Wang 2013

Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part A: http://pia.sagepub.com/

Journal of Power and Energy
Mechanisms of steam turbine blade particle erosion and crucial parameters for minimizing blade
erosion
Shun-sen Wang, Liu-xi Cai, Jing-ru Mao, Jun-jie Zhang and Ya-tao Xu
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy published online 15 July
2013
DOI: 10.1177/0957650913495384
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Original Article
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J Power and Energy
Mechanisms of steam turbine blade 0(0) 1–11
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for minimizing blade erosion DOI: 10.1177/0957650913495384

pia.sagepub.com
Shun-sen Wang1, Liu-xi Cai1, Jing-ru Mao1, Jun-jie Zhang2 and

Ya-tao Xu2
Abstract
Reducing the solid particle erosion of blades is crucial to increasing the service life, reliability and cost of steam turbines.
In this article, we performed many three-dimensional numerical simulations on the trajectory and erosion of solid
particles in turbine cascades, and the relationship between the structural parameters of cascades and erosion charac-
teristics was systematically studied. The results indicated that the erosion damage to the blade depends mainly on the
first impingement of every solid particle on the wall after entering into the cascades, and the erosion rate of the first
impingement is much larger than that caused by additional impingements on the wall after rebounding of the particle.
Furthermore, it was also found that the structure parameter G ¼ (byt)/bx of the cascade and the attack angle () of the
steam admission are the most important parameters of blade erosion resistance. Increasing G or would shift
the position of the particle’s first impingement toward the leading edge of the blade. The most effective way of increasing
the erosion resistance of the blade is to select an appropriate G while considering the particle size and attack angle ()
required to prevent ferric oxide particles from causing serious erosion on the trailing edge. All of these achievements are
important in the blade selection and anti-solid particle erosion optimization processes when designing a new turbine or
upgrading an old turbine.
Keywords
Erosion resistance, numerical simulation, characteristic parameter, steam turbine
Date received: 14 December 2012; accepted: 22 May 2013
technique to be completely free of coating defects,

Introduction
such as loose surfaces and cracks,11–13 all of which
In thermal power stations, the reduction of erosion will undoubtedly lower the erosion resistance of the
damage on turbine blades caused by ferric oxide par- coating. In fact, it has been shown by practical engin-
ticles that are exfoliated from the boiler and steam eering that it is impossible for these passive anti-ero-
pipes is an urgent problem that needs to be addressed sion measures to completely solve the solid particle
to guarantee the long-term, safe and high-efficiency erosion (SPE) problem of turbine blades.14
operations of a unit.1 At present, a commonly used Therefore, it is worth exploring alternative measures
method for increasing the erosion resistance of a blade to reduce the erosion damage of blades, for example,
is to coat its surface with a layer of a hard coating optimizing the profile and cascade passage to reduce
substance. General Electric Co., Toshiba, Mitsubishi, the SPE on the blade.
EPRI and Professor Tabakoff et al. from the
American Cincinnati University have reported some
relevant studies. Thermal diffusion, thermal spraying 1
Institute of Turbomachinery, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an, People’s
and vapor deposition are the most common tech- Republic of China
niques used to strengthen the surface of blades.2–9 2
Shenhua Guohua (Beijing) Electric Power Research Institute Co. Ltd,
However, hard coating with limited thickness can Beijing, People’s Republic of China
only provide limited protection to the blade, and is
Corresponding author:
often accompanied by an increase in the internal Jing-ru Mao, Institute of Turbomachinery, Xi’an Jiaotong University,
stress,10 which may shorten the service life of the Xi’an 710049, People’s Republic of China.
blade. Furthermore, it is very difficult for the current Email: maojingru@gmail.com

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2 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)
At present, the main idea for optimizing the ero- internal relationship between blade structures and
sion resistance of a blade is to decrease the incidence erosion resistance.
velocity of solid particles and avoid the incidence In this article, we systematically analyze the rela-
angle related to the high erosion rate of the material tionship between the erosion distribution of the blade
by improving the profile of the erodible blade.9,15 and various parameters, such as the blade profile, par-
Toshiba6 and General Electric Co.16 have studied ticle impingement parameter and particle property,
the anti-SPE blade of steam turbines since 1990, and and the required basic elements of an anti-erosion
have found that improved blades enjoy better erosion blade and the internal relationship between various
resistance. By performing numerical simulations, parameters were discovered. Furthermore, to estimate
Campos-Amezcua17–19 observed an approximate the erosion resistance of the blade, we established a set
linear increase in the erosion rate of blades with an of characteristic parameters which can be used to
increased steam velocity in the channel as well as the guide the blade selection and anti-SPE optimization
particle size. According to literature studies,15 remov- when designing a new turbine or upgrading an old
ing the load toward the rear of the cascade can effect- turbine.
ively lower the incidence velocity of particles on the
blade, for example, applying an end-wall contraction
or aft-loading blade. Furthermore, Dai et al.20 also
Research methods
discovered that the application of an end-wall con- To explore the relationship between the blade profile
traction will reduce the maximum erosion rate and and erosion resistance, multiple series of cascade
erosion area by about 40% and 30%, respectively. models with single parameters that changed continu-
However, all of these achievements explore only the ously were established by changing the pitch and
effectiveness of specific anti-erosion measures, and setting angle of six typical blade profiles shown in
there remains a lack of systematic research on the Figure 1. Furthermore, the movements of steam and
Figure 1. Parameters and blade profiles: (a) definition of parameters and (b) profiles of six kinds of blade.

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Wang et al. 3
solid particles within the cascade were simulated using experimental temperature T, incidence angle and
computational fluid dynamics software to analyze the the particle velocity V
impact of various parameters on the erosion of the
blade and to explore the characteristic parameters " ¼ KT ðTÞQðÞVnðÞ
representing the erosion resistance of the blade.
To compare the erosion of particles having the where15
same surface area, the relative surface coordinates
ðsr , rÞ were defined. sr ¼ s=sl , where sl is the total arc KT ðTÞ ¼ 2:5004 0:0017774T
length along the pressure surface of blade, s is the arc QðÞ ¼ 0:00097233 þ 1:7382:9422
length from the leading edge to the erosion point of
the particles, as shown in Figure 1 (a), and r is the þ1:8443 þ0:404054
radial distance from the erosion point to the rotation nðÞ ¼ 2:7518 0:0110580:0942532
center of the rotor.
þ 0:0204573
An existing study15 has indicated that about 104–
3
10 mg ferric oxides particles are carried in 1 kg of
steam. In view of such dilute-phase steam–particle The rebound characteristic of flaky ferric oxide par-
movement, the steam flow field can be simulated ticles after impinging the blade is15
using the Euler method, and the movement of par-
ticles and their interaction with the wall can be simu- V2T
eT ðÞ ¼ ðÞ ¼ 0:9995 4:1253 þ 8:31132
lated using the Lagrange method. Each cascade is V1T
dispersed through about 600,000 O–H type multi- 8:73183 þ 4:56154 0:92835
block structural grids. To simulate the compressible V2N
viscous flow within the cascade of steam turbines, the eN ðÞ ¼ ðÞ ¼ 0:9991 1:051 þ 1:49722
V1N
time-averaging continuity equation, Navier–Stokes
(N–S) equation and energy equation were solved by 0:8043 þ 0:17664
an implicit equation discrete and coupled solver, and
the turbulence viscosity in the N–S equation was esti- where is the particle impinging angle, and eT ðÞ and
mated using the renormalization group k " model. eN ðÞ are the tangential and the normal velocity res-
The areas near the wall were processed using the scal- titution coefficients of particles after rebound, respect-
able wall-function method, while the status param- ively. We introduced the abovementioned model into
eters of steam were provided by the IAPWS-IF97 ANSYS CFX, and the particle trajectory, the erosion
database. The abovementioned numerical simulation distribution of weight loss Eðsr , rÞ, impingement
has been verified by existing literature studies.15,20,21 points distribution of particles Nðsr , rÞ, incidence vel-
The boundary condition was set to be in accordance ocity distribution Vðsr , rÞ and the incidence angle dis-
with the aerodynamic parameters of the regulating tribution ðsr , rÞ under different working conditions
stage in the ultra-supercritical steam turbine: inlet can be obtained by iteration operations.
pressure, 25 MPa; temperature, 600 C; attack angle
of steam admission, 0 ; turbulence intensity, 5% and
Analysis of characteristic parameter
outlet Mach number, Ma1.1 ¼ 0.78. Ma1.1 is the
weighted average of the steam mass flow for the The basic movement and erosion characteristic of
Mach number at the 1–1 plane (x/bx ¼ 1.1, as shown solid particles in cascade will be illustrated through
in Figure 1).
Table 1 shows the size distribution of ferric
oxide particles in the steam turbine, which are from Table 1. The size distributions of ferric
the statistical and mass equivalent analysis on many oxide particles in the steam turbine.
real particles. In this article, the particle sizes and their Equivalent diameter Mass distribution
mass distribution were set according to Table 1. The (mm) (%)
total concentration of all particles was set as
1 103 mg particles per kilogram of steam, and 5 0.1
1000 seeding points were distributed evenly in the 10 1.0
0–0 plane (x/bx ¼ 0.5, as shown in Figure 1) for 20 10.3
every cascade. 40 29.8
According to our experimental result of high-tem- 60 24.1
perature erosion,15 extremely similar erosion and 80 18.5
rebound characters were observed in several different 100 11.2
blade materials. This article selected one typical 120 3.1
material, known as 1Cr11MoCo3W2, as the blade 140 1.6
material for the numerical simulations, and we dis-
160 0.3
covered the relationship between the erosion rate,

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the blade with profile B1, chord length b ¼ 91.37 mm where rh and rs are the radius of the hub and shroud
and t/b ¼ 0.665. The distributions of the incidence vel- of the blade, respectively, and n is the number of par-
ocity and the incidence angle of 80 mm particles along ticles that entered into the cascade. Considering the
the axial direction of the blade are shown in Figure 2, significant impact of different incidence velocities and
in which type I represented the first impingement incidence angle distributions on the erosion rate,
point of every particle on the surface of the blade V0:91:0 and 0:91:0 applied the weighted average vel-
after entering into the cascade, and type II represented ocity and angle of the erosion rate.
the additional impingement points of the particle on The study on particles’ movement in the cascade,
the wall after rebounding. It can be seen from Figure which was conducted by Dring et al.,24 showed that
2(a) that the incidence angles for most type I cases the particle trajectory was mainly determined by the
were within the range 15–30 , which is just within following two dimensionless parameters
the angle range of the maximum erosion rate of the
blade material.13,22,23 However, the incidence angles p Vs0 D2p
for most type II cases were smaller than 6 because St ¼ ð5Þ
18s0 bx
the oxide particles were flaky and preferred to roll
near the wall after the first impingement on the wall, Rebx
after which they hit the wall again before the pressure ¼ ð6Þ
p =s0
surface curvature changed significantly. It can also be
seen from Figure 2(b) that the incidence velocity for where Rebx ¼ s0Vs0s0 bx , p is the density of the solid par-
type I was a little higher than that of type II. ticle, s0 is the density of steam at the inlet of the
This study focuses more on the erosion character- cascade, Vs0 is the steam flow velocity at the inlet of
istic of the area within sr ¼ 0.9–1.0 where almost all the cascade, Dp is the diameter of the solid particle,
erosion damage to the stator blade is concentrated. s0 is the steam dynamic viscosity at the inlet of the
Furthermore, the following four statistical parameters cascade and bx is the axial width of the blade. Given a
were defined to represent the particles’ erosion fixed blade size and aerodynamic parameter, the St
rate, impingement probability, incidence velocity number is only related to Dp. Therefore, it is difficult
and incidence angle within the area of sr ¼ 0.9–1.0 to change the range of the St number while designing
for 10,000 h or optimizing a steam turbine.
The statistical results for various parameters are
Z 10000 Z 1:0 Z rs shown in Figure 3 when the profile B1 at t/b ¼ 0.75
E0:91:0 ¼ Eðsr , rÞdrdsr d ð1Þ and t/b ¼ 0.665 (b ¼ 91.37 mm). It can be seen that
0 0:9 rh
E0.9–1.0 for type II was at a lower level and hardly
Z 1:0 Z rs changes with the St number. Although the impinge-
1
P0:91:0 ¼ Nðsr , rÞdrdsr 100 % ð2Þ ment points for type I were less than 50% of type II,
n 0:9 rh
type I causes decisive erosion damage to the blade
R 1:0 R rs under most St numbers since it has a much larger
0:9 rh Vðsr , rÞEðsr , rÞdrdsr incidence angle and incidence velocity than that of
V0:91:0 ¼ R 1:0 R rs ð3Þ
0:9 rh Eðsr , rÞdrdsr
type II. This is a basic characteristic of blade erosion,
which was not further displayed for other particles
R 1:0 R rs here due to space restrictions. Based on the compari-
0:9 r ðsr , rÞEðsr , rÞdrdsr
0:91:0 ¼ R 1:0h R rs ð4Þ son between Figure 3(a) and (b), a significant vari-
0:9 rh Eðsr , rÞdrdsr ation difference of E0.9–1.0 with an St number of
type I impingement can be easily observed in a
Figure 2. The difference in the incidence parameters between type I and type II for the profile B1 at b¼91.37 mm, t/b¼0.665 and
Dp¼80 mm: (a) variation of vs. x=bx and (b) variation of V vs. x=bx .

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Wang et al. 5
different blade, and P0.9–1.0 is the main cause of the Figure 4 shows the particle trajectory and type I
variation in E0.9–1.0 with the St number. All of these impingement in the cascade. It can be seen that par-
characteristics demonstrated that it is feasible to ticles that are evenly distributed at the inlet of the
reduce the number of type I cases in sr ¼ 0.9–1.0 by cascade along the circumference impinge different suc-
choosing an appropriate blade profile and cascade cessive positions on the pressure surfaces of the blade.
structure when considering the particle size. This is The particle impingement on only the trailing edge of
also one of the main ways to improve the erosion adjacent blade with its trajectory laid closely on the
resistance of the blade. Therefore, the following dis- suction surface is called a critical impingement, as
cussion will focus on type I impingement, and unless shown in Figure 4(b). Therefore, it is easy to infer
stated otherwise, all impingement points refer only to that some particles may escape by increasing the
type I. pitch of the cascade in Figure 4(b), but the number
Figure 3. The statistical results of various parameters for the profile B1 at t/b¼0.75 and t/b¼0.665: (a) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St,
(b) variation of P0:91:0 vs. St, (c) variation of V0:91:0 vs. St and (d) variation of 0:91:0 vs. St.
Figure 4. The trajectory and type I impingement of particles in the cascade.

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of impingement points as well as the impingement in G, both Stcr and e under the same St number
positions on the pressure surface of the blade would decrease. Figure 5(b) shows the variation of the
basically remain unchanged, as shown in Figure 4(a). escape rate e of five types of cascade in Table 3 with
However, decreasing the pitch of the cascade in St number, which revealed that although these five
Figure 4(b) will reduce or even eliminate particles cascades have different blade types and different rela-
impinging on the trailing edge, as shown in Figure tive pitch t/b, they have the same Stcr and almost the
4(c). Similarly, based on the blade in Figure 4(b), same variation law of e with the St number due to the
decreasing by of blade will increase the number of same G value (0.292). All of these results reconfirmed
escaped particles, and increasing by of the blade will that G is one of the key cascade structural parameters
decrease the type I impingement on the trailing edge. that represent the erosion resistance of blades.
Therefore, the key to optimizing the erosion resistance With respect to using a stationary blade for the
of the blade is to determine the structural parameters regulating stage and the first stage after reheating in
of the blade when considering the critical impinge-
ment of particles.
The axial displacement of particles producing crit- Table 3. Parameters of cascades with different profile and
ical impingement from the inlet of the cascade to the same G(¼0.292).
impingement point can be easily calculated as bx and
1 2 3 4 5
the circumferential displacement is calculated as byt.
Apparently, the critical impingement was mainly Profile B6 B5 B4 B3 B1
determined by the relative size of byt and bx under b/mm 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37
the same aerodynamic parameters and particle prop- G 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292 0.292
erty. Hence, a parameter G ¼ (byt)/bx was defined in 1 / 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18
this article to represent the cascade structure corres- t=b 0.538 0.551 0.671 0.688 0.697
ponding to the critical impingement. Furthermore, the
ratio of escaped particles to the total number of par-
ticles entered into the cascade is defined as the escape
rate, and is expressed by e. Table 4. Parameters of cascades with different profile and
same G(¼0.489).
Results and discussions 1 2 3 4
Given a certain chord length and the flow outlet angle Profile B4 B3 B1 B2
of profile B1, a series of cascades with different G b/mm 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37
values was constructed by adjusting the pitch and set- G 0.489 0.489 0.489 0.489
ting angle, and aims to study the impact of parameter 1 / 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18
G on blade erosion. Their parameters are shown in t=b 0.509 0.537 0.552 0.563
Table 2. Furthermore, three groups of cascades with
the same G value but different profiles were con-
structed by changing the pitch and setting angle of
six blade profiles in Figure 1. Their parameters are Table 5. Parameters of cascades with different profile and
shown in Table 3, Table 4, and Table 5, respectively. same G(¼0.577).
The variation of the escape rate e of nine types of
1 2 3 4
cascade in Table 2 with St number is shown in Figure
5(a). It reveals that for the same cascade, the escape Profile B4 B3 B1 B2
rate e decreases with an increased St number, and the b/mm 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37
St number at the turning point from the escape rate G 0.577 0.577 0.577 0.577
(e>0) to zero escape (e ¼ 0) corresponds to the critical 1 / 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18
impingement of this cascade, which is referred to as
t=b 0.434 0.469 0.490 0.501
Stcr . Each cascade has only one Stcr . With the increase
Table 2. Parameters of cascades with different G and same profile.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Profile B1 B1 B1 B1 B1 B1 B1 B1 B1
b/mm 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37 94.37
G 0.212 0.243 0.292 0.339 0.386 0.432 0.489 0.534 0.577
1 / 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18 15.18
t=b 0.75 0.728 0.697 0.665 0.633 0.601 0.552 0.53 0.490

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Wang et al. 7
steam turbines, the attack angle of steam admission The variations of E0.9–1.0 and P0.9–1.0 with the St
is often nonzero. The variation of e of cascade 1 in number are shown in Figures 6 and 7, respectively, for
Table 2 with the St number under four different is the nine types of cascade in Table 2. It can be seen
shown in Figure 5(c). It can be seen that both e and that both the St numbers corresponding to the max-
Stcr decrease with an increase in , achieving basically imum value of E0.9–1.0 and E0.9–1.0 under the same St
the same effect as increasing G. Increasing from 0 number decrease with the increasing G, achieving
to 15 is similar to increasing G from 0.212 to 0.339, extremely similar variation trends to that of P0.9–1.0.
and increasing to 45 is similar to increasing G to These results demonstrated again that the impinge-
0.489. Apparently, is the key aerodynamic param- ment probability is the primary cause of type I vari-
eter representing the erosion resistance of the blade. ation with the St number. Based on the above
Therefore, it is very necessary to consider its influence analysis, it can be concluded that the impingement
when selecting G. positions of particles shift gradually toward the
Figure 5. The statistical results of particle escape rate: (a) variation of e vs. St for the cascades with different G, (b) variation of e vs.
St for the cascades with different t/b and (c) variation of e vs. St for the cascades with different .
Figure 6. The statistical results of erosion rate for the cascades with different G: (a) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G40.386 and
(b) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G50.386.

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Figure 7. The statistical results of impingement probability for the cascades with different G: (a) variation of P0:91:0 vs. St when
G40.386 and (b) variation of P0:91:0 vs. St when G50.386.
Figure 8. The statistical results of erosion rate for the cascades with different : (a) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G¼0.292 and
(b) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G¼0.432.
leading edge of the blade with increasing G, and will However, it failed to deduce the quantitative relation-
eventually extend beyond the area of sr ¼ 0.9–1.0. ship due to the numerous influencing factors.
Under this circumstance, E0.9–1.0 and P0.9–1.0 will be Figure 9 shows the influence of the relative pitch t/b
zero, and the blade erosion damage will be reduced on the variation of E0.9–1.0 with the St number when
significantly. Obviously, for larger G, the St range of G ¼ 0.292, G ¼ 0.490 and G ¼ 0.577, and indicated
E0.9–1.0 ¼ 0 will be wider, and the blade will be more that the variation law of E0.9–1.0 with the St number
secure. When G 5 0.489, all particles with St >14 depends only on the value of G, while t/b mainly influ-
were beyond the area of sr ¼ 0.9–1.0, which suggests ences the value of E0.9–1.0. Given G ¼ 0.292, for a
that basically no type I common solid particles larger t/b, E0.9–1.0 will be higher. When G ¼ 0.490
impinge on the trailing edge, thus significantly and G ¼ 0.577, t/b has only a very weak influence on
increasing the service life of the blade. E0.9–1.0, without the obvious law.
The influence of on the variation of E0.9–1.0 with Figure 10 shows the influence of parameter on
St when G ¼ 0.292 and G ¼ 0.432 is presented in the variation of E0.9–1.0 and P0.9–1.0 with St number
Figure 8. It can be seen that increasing and increas- when G ¼ 0.339. Four different values of were
ing G can achieve a similar effect: the impingement acquired by scaling the cascade 4 in Table 2.
position of particles on the blade shifts forward grad- Figure 10 demonstrated that as increases, particles
ually, and the St number corresponding to the max- remain in the cascade for a longer time due to the
imum E0.9–1.0 and E0.9–1.0 at the same St decreases. increased bx, but they perform better when following
The erosion law at G ¼ 0.292 and ¼ 45 is similar the steam flow, thus increasing the St number that
to that at G ¼ 0.534 and ¼ 0 , and the erosion law at corresponds to the maximum E0.9–1.0 and P0.9–1.0.
G ¼ 0.432 and ¼ 45 is similar to that at G ¼ 0.577 However, changing generally has less influence on
and ¼ 0 . Upon analysis from the perspective of the particle impingement and erosion compared with
trajectory of the particles, increasing is equivalent to changing G or . The size of the cascade obtained
decreasing the circumferential displacement under the with a maximum is four times that obtained with
same axial displacement, shifting the impingement a minimum in Figure 10, but it is impossible to have
position toward the upstream of the blade. such a wide selection of cascade size ranges when

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Wang et al. 9
Figure 9. The statistical results of erosion rate for the cascades with different t/b: (a) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G¼0.292,
(b) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G¼0.489 and (c) variation of E0:91:0 vs. St when G¼0.577.
Figure 10. The statistical results of erosion rate and impingement probability for different : (a) variation of E0:9 1:0 vs. St when
G¼0.339 and (b) variation of P0:91:0 vs. St when G¼0.339.
designing a steam turbine. However, due to the angles of type I (the first impingement point of
limited variation of impingement positions, the ero- every particle on the surface of the blade after enter-
sion resistance of the blade is not easily improved by ing into the cascade) is much larger than that of type
changing . II (additional impingement point of particles on the
surface of the blade). Therefore, the type I impinge-
ment is shown to cause the main erosion damage to
Conclusion
the blade. In addition, the structural parameter of
In this article, we presented a systematic study of the cascade (G), attack angle of steam admission ()
relationship between the structural characteristics of and aerodynamic parameters (St and ) are the
cascades and erosion parameters such as particle ero- main influencing parameters of the impingement pos-
sion distribution and the impingement probability by ition and erosion distribution. Increasing G and can
performing multiple three-dimensional numerical shift the impingement position toward the leading
simulations. The results show that the incidence edge of the blade, and can reduce or even eliminate

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type I impingement in the area of sr ¼ 0.9–1.0, hence coating thickness and substrate material. Progr
reducing the erosion damage of the blade signifi- Organic Coatings 2001; 41: 85–92.
cantly. Furthermore, although decreasing can 11. Wheeler DW and Wood RJK. High velocity sand
achieve a similar effect to increasing G, it is less influ- impact damage on CVD diamond. Diamond Relat
ential. The scope of the St number is not easily chan- Mater 2001; 10: 459–462.
12. Wood RJK. Tribo-corrosion of coatings: a review.
ged because it is determined mainly by the size of the
J Phys D.: Appl Phys 2007; 40(18): 5502–5521.
oxide particles. Reducing the amount of type I in
13. Wang SS, Liu GW, Mao JR, et al. Effects of coating
sr ¼ 0.9–1.0 by choosing an appropriate blade profile
thickness, test temperature, and coating hardness on the
and cascade structure when considering the particle erosion resistance of steam turbine blades. J Eng Gas
size is one of the main ways that can be employed Turbines Power-Trans ASME 2010; 132: 022102.
to improve the erosion resistance of the blade. 14. Qureshi JI and Tabakoff W. Influence of coating pro-
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The authors would like to thank for the financial support of Technol 1988; 36(1–2): 433–444.
the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central 15. Wang SS, Mao JR, Liu GW, et al. Reduction of solid-
Universities and the National Natural Science Foundation particle erosion on the control-stage nozzle of a steam
of China (NSFC) (No. 50476051). turbine through improved end-wall contouring. Proc
IMechE, Part C: J Mechanical Engineering Science
2010; 224(C10): 2199–2210.
Conflict of interest 16. Sumner WJ, Vogan JH and Lindinger RJ. Reducing
None declared. solid particle erosion damage in large steam turbines.
In: Proceedings of the American power conference,
Chicago, IL, USA, 1985, pp.196–212.
Acknowledgments 17. Campos-Amezcua A, Mazur Z, Gallegos-Munoz A,
The authors would like to thank Enago (www.enago.cn) for et al. Numerical study of erosion due to solid particles
the English language review. in steam turbine blades. Numer Heat Transf Part A-
Applications 2008; 53: 667–684.
18. Campos-Amezcua A, Gallegos-Munoz A, Romero CA,
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Design of hard coating architecture for the optimization Appendix
of erosion resistance. Wear 2008; 265: 879–887.
8. Swaminathan VP, Wei RH and Gandy DW.
Nanotechnology coatings for erosion protection of tur-
bine components. J Eng Gas Turbines Power-Trans Notation
ASME 2010; 132: 082104.
9. Tabakoff W, Hamed AA and Swar R. Deterioration b chord length, mm
and retention of coated turbomachinery blading. bx axial width of blade, mm
Ceram Eng Sci Proc 2009; 29: 45–53. by circumferential width of blade, mm
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coatings to multiple solid particle impact: effect of e escape rate of particles, %

XML Template (2013) [9.7.2013–8:04pm] [1–11]
Wang et al. 11
eN ðÞ normal restitution coefficient of particle t pitch of cascade, mm

velocity T temperature, K
eT ðÞ tangential restitution coefficient of V particle incidence velocity (the impin-
particle velocity gement velocity of particle on wall), m/s
E0.9–1.0 accumulated weight-loss Vs0 steam flow velocity at the inlet of cas-
insr ¼ 0:9 1:0, defined by equation cade, m/s
(1), g/10,000 h V0.9–1.0 average value of V insr ¼ 0:9 1:0,
G ðby tÞ=bx , characteristic parameter of defined by equation (3), m/s
cascade
Ma1.1 the weighted average of steam mass attack angle of steam admission, degree
flow for Mach number at the plane x/ 1 flow angle at the plane 1–1, degree
bx ¼1.1 particle incidence angle (the impinge-
P0.9–1.0 impingement probability ment angle of particle on wall), degree
insr ¼ 0:9 1:0, defined by equation 0.9–1.0 average value of insr ¼ 0:9 1:0,
(2), % defined by equation (4), degree
s0 Vs0 bx
Rebx s0 " mass erosion rate, g/kg
s arc length along the pressure surface of s0 steam dynamic viscosity at the inlet of
blade from leading edge to the erosion cascade, kg/(ms)
point, mm p density of solid particle, kg/m3
sr s/sl s0 density of steam at the inlet of cascade,
sl total arc length along the pressure sur- kg/m3
Rebx
face of blade from leading edge p =s0
to trailing
2
edge, mm time, hour
p Vs0 Dp
St 18s0 bx

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Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

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Proc IMechE Part A:

for minimizing blade erosion DOI: 10.1177/0957650913495384

Shun-sen Wang1, Liu-xi Cai1, Jing-ru Mao1, Jun-jie Zhang2 and

Date received: 14 December 2012; accepted: 22 May 2013

technique to be completely free of coating defects,

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2 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)

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Figure 4. The trajectory and type I impingement of particles in the cascade.

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6 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)

Results and discussions 1 2 3 4

Table 2. Parameters of cascades with different G and same profile.

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8 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)

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10 Proc IMechE Part A: J Power and Energy 0(0)

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eN ðÞ normal restitution coefficient of particle t pitch of cascade, mm

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