
ties to address its control internationally.
These research priorities include
1. Agreement over nomenclature. It has been
proposed previously that the term “weedy
rice” be adopted to cover all phenotypes of
undesirable weedy rice, including red rice
(Galli 1992). Support for this proposal arises
from the fact that many weedy rice popula-
tions are phenotypically quite variable,
including red rice. The term weedy rice, while
general and imprecise, captures the expecta-
tion of this variability; at the same time, it
implicitly calls for rigorous characterization of
weedy rice.
2. Phenotypic, genotypic, and species character-
ization of weedy rice populations. The
mechanisms underlying and maintaining
phenotypic and genotypic variation in weedy
rice populations may be very varied and, at
present understanding is limited. Undoubt-
edly, “evolution through speciation” is a
particularly difficult and time-consuming
research topic, and there is an urgent need for
comparative ecological genetic studies using
both conventional and modern molecular
techniques (Cho et al 1996). An essential first
step in characterizing weedy rice, however, is
the need for a rigorous sampling program
designed to detect the full range of variation
present in naturally occurring weedy rice
populations in farmers’ fields. Weedy rice
conspicuously displays its presence by size,
but this is not to deny that cryptic plants are
also present, which, although shorter,
possess other weedy traits. Before more
detailed physiological and genetic studies,
“common garden” experiments (in which
plants from differing origins are grown in the
same environment) are useful for separating
environmental and genotypic sources of
variation for inter- and intrapopulation
comparison. Subsequent formal genetic
analysis may then be employed to investigate
patterns of inheritance of major gene traits
and to quantify the heritability of biometrical
ones.
3. Understanding the origin of weedy rice at
country and regional levels. It is impossible
to generalize on the precise and possibly
continuing causes of weedy rice in Asia now
since the relative roles of gene introgression,
seed movement, and cultivar breakdown are
unknown. Perhaps very different processes
are involved both within and between
countries and regions. There is, however, a
need for multidisciplinary studies that look
not only at evolutionary aspects but also at
the distribution of wild rice and patterns of
seed use and retention by farmers.
4. The design of new tools for the control of
weedy rice. The use of herbicide-resistant rice
may offer a future effective tool for weedy
rice control, but now its use remains un
proven and is currently controversial,
especially in relation to potential outcrossing
and transfer of resistance to weedy rice.
Although new selective chemical control
methods may become available, the need to
combine and integrate weed management
tactics will remain. Designing integrated weed
management practices requires knowledge of
the population ecology of the weed species
and broadscale prediction of likely responses
to changes in weed management practices
(Cousens and Mortimer 1995). Empirical
studies on the impact of differing tillage,
water management, and herbicide practices
are essential, but in the wider context of
understanding the dynamics of weed
populations as a whole. Particularly important
is measure ment of the longevity of seed in
the seed bank and the impact of tillage
practices on that longevity. Sensitivity
analysis, as described above, affords the
opportunity to analyze the relative impor-
tance and impact of changes in weed
management practices that influence indi-
vidual transitions in the life cycle of the weed
and future infestation rate. In addition, it
103
 enables comparative studies of individual
weedy rice populations that may differ in trait
characteristics. The approach underpins and
supports the economic analysis of weed
management options (Pandey et al 1998) as
described earlier.
5. Monitoring changes in weedy rice infestation
in relation to agronomic and weed manage-
ment practices. Farm surveys of the magni
tude and extent of weedy rice infestations in
rice-growing areas should become an integral
component of extension work. This, together
with generating awareness of the potential
and long-term problems associated with
weedy rice at all levels of the agricultural
industry, will be essential to halting the
spread of this weed.
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105
An economic framework for optimal
management of weedy rice
on Asian rice farms
S. Pandey, A.M. Mortimer, and C. Piggin
International Rice Research Institute, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines
Weeds are one important source of yield loss in rice.
In addition to yield loss, other economic costs of
weeds are reduced grain quality, interference with
harvesting equipment, and the cost of weed control
itself. Quantitative estimates of some of these losses
are sketchy. The estimates of the direct cost of weed
control (cost of labor for weeding and herbicides)
have ranged from 5% to 13% of the total cost of
production (Moody 1991). In addition to this direct
cost, indirect costs of weed control include those of
land preparation and water management carried out
specifically for weed control, the effect of herbicides
on other useful products from rice fields, phytotoxic
effects on crops, and possible adverse effects on
human health and the environment.
While the above estimates apply to weeds in
general, more recently, weedy forms of rice that are
highly competitive to the cultivated species and
costly to control have evolved. Weedy rice infesta-
tions have been reported in a range of environments
(Zainal and Azmi 1996). They appear to be especially
problematic in Asian rice bowls where farmers have
shifted to direct-seeding methods of rice establish-
ment. The genetic and morphological similarity of
weedy rice to the cultivated species makes it difficult
to control and chemical methods alone are unlikely to
be effective. An integrated strategy based on
interventions during several phases of the life cycle
of weedy rice is obviously needed. Management of
weedy rice can only be effective if interventions are
developed with a view to long-term regulation of the
weed population. As there are several potential ways
to regulate weedy rice populations, economic
evaluations of different intervention strategies are
needed for prioritizing research as well as for guiding
technology development. The major aim of this
chapter is to develop a framework for such an
economic assessment.
1
The overall framework is general and could be applied to analyze economic management of weedy rice in any country. The application of the model,
however, is illustrated in this chapter using the economic data for Vietnam.
The chapter is organized as follows. The basic
economic concepts and principles of weed manage-
ment are discussed in the first section. A long-term
economic model for optimal weed management is then
presented. The basic concepts of a bioeconomic
framework for weedy rice control are subsequently
presented. The application framework is then illus-
trated using “assumed,” but hopefully realistic,
parameters for a typical Vietnamese rice farm infested
with weedy rice.1 Subsequently, the potential applica-
tion of the framework for evaluating benefits from
regulating weed spread across other farms as well as
to uninfested areas is discussed. The data needs for
applying the framework are then evaluated. A
discussion of economic factors that are likely to alter
rice production systems of Asia in ways that will have
implications for technology development for weedy
rice control is finally presented.
Basic economic concepts of weed control
Three basic economic questions regarding weed
management are (1) whether or not weeds should be
controlled, (2) what is the optimal degree of control,
and (3) when is the best timing of control? These
questions can be addressed by evaluating benefits
and costs of various alternatives and picking the
alternative that generates the maximum profit (or some
other relevant measure of farm performance). Assum-
ing that all benefits and costs associated with each
control option (or their combinations) can be quanti-
fied, the principles of economic optimization can be
used to address the above three questions.
A widely used concept of weed control (at least
in research literature) has been that of the “economic
threshold.” Headley (1972) defined economic thresh-
old as the population that produces incremental
damage equal to the cost of preventing that damage.
107
According to this concept, it would be economically
profitable to control weeds if the infestation is greater
than the economic threshold.
The concept can be illustrated using a damage
function that quantifies the relationship between loss
in yield and weed infestation. Using weed density as
an indicator of infestation, the damage function is the
locus of yield losses at different weed densities of a
uniformly distributed single species of weed (Fig. 1).
When the weed density is close to zero, there is no
yield loss. As weed density increases, yield losses
also increase, but at a diminishing rate.
In Figure 2, yield losses are expressed in money
terms by multiplying the physical yield loss in Figure
1 by the price of output. A control treatment that
costs $C ha–1 is worthwhile only if the value of yield
loss prevented is greater than $C ha–1. There is a
critical weed density (W*), the economic threshold, at
which this condition is satisfied. Weed control is
desirable only if the weed density is above W*.
The concept of economic threshold, although
simple and intuitively appealing, has several limita-
tions. As a result, it has not been used widely by
farmers to guide their weed control decisions. One
major limitation is that the threshold concept is based
on the assumption of a fixed intensity of weed
control. By assuming weed control inputs to be
indivisible (a fixed label dose, for example, in the case
of herbicides), the decision problem is reduced to that
of whether or not to apply the input. In the real world,
weed control inputs are divisible and farmers can alter
the intensity of weed control by applying more or less
weeding labor or herbicides. The economic threshold
is somewhat meaningless when the “how much”
question is being considered. Similarly, the economic
Yield loss
Proportionate yield loss
Weed-free yield
1 Total return
0
Weed density
Fig. 1. Relationship between weed density and yield loss.
108
$/ha
Yield loss
Control cost (C)
W*
Weed density
Fig. 2. Economic threshold for weed control.
threshold concept does not address the third
question posed above about “when to control.”
A more satisfactory approach would be to cast
the weed control decision within a general framework
for input optimization. In this framework, weed control
inputs are assumed to be divisible, with a response
function relating a particular input dose to a unique
level of output and, hence, income (Fig. 3). The
response function is assumed to increase with an
increasing level of input use, but at a diminishing rate.
The response function depends on the quantity of
input used, the relationship between the input and the
weed kill (or the dose-response), the yield loss
function, the initial weed density, and the price of
output. Profits are maximized when incremental gain in
income is equal to the incremental cost of input. The
input level corresponding to this profit maximization
point is the optimal level of weed control input (X*).
Thus, both the first and second questions can be
answered using this framework. The optimal timing of
control can be similarly derived using a set of time-
dependent response functions instead of a single
income-response function. This economic principle of
$/ha
Total cost
X*
Weed control input
Fig. 3. Economically optimal level of weed control input.
optimization is general enough and the effects of
additional factors such as risk and risk aversion,
patchy distribution of weeds, and multiple weed
species can also be factored in.
In the above framework, incremental benefits and
costs of weed control are assumed to be realized in
the current production period. The decision rule
derived is, hence, “static” or “myopic.” By altering
the size of the seed bank, current weed control
decisions also affect future infestation and, hence,
future benefits. Although the infestation level in the
current period may be too low to make weed control
profitable, some control may be justified if future
reductions in weed infestation are also taken into
account. The evaluation of long-term benefits is likely
to be more important for weeds such as weedy rice
which are somewhat difficult to control in-crop and
are characterized by a rapid seed bank 2 buildup. We
now turn to an economic model for optimal weed
management on a long-term basis.
A long-term model of weed management
Let us consider a rice farm uniformly infested with
weedy rice and with negligible import or export of
weedy rice seeds. The farmer’s objective is to
maximize rice income over a period of N years. Let
B(SDtXt) define profit in time period t (or a crop
season) as a function of weedy rice seed density (SDt)
and the level of weed control input applied (Xt). The
profit is measured as the value of rice produced minus
the cost of production, which is the sum of the cost of
weed control and the cost of other inputs such as
fertilizer, water, and labor. For brevity, it is assumed
that the number of weedy rice seedlings that emerge
is proportional to the size of the seed bank density so
that the profit function can be defined in terms of SD.
The change in size of the seed bank from one year to
the next (assuming only one cropping season per
year) depends on the initial size of the seed bank, the
demographic characteristics of the weed (such as
seedling recruitments, fecundity, dormancy, and seed
mortality) and the extent of control measures applied.
Let G(SDt, Xt) be a function that measures the change
in the seed bank between the two adjacent periods.
The objective function, assuming profit maximization,
is to maximize the present value (PV).
N stochastic, optimal decision rules conditional on the
Max PV = ∑ B(SDt , Xtt )δt
t =1
subject to SDt–1 – SDt = G(SDt,X)
2
The seed bank is defined as the reservoir or store of living seeds per unit area in or on the soil from which seedling may be recruited and into which
produced seeds may be dispersed. The size of the seed bank is measured by the number of viable weed seeds per unit area.
where δ is the discount factor for the time period t.
Applying Pontryagins’ principle of maximum, one of
the first-order conditions requires that
∂B/∂Xt + λt+1(∂G/∂Xt) = 0 t = 0,1, . . ., N – 1 (2)
Equation (2) is equivalent to the “static” decision rule
discussed earlier if either λt+1 is zero or ∂G/∂Xt is zero.
In this case, the optimal decision is found by equating
additional benefit with the additional cost as in Figure
3. The variable λt+1 represents the marginal change in
present value caused by a marginal change in the
number of seeds at the beginning of time period t. It is
zero if either the future yield loss from weeds is zero
or the discount rate is infinity. Future yield loss is zero
if the field is to be used for activities other than
producing rice. The discount rate is infinity when
farmers are not planning for more than one period
when making their weed control decisions. This
essentially means that the planning horizon consists
of only one time period and, hence future effects are
obviously ignored. The first derivative of G with
respect to X will be zero if current weed control does
not influence the seed bank in the future periods. This
is likely to happen in an open system where large
quantities of weed seed are being continuously
imported into the field in various ways such as
through rice seed or equipment contamination.
Other things remaining constant, an increase in
the current number of seeds (and hence weeds)
reduces future profits; therefore, λt+1 is <0. Also, ∂G/∂Xt
is <0 because, ceteris paribus, the future weed popula-
tion is reduced if the addition to the seed bank is
reduced by increasing the current weed control
intensity. The second term in equation (2), which
measures the marginal benefit resulting from the effect
of the current level of control on future infestation, is
hence non-negative. Because of the inclusion of
future profit effects of current control, the marginal
return associated with the weed control input is
increased. Thus, the dynamically optimal level of
control will be greater than or equal to the static level
of control.
The long-term planning model such as the one
represented in equation (1) can be solved using
dynamic programming to derive the optimal weed
control strategy over the entire planning horizon.
Where functions B and G are not deterministic but
state of the system as indicated by the size of the
seed bank (and/or weed density) can similarly be
(1) derived (Pandey and Medd 1991).
109

Seed
Bank
Rice seed
contamination k4
Control
Control
Fig. 4. A life cycle model of weedy rice.
An economic model for management
of weedy rice
Model development
As with any other weed, the population growth of
weedy rice is the product of the probability of
seedling recruitment, the probability of seedling
survival, the probability of survival of seeds in the
soil, and the number of seeds produced per adult
(fecundity). Any one or a combination of these
parameters can be altered to regulate the population
of weedy rice. In addition, the damage from a given
level of weed infestation may be reduced by improv-
ing agronomic practices or by breeding for crop
varieties that can compete with weeds more effec-
tively. Historically, most weed control methods have
been oriented toward reducing seedling survival by
tillage, water management, herbicide, and manual
weeding. Other strategies sometimes used are
reducing seed import by using clean seeds, reducing
seed rain by lowering seed production, and removing
seeds from the field.
Here we use a simplified version of the model
developed by Pandey et al (1993) to quantify the
benefits from various strategies for managing weedy
rice. The framework combines a weedy rice demogra-
phy model with an economic model of farmer behavior
presented in its basic form in equation (1). We
evaluate the maximum economic benefits associated
with four different strategies and their combinations.
These four strategies are (1) reducing seedling
survival, (2) reducing the survival of vegetative
weeds, (3) reducing seed rain, and (4) reducing weed
seed import through rice seed decontamination.
3
The density-dependent effects are not necessary to make the model operational, but it is desirable for generating a sigmoidal population growth curve that
implies a finite ‘carrying capacity.’
110
Control Control
g k1 Surviving k2 Surviving
Seedlings
seedlings plants
k3 Number of viable f
Mature plants
seeds produced
Data on the biology of weedy rice in Asia are
scanty. As a result, we have used a highly simplified
life cycle model of weedy rice with parameters
synthesized from the literature, mostly pertaining to
Latin America and the United States. The basic life
cycle model used is presented in Figure 4. A fraction
(g) of the seed bank is recruited as young seedlings.
Although weeds emerge in cohorts, we have assumed
a single cohort model for brevity. A fraction (k1) of
seedlings is killed by tillage and another method of
control. The surviving seedlings grow to become
vegetative plants. A fraction (k2) of these vegetative
weeds is killed by further control measures. The
density-dependent competition 3 among the survivors
is captured using rectangular hyperbola. This
functional form is used as it is parsimonious in
parameters. The function takes the following form:
W = S/(1 + αS) (3)
where W is the number of flowering weeds, S is the
number of vegetative weeds, and α is a parameter
measuring the density-dependent competition. Note
that W approaches 1/(α) as S approaches infinity.
Thus, 1/α represents the maximum number of flower-
ing weeds that could exist in a rice crop under the
usual management practice. Seed production by
weedy rice is similarly specified using a density-
dependent effect on fecundity. The function used is
SDnew = S*W(1+βW) (4)
where SDnew is the number of new seeds produced, S*
is the maximum number of weeds produced per weedy
rice plant grown in association with cultivated rice,
and β is a parameter capturing the density-dependent
effect. In this formulation, the maximum number of
weedy rice seeds produced in rice fields is equal to
S*/β.
A fraction (k3) of the new seeds produced is
assumed to be lost from the seed bank. Such losses
can occur when the straw is removed or burned, eaten
by birds and rodents, or through other similar
processes. The effects of chemical treatment or
manual removal aimed at reducing production can
also be included in this parameter as the final effect of
these interventions is also a reduction in the seed
bank. For modeling convenience, the number of weed
seeds removed with harvested rice is assumed to be
zero.4 The seed bank dynamics is thus represented as
SDt+1 = Sd t – g SDt – m SDt + (1 – k3) SDnew + Z
where m is the fraction of seeds that lose viability
buried in the soil and Z is the number of seeds
imported through contamination of rice seeds. The
age-dependent differences in seed dormancy and
seedling recruitment are simply ignored in this
formulation.
The number of weed seeds imported through rice
seeds (Z) is the product of the quantity of rice seeds
used per unit area and the seed contamination
parameter (c). The latter is defined as the percentage
of weedy rice seeds in rice seeds and is measured by
the weight of weed seeds per gram of rice seeds. The
seeding rate is assumed to be 80 kg ha–1 for the
cultivated rice, with the assumed seed weight of both
rice and weedy rice being 2 g per 100 seeds.
The yield loss to weedy rice is represented by a
rectangular hyperbola (Cousens 1985) of the form
shown in equation (6):
YL = 1 – W/(a –1 + b –1 W)
where YL is the proportionate loss in yield from the
weed-free level of Y*. Parameter a is a measure of the
marginal yield loss as the weed density approaches
zero. Parameter b is an estimate of the maximum
proportionate loss of yield under weedy conditions. It
is assumed that only those seedlings that ultimately
reach the flowering stage exert competitive effects on
yield.
The population of weedy rice is assumed to be
regulated by manipulating the parameters represent-
ing seedling mortality (k1), vegetative weed mortality
4
However, the possibility of weedy rice seed import through seed contamination is included later as this is one of the major mechanisms of reinfestation.
(k2), seed loss (k3), and rice-seed contamination (c).
The framework is general enough to include other
options such as increasing the competitiveness of
crops. But such options are not included in the
numerical results presented below.
If the costs of manipulating the weed population
using the abovementioned control variables are
known, the magnitude of economic benefits associ-
ated with each control strategy could be calculated by
solving the model in equation (4). Because such costs
are not known, they cannot be explicitly incorporated
in model (1). Instead of calculating the economic
profitability associated with each control strategy, we
have estimated the economic benefit that can result if
a particular parameter (or a combination of param-
eters) is manipulated in the appropriate direction from
(5) its baseline value, assuming such manipulations are
costless. This economic benefit is an estimate of the
maximum amount that the farmer would be willing to
spend on technology to manipulate the control
variables. The economic profitability of the control
method can then be ascertained by judging whether
the cost of the technology is likely to be lower or
higher than this value.
Application
To apply the model, some values of different param-
eters were derived from the literature while others
were simply assumed. Costs and yield figures pertain
to rice production in Vietnam. The planning horizon of
the farmer growing a hectare of rice is assumed to be
20 yr. The model in equation (1) is solved twice: the
first time with the baseline values of the control
parameters and the second time with the new value of
the control parameter being evaluated. The difference
in the present values resulting from these solutions is
a measure of the maximum gain that can be obtained
(6) by altering the value of the control parameter. This is
the estimate of the total gain over 20 yr. This value is
expressed as annuity using the same discount rate
specified while solving the model.
Table 1 presents parameters of the complete
model as well the baseline parameters for the control
options. The baseline scenario against which the
benefits are to be evaluated corresponds to the
situation where (1) weedy rice seedlings are moder-
ately controlled by tillage and other mechanisms, (2)
vegetative weeds are not controlled, (3) most of the
new seeds produced go back into the seed bank, and
(4) the contamination of rice seeds with weedy rice
111
Table 1. Parameter values used for simulation. seeds is high. The values of these four control
Model parameter a
Unit Value parameters can be changed, if desired, to represent
some other types of baseline scenario. Table 2
S* no. m –2
100 summarizes various ways through which these
a 0.01
b 0.04 parameters can be manipulated.
a 0.025 Table 3 lists different values of control param-
b 0.8 eters used to evaluate control options. Ideally, a
g 0.7
m 0.1 dynamic programming model is used to derive the
d 0.1 optimal time path of control variable, seed bank, and
Y* t ha–1 3.8 yield loss (Pandey and Medd 1990, 1991). However,
Marginal profit from rice $ t–1 20
Initial seed number no. m–2 100 we chose not to use this optimization approach
because of a lack of precise information on many of
Baseline values of the parameters needed to run such a model. Instead,
control parameters
k1 0.7 we have chosen certain hypothetical combinations of
k2 0 control practices to illustrate the potential application
k3 0.2 of the framework developed here. To derive “optimal”
c 0.15
solutions, we excluded those that resulted in insuffi-
a
The parameters are defined in the section “Model development.” k 1 = cient control of weedy rice (steady-state population
proportion of weed seedlings killed, k 2 = proportion of vegetative plants
killed, k 3 = proportion of new seeds removed from the seed bank, and
density of more than 2 m–2) even though positive
c=rice seed contamination proportion. economic benefits were indicated. In a full optimiza-
tion model solution that uses dynamic programming
to evaluate alternative combinations of control
parameters over time, such inefficient combinations
are automatically screened out.

Table 2. Control parameters and corresponding Results

management options.

Control parameter Management options

The baseline run
The trajectories of yield, seed bank, and mature weed
Seed contamination (c) Seed cleaning densities for the baseline scenario are presented in
Harvesting time
Harvesting technology
Figure 5. During the first 4 yr, weed density increases
Machinery sanitation rapidly and stabilizes around 81 plants m–2. The yield
loss at the “steady-state” is around 57%. Clearly, this
Seedling mortality (k 1 ) Tillage
Water management
is a very unsatisfactory control of weedy rice.
Preemergence herbicide
Crop rotation Evaluation of control strategies
Vegetative plant Postemergence herbicide
Table 3 presents a small set of alternative combina-
mortality (k 2 ) Manual or mechanical tions of control parameters 5 and their performance
weeding indicators (benefits and steady-state weed density).
Water management
Crop rotation
Keeping all other control parameters at their baseline
values, the plant-kill parameter must be raised to 0.96
Reduction in Harvesting time and to maintain the steady-state population below 2
seed rain (k 3 ) technology
Chemical treatment
plants m–2 (strategy 1). The benefit associated with
Roguing this strategy is $38 ha–1 yr–1. In other words, if 96% of
Stubble management the vegetative weeds could be removed every year as
Tillage
opposed to none in the baseline scenario, other

5
A comprehensive approach would be to estimate, for a given baseline scenario, benefits using all possible combinations of control parameters. A response
surface of benefits could then be estimated. This could be repeated for several baseline scenarios, each representing a specific farmer’s practice (or
general practice over an area) for managing weedy rice. For illustrative purposes, we have presented benefits for only a single baseline scenario and a
limited number of combinations of control parameters.

112
 Table 3. Various control strategies and associated benefits. (The 10 control
strategies are discussed in more detail in the text.)

Benefita Steady-state
Category k1 k2 k3 c ($ ha-1 ) weed density at
flowering (no. m-2 )

Baseline 0.7 0 0.2 0.15 0 81

Control strategy 1 0.7 0.96 0.2 0.15 38 ≤2
Control strategy 2 0.9 0 0.2 0.15 7 56
Control strategy 3 0.7 0 0.99 0.15 21 15
Control strategy 4 0.7 0 0.2 0 1 80
Control strategy 5 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.15 38 ≤2
Control strategy 6 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.08 38 ≤2
Control strategy 7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.05 38 ≤2
Control strategy 8 0.99 0 0.2 0.15 38 ≤2
Control strategy 9 0.9 0.9 0.2 0.15 38 ≤2
Control strategy 10 0.7 0.7 0.8 0 29 10
a
Economic benefit evaluated with reference to the baseline scenario. k 1=proportion of weed seedlings
killed, k 2 = proportion of vegetative plants killed, k 3=proportion of new seeds removed from the seed
bank, c = rice seed contamination proportion.

from interventions in more than one phase of the life

No. of plants m-2
% yield loss
No. of seeds (x 10 m )
2 -2
Year
Fig. 5. Trajectories of weed density, seed bank, and yield
for the baseline scenario.
things remaining the same, the farmer would obtain an
increased profit of $38 ha–1 yr–1. This is the maximum
amount a farmer would be willing to pay to use the
plant-kill technology that achieves a 96% kill. If the
cost of the technology is more than $38 ha–1, it could
be uneconomical for the farmer to use such a technol-
ogy. This information could be potentially useful for
screening out economically nonviable technologies.
In addition, this type of information could potentially
be used for research priority setting. How likely is a
particular line of research to result in a technology
that costs less than $38 ha–1? Those that do not meet
this criterion could be accorded a lower priority.
Other control strategies presented in Table 3
could be similarly interpreted. Let us consider control
strategy 4. This involves using rice seeds that are not
contaminated with weedy rice. An ineffective control
in other parts of the weed life cycle makes the use of
clean seeds ineffective in regulating the weed
population. This clearly brings out the need for an
integrated approach to regulating the weedy rice
population. For example, strategies 5, 6, and 7 result
cycle. All these strategies are effective and generate
the same level of benefit. The strategy that can be
used at the lowest cost (provided the cost is lower
than $38 ha–1) is the most efficient. Similarly, for
strategy 8, which relies mainly on killing seedlings, a
99% kill rate is required for it to be effective. Such a
high kill rate may be technically feasible, but the
associated costs are likely to be prohibitive. Instead,
an integrated approach as reflected in control
strategies 5, 6, and 7 is likely to have a better chance
of success.
Experimentation with the model also indicated
that achieving a high rate of mortality of seedlings
and vegetative weeds is critical to a satisfactory
regulation of the weedy rice population (strategy 9). It
would be difficult to control weedy rice through other
means if mortality in these two phases of the life cycle
were less than 80% each (strategy 10). Of course, if
seed rain could be reduced substantially by a range of
practices mentioned in Table 2, percent mortality
during the seedling and vegetative weed phases may
be sufficient for regulating the weedy rice population
(strategy 7). Accordingly, a relatively high-priority
research area is to develop technologies for achieving
a high rate of mortality of seedlings and vegetative
weeds.
Using clean seeds is often suggested as an
effective method of controlling weedy rice
(Sastroutomo 1990, Montealegre and Vargas 1992,
Smith 1992).The model can be used to diagnose
conditions under which decontamination is likely to
be economically worthwhile. As indicated in strategy
4, the use of clean seed here will not adequately
control the population. Even if all weedy rice seeds

113
 Table 4. Returns from the decontamination of rice seeds.
Category k1
Baseline 0.8
Decontamination
Level 1 0.8
Level 2 0.8
Level 3 0.8
a
Economic benefit evaluated with reference to the baseline scenario. k 1 = proportion of weed seedlings
killed, k 2 = proportion of vegetative plants killed, k 3 = proportion of new seeds removed from the seed
bank, c = rice seed contamination proportion.
could be removed, the value of such a strategy is very
low. The size of the seed bank in this example is
governed largely by seed inputs from other sources;
hence, the use of clean seed is effective. Control
through other mechanisms must be at a high level for
the strategy of cleaning rice seeds to be effective. For
the sake of illustration, let us consider the new
baseline scenario and alternative levels of contamina-
tion presented in Table 4. The maximum value of clean
seed in this example is $6 ha–1. Thus, seed cleaning is
economically profitable if it costs less than $6 to
decontaminate the rice seeds used in a hectare. If total
decontamination at the cost of $6 ha-1 of rice seeds
cannot be achieved, an alternative could be to bring
the contamination down to 5%, if this could be done
at less than $4 ha–1 of rice seeds. The model, hence,
can be used to evaluate the marginal benefits
associated with different levels of a specific control as
well as the rates of substitution among a set of
controls such that the least-cost combination of
controls can be identified.
Modeling benefits of controlling weeds
spread across farms
Although weeds are less mobile than insect pests,
they do move across farm boundaries. The typical
mechanisms are natural dispersion and transmission
through irrigation water and through contaminated
seeds and farm machinery. Farmers would be inclined
to control farm-to-farm movement of weedy rice if
returns to control were sufficiently high. However,
some transmission mechanisms are more difficult to
regulate than others. For example, decontamination of
machinery and rice seeds may be less costly than
preventing spread through natural dispersion or
through irrigation water. In addition, the regulation of
natural dispersion or spread through irrigation water
114
Benefita Steady-state
k2 k3 c ($ ha-1 ) weed density at
flowering (no. m-2 )
0.8 0.8 0.15 0 5
0.8 0.8 0.10 2 3
0.8 0.8 0.05 4 2
0.8 0.8 0 6 ≤2
may require action from a group of farmers. In such
situations, it may not be economical for an individual
farmer to control weed spread if other farmers do not
implement similar control measures as weed move-
ments from neighboring fields will negate the benefi-
cial effects of control by the farmer. This is the typical
case of “pest-externality” and it will lead to
underinvestment in regulating pest spread.
Even though regulating the spread may be
uneconomical for an individual farmer, all farmers in a
region may be better off if they work collectively
toward regulating it. If substantial gains are to be
made, incentives through taxes and subsidies could
be used to encourage farmers to implement the
“socially optimum” level of control. Before develop-
ing such incentive mechanisms, it is essential to
ascertain the size of the economic gain that can be
achieved collectively. The model developed earlier
could conceptually be used for assessing the
economic gain under various assumptions of the rate
of spread. Basically, the possibility of infestation from
neighboring fields makes the seed bank dynamics
“open.” Economic gain will arise if the seed bank
dynamics could be “closed.” The difference in
present values when model (1) is solved under these
two assumptions is the benefit from controlling weed
spread. Such a model has been applied to examine the
case of spread of wild oats in the Australian wheat
industry (Pandey 1994). We have not attempted to
apply the model to weedy rice as information on the
rate of spread through mechanisms that can be
regulated effectively only at the regional level is
unavailable. For other mechanisms of spread that can
be effectively regulated by an individual farmer (such
as seed and machinery decontamination), we have
already illustrated the application in the previous
section.
Benefits from preventing infestation
in a new area
Model (1) can also be used to estimate the potential
benefits from preventing infestation in an area that is
currently not infested with weedy rice. Assume that
the cost of eradicating weedy rice, once a field is
infested, is high. When a field is infested, farmers
would then have no choice other than to maintain the
weed population at the economically optimal steady-
state level. At this optimal level of weed density,
farmers would lose some yield and would also have to
incur some cost annually to prevent the weedy rice
population from exceeding this optimal level. These
losses could have been avoided if infestation had
been prevented in the first instance. Thus, to obtain
the value of preventing infestation in an uninfested
area, model (1) needs to be solved twice under two
assumptions: that there is no infestation and that
infestation is optimally managed. The difference in the
present value between these two solutions is the
value of preventing infestation in a new area. A
comparison of this benefit with the likely cost of
preventing infestation can help in judging whether it
would be economically optimal to prevent infestation
in a new area. We have not illustrated the application
of the model for this purpose as the data on costs of
control of weedy rice through various interventions
are unavailable for estimating the optimal farm-level
cost of control.
Data needs for model application
Obviously, a major problem for implementing the
model is the lack of adequate data on weed demogra-
phy and competitive effects of weedy rice for Asian
rice farms. Much of the work on weedy rice relates to
Latin America and the United States At the very least,
we need reliable data on major parameters determining
seed bank dynamics such as recruitment, dormancy,
and fecundity and how these are influenced by
management practices. Data on competitive effects of
weedy rice for different types of rice production
systems are also needed. Although values of most
economic parameters are generally available, further
work is needed for estimating the cost functions of
different control options.
Production system characteristics
and importance of weedy rice
At a broader level, the economic importance of weeds
depends on a set of biophysical and socioeconomic
factors. The biophysical factors include rainfall,
temperature, soils and the nature of vegetation in the
locality, and the competitive effects that weeds exert
on crop species. The economic factors include the
cost of weed control, alternative uses of weedy
plants, and the economic value of losses caused by
weeds. For a given biophysical environment, the
economic importance of a weed thus depends on the
nature of the production system that is ultimately
determined by the socioeconomic conditions of
farming. The nature of the production system
changes with changes in socioeconomic conditions
and this can alter the economic significance of a
particular weed and/or create conditions suitable for
other weeds to be economically more important. The
mere presence of weeds in rice fields does not
necessarily mean that weeds are economically
important. In some situations, the high density of
weeds may not be viewed as an economic problem; in
others, however, farmers may be unwilling to tolerate
even a low degree of infestation.
What are the socioeconomic conditions that
determine the nature of production systems and
ultimately the economic importance of weeds? For the
rice production systems of Asia, we use a simple
typology based on population density and the level
of economic well-being (Pandey 1997). Using per
capita income as a measure of economic well-being,
the following four broad types can be considered
(Fig. 6). When both income levels and population
density are low (Type I), rice production systems tend
to be land-extensive and subsistence-oriented. An
increase in population density leads to the evolution
of land- and labor-intensive production systems that
are primarily subsistence-oriented (Type II). At higher
Income level
• Small farms • Large farms
• Diversified • Specialized (?)
High • Commercialized • Commercialized
• Labor-intensive (?) • Mechanized
Type III Type IV
• Small farms • Large farms
• Subsistence-oriented (low intensity)
Low
• Labor intensive • Subsistence-oriented
Type II Type I
High Low
Population density
Fig 6. The effects of population density and income level
on the nature of production systems.
115
levels of income, production systems tend to be
initially diversified (Type III), although further
economic growth may result in a somewhat special-
ized and mechanized production system (Type IV).
The economic importance of weeds will be
different in these different types of systems. In Type I
systems, weeds are less of an economic problem if
farmers are able to practice a long-fallow rotation
(more than 10 yr) with only a short period of cropping.
Weeds are effectively controlled during the fallow
period and when the land is cleared for cultivation by
slash-and-burn. In areas where the fallow period is
short (2–3 yr), however, weeds can be a major
constraint to rice production. Weeds can drastically
reduce the productivity of both land and labor. The
extent to which weedy rice is a problem in these areas
of shifting cultivation based on short fallow is not
well documented.
In Type II systems, weeds are generally not a
serious economic problem even though infestation in
rice fields can be high. Because of high population
pressure and limited nonfarm economy, the opportu-
nity cost of farm labor is usually low. As a result,
labor-intensive weeding operations are economically
viable. Weeds are controlled in these systems
through operations such as intensive tillage, trans-
planting of rice, and manual weeding. In some areas,
some rice field plants that potentially compete with
rice are also considered to be useful as food (Price
1996) and as feed. Weedy rice is less likely to be a
serious economic problem in this type of production
system since manual weeding and transplanting of
rice are effective methods of controlling it.
Weedy rice can be a more serious economic
problem as rice production systems acquire the Type
III and Type IV characteristics. These systems evolve
as rising wage rates resulting from an increased
demand for labor from the nonfarm economy force
farmers to adjust rice production in several ways
(Pingali et al 1997). First, farmers attempt to save
labor by mechanization and a change in cultural
practices. A major change is a shift from transplanting
to direct seeding (dry and wet) for establishing rice
(Pandey 1995). Farmers try to deal with the weed
problem that is generally more serious under direct-
seeding culture by using herbicides, which become
more accessible because of a higher level of income
(Pandey and Pingali 1996). Manual weeding, which is
an effective method for controlling weedy rice, tends
to be less popular due to high cost. In areas where
water is becoming increasingly scarce due to competi-
tion from urban and industrial users, farmers may be
forced to adopt the dry-seeding method (Ho 1996).
116
Weeds tend to be more serious under dry seeding
than under wet seeding as weed emergence is greater
and the effectiveness of herbicides is somewhat
limited under dry seeding culture (Moody 1996).
In addition to these changes in rice culture,
farmers also mechanize tillage and harvesting
operations to save on labor. Because of their high
costs, tractors and harvesting machines are generally
not economical for an average-sized Asian rice farm to
own. Instead, services of these machines are mostly
used under rental arrangements. Contractors of rental
services move these machines over a large area, thus
creating conditions suitable for weed spread through
contaminated machinery. The use of combine
harvesters may also provide an evolutionary advan-
tage to weedy rice that shatters easily through a
higher degree of grain contamination and/or a greater
input to the seed bank.
Weedy rice is thus likely to be a more serious
economic problem as Asian rice systems acquire the
characteristics of Type III and Type IV systems. In
fact, the emergence of the weedy rice problem in the
Muda irrigation area of Malaysia has been attributed
precisely to such changes (Watanabe 1996, Zainal
and Azmi 1996).
Another production system characteristic that is
likely to affect weedy rice infestation is the extent to
which Asian rice systems of the future will be
specialized and intensive. It has been shown that crop
rotation is an important method for controlling weedy
rice (Smith 1992). Crop rotation is unlikely to be
practiced if general economic incentives are in favor
of specialized rice systems or if hydrological factors
are unfavorable to nonrice crops.
Since crop rotation is a form of diversification, we
need to examine factors that facilitate diversification
(Pingali 1992) or specialization of rice systems. While
diversification of activities can be conceptualized at
different levels, such as the field, the farm, and the
region, our focus here is mainly at the farm level. Crop
rotation is a temporal diversification at the field level
where different crops are grown on the same field at
different times. Spatial diversification occurs if, within
the same farm, several crops are grown at the same
time. In rainfed rice ecosystems, possibilities for both
temporal and spatial diversification are limited as rice
is often the most suitable crop in situations where
drainage is a serious constraint. Crop rotation will be
almost impossible to practice without investments to
deal with the drainage problem. Fortunately, in these
poorly drained areas, weedy rice is likely to be
disadvantaged, especially if rice is mostly trans-
planted. Crop diversification is technically more
feasible in irrigated areas, especially in the dry
season, if the returns to alternative crops are high.
However, diversification may be spatial as opposed to
temporal if some fields are allocated to the same crop
on a long-term basis. This can happen when land
improvement investments are crop-specific. Temporal
diversification (or crop rotation) may not generally be
practiced unless the land constraint is very restrictive.
On the other hand, intensive rice bowls of Asia
are likely to move toward a greater degree of special-
ization to reap the benefits of economies of scale that
arise in both input and output marketing (Timmer
1989). Rather than resort to crop rotation to deal with
the weedy rice problem, farmers may increasingly seek
technological innovations in weed control that can
address the weedy rice problem in a more economical
way. The challenge to scientists working on weedy
rice is to develop such technologies for rice farmers of
the future.
Concluding remarks
Farmers will increasingly demand technologies to
control weeds, including weedy forms of rice, as the
organization of rice production undergoes changes in
response to the rising scarcity of labor and water, and
enhanced awareness of health and environmental
effects of reliance on a chemical-based control
strategy (Pandey and Pingali 1996). Weedy rice is
likely to be a more serious economic problem in areas
that specialize in high-intensity rice production based
on mechanization and direct seeding. The economic
framework developed in this chapter can be used to
assess potential benefits from alternative weed
management strategies for guiding research and
technology development. More data on various
aspects of weedy rice biology and control for Asian
conditions are needed for a more realistic application
of the framework presented in this chapter.
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