Behaviour of Fly ash in Cement Concrete Pavement

1
 Abstract
In the past, the fire resistance of concrete structural members could be
determined only by testing, which is costly and time-consuming. Recent
developments, including the development of numerical techniques and an
enhanced knowledge of the thermal and mechanical properties of concretes at
elevated temperatures, have made it possible to determine the fire resistance of
various concrete members by calculation.
These studies include the development of mathematical models for the
calculation of the fire resistance of columns of various sizes and shapes, as well
as experimental studies. Among the columns examined were columns with
rectangular cross section. In this paper, a method is described for the calculation
of the fire resistance of reinforced concrete columns with such cross sections.
The experimental study carried out in this work covered the effect of fire
exposure time on the flexural behavior of reinforced concrete beams.
Several conclusions have been made via testing and numerical modeling of the
specimens. Various inferences were observed during the fire testing. The main
reason for the relatively higher fire resistance of the rectangular columns is
probably that the heating of the core of columns with rectangular cross sections
approaches that of a wall, which is heated on two sides, In case of masonary
modeling for fire resistance, the work become more challenging and interesting.
There are several sources of fire resistance ratings for brick masonry assemblies
that will typically satisfy the requirements of the local building official. Model
building codes contain results based on testing.
In this analysis, conductive, convective and radioactive thermal transfers are
considered together with local energy consumption due to phase changes. In this
analysis, it is shown that a non-linear elastic behavior for bricks and mortar with
temperature-dependent mechanical parameters is sufficient to retrieve the
overall behavior of thin masonry walls.

2
 Contents

Declaration
Approval Sheet
Acknowledgements
Abstract ................................................................................................
1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation .................................................................................. 1
1.2 Outline of Project ........................................................................ 3
2 PROJECT review
2.1 PROJECT review .......................................................................... 4
2.4 Objective of the present work .................................................. 13
3 Experimental Work
3.1 Introduction …………………………………………… 14-61
4 Results and Disscussion
3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………….62-72
5 Conclusion and Future work
5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................ 73
References........................................................................................... 75
Appendix …………………………………………………………………………

3
 Chapter: 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Concrete is one of the most used building materials. In the past decades it
has evolved into a strong and durable material. The problem of the concrete is
the behavior in severe conditions that occurs in the fire. The tensile strength of
concrete in the fire decreases due to dehydration and thermal strain at the high
temperatures. Moreover, the moisture inside the concrete will evaporate. This
combined with the low permeability of the high strength concrete will yield
high pressure. The pressure can be high enough to cause spalling. With the
spalling pieces of concrete in the channel tunnel. The thickness of the concrete
lining was greatly reduced. The tunnel would have collapsed if the fire occurred
in another part of the tunnel.

Building codes and other local ordinance require critical building components
to have a certain level of fire resistance to protect occupants and to allow a
means of escape. Several factors contribute to the level of fire resistance
required of the wall, floor or roof assembly including whether combustible and
non-combustible construction is used. Other factor includes the building’s use,
floor, area, and height, the location of assembly and whether a fire suppression
system such as stand pipes and sprinklers is installed.

The fire safety of the any building depends upon the combustibility and fire
resistance of its main structural elements.

In the past, the fire resistance of concrete structural members could be

determined only by testing, which is costly and time-consuming. Recent
developments including the development of the numerical techniques and the
enhancement knowledge of the thermal and mechanical properties of the

4
concrete at the evaluated temperature have made it possible to determine the fire
resistance of various concrete members by calculations.

The Construction fractioned have expressed their keenness for understanding

the behavior of concrete when it is exposed to fire and for predicting its fire
resistance. Whereas clay brick masonry is widely used because of its thermal
and sound insulation performance. A concrete can be used as fire resistance but
it has few ingredients, which are very prone to fire. If the concrete came in
contact with the fire then its binding property decay very rapidly. It can convert
into the ashes. It can be improved using some admixtures, which can reduce the
effect of the fire. Fire resistance is certainly its weakness if improper design
methods are used.

1.2 Objective of the work

The main objective of this work to understand the behavior of concrete under
the fire exposed conditions. The broad objective can be summarized as

• Understanding the behavior of civil structure under fire exposed

• Calculation of residual mechanical strength of concrete structure

• Evaluate the strength of the concrete structures pre and post fire exposed
conditions

OUTLINE OF THE PROJECT:

This project has been divided into the five chapters. First chapter talks about
the introduction of the brick masonry and concrete structures. The following
chapter consists of various recent developments in the field fire resistance of
the civil structures. It talks about the literature review of the calculation of fire
resistance. Third chapter contains the methodology for calculating the fire

5
resistance of the concrete structures .Fourth chapter includes the result and
discussion. Final chapter finish with conclusion and remark.

6
 CHAPTER: 2
PROJECT REVIEW

Concrete is a good fire-resistant material due to its inherent non- combustibility and poor
thermal conductivity. Since concrete structures usually have good fire performance, post-fire
repair is preferable to demolition and reconstruction force stand time concerns. To propose
the more economical repair plan capable of meeting the code, it is essential to investigate the
post-fire behavior of structural material and assemblies. Many works have been carried out
on the residual mechanical properties of concrete rebar and concrete–rebar interface after
exposure to elevated

The effects of fire on flexural strength of concrete. The tests were performed at the 200 0C
exposed to fire conditions. They performed the non-destructive testing using Schmidt
hammer. Transverse load was applied. Strain and deflection were measured at each load step.
Cracking pattern was monitored and observed with each load step regularly. The main
conclusions of this study were as decrements in compressive strength, decrements in ultimate
loading. Concrete got more affected due to presence of some combustible material in the
concrete while it was very less in case of the steel.

Strength and durability are most important features of any structure. These can be improved
considerably by using some good quality stabilizer. This had done experiment with four
different stabilizers 1.Cement, 2.Lime, 3.Cement + Lime, 4.Cement + resin. They had done
the laboratory experimental work and along with the actual fire exposed condition
experimental work. The experimental work was done in more severe condition as compared
to the natural climatic condition. Durability improves considerably with the addition of
stabilizers. The exposure conditions have been characterized by a weak quantity of rainfall of
about 120 mm/year. As a result of the work, the following classification of the different
products used as earth stabilizers can be made; according to their good durability:
• Cement + resin
• Cement
• Cement + lime
• Lime

7
It is also important to note that the utilization of the resin as a protection material is not
economic. It is practically eight times more expensive than the treatment by cement.
The various accelerated ageing tests are means of comparing different stabilizers
performances used under laboratory exposure conditions. These tests are fast but are subject
to controversy as one cannot simulate in the laboratory the complex succession of the
multiple climatic phenomenon: rain, sun, temperature, humidity, and wind. However, little
work has been done correlating the performance of samples under conditions similar to that
of real buildings.

Concrete as a leading construction material in civil engineering must sometimes resist the
effects of elevated temperatures due to natural hazards. With the prolongation of heating the
basic components of the concrete (hydrate phase of C–S–H, calcium aluminates gels and
Ca(OH)2) may be disintegrated and this process can result in deterioration of the physico-
chemical properties of concrete. As a consequence, many of the existing studies therefore
focus on the influence of elevated temperatures on the mechanical properties of hardened
concrete. Besides analyses dealing with physical properties of concrete exposed to a medium
temperature range (spanned from room temperature to 50° C ) there exists a relatively broad
class of articles investigating mechanical properties of the concrete heated to temperature
levels up to 800 ° C or higher . As known from experimental studies of concrete behavior at
room temperature, there exists a relevant relationship between its compressive strength S and
its porosity P, respectively. Within the simplest approximation, the relationship S = S (P) is a
decreasing function. In other words, as the porosity P of material under consideration
increases the compressive strength S decreases and vice versa. There are many attempts to
express such relation in terms of closed analytical formula. It has to be pointed out,
Moreover, practically in all cases the results have been obtained for materials exposed to
room temperatures and the specimens.
Porosity has been usually modified only by change of w/c ratio. The present paper is
based on the essential assumption that the influence of porosity changes plays the role of
main factor affecting changes of the compressive strength S of hardened cement pastes and
concretes. This hypothesis is generally understood to be an acceptable approximation,
although conclusions of some articles seem to be more careful in this sense. In this paper we
used the same w/c coefficient for all tested samples and their physical properties have been
measured by annealing within temperature interval (25, 300 °C). Furthermore, we would like
to verify the validity of the hypothesis that the porosity dominantly influences the strength of
8
material and that the relationship between these two quantities may be expressed in the form
of a decreasing function.
2.1 Fire Effect on the Mechanical Properties of Concrete
We experimented the influence of different temperature on the compressive strength and
density of concrete. We used 100*100*100 mm cubes heated for a one hour to temperature
ranging from 20°C -100 °C and the ages of concrete at heating were 7 , 14 , 28 days . The test
results showed that the compressive strength of concrete decreased 10 % from the original
strength up to 400°C and at 600°C the strength reduction was 50% from the original strength.
We find that there was a large strength reduction when heated to temperatures above 400°C.
We also mentioned that the small reduction in density up to 300°C was a result to the loss of
the free water from concrete specimens. At temperature above 300°C, large reduction in
density took place because of loss of the reduction water in concrete.
The effect of high temperature on the mechanical properties of high strength concrete
(HSC). The specimens were subjected to elevated temperature ranging between (100-800)
°C. Five temperature levels of (100, 300, 500, 600 and 800 °C) were chosen with three
different exposure duration of 1, 2 and 4 hours without any imposed loads during heating. the
specimens were heated and cooled under the same regime and tested either one day or one
month after heating. Compressive strength of 100 mm cubes and flexural strength
(100*100*500mm) were measured. We observed that high strength concrete was more
sensitive to high temperature exposure than normal strength concrete. . We found that the
residual compressive strength ranged between ( 90 -100 % ) at 100 °C, ( 70-103 %) at 300
°C, (55- 87 % ) at 500 °C and ( 22-66 % ) between (600 -800) °C.

2.2 Shrinkage of Concrete before and After Burning

For given workability, which approximately means a concrete water content, shrinkage is
unaffected by an increase in the cement content, or may even decrease, because the water
/cement ratio is reduced and the concrete is therefore, better able to resist shrinkage.
The additional shrinkages values due to heating are between (400-800) °C micro strains,
and there is no significant increase in shrinkage values due to the increase of exposure time
from 1.0 to 4.0 hours. Shrinkage values were not more than 10 % of that at 1.0 hour
exposure.

9
 Chapter: 3
ENDURANCE OF CONCRETE AND EXPERIMENT
METHODS
3.1 General Samples and exposure conditions

Sampling and preparing the mixture of concrete for testing is the initial step
towards this study. The main objective of this study is to evaluate the strength
of concrete and behavior as well. In order to mimic the same objective either
simulation or experiment methods can be utilized. Numerical simulation
methods usually use the mathematically basis, which lead to very good results
but these techniques are not capable of the capture the exact behavior. There is
several microscopic changes, which use to be happen during such handling.
These changes are pretty tough to be captured. Practioner and construction
companies want this strength to develop the optimal design methodology.
Experiment has been used to predict the exact behavior of the concrete, which is
exposed to the fire.

In this study 27 different mix-ratio concrete samples has been made. They have
been grouped into the three groups. This classification is based on the
characteristics strength of the each block. The characteristics strength of each
bock is M15, M20 and M25. Each strength has 9 cubes.

Indian standards had been followed during the making of the cubes. The size of
cube is based on the Indian building code. IS-456 has been taken into account
for the guidelines. Other Indian codes, which advocated the mixing of concrete
and testing methodology, had been considered while performing the
experiments. These codes are listed in the concluding chapter of references.
These codes are following after all the literature.

The concrete cubes were made in normal environmental conditions. Hence these
cubes are also exposed to the normal conditions such as room temperature and
average humidity. Since these tests had been performed during the month of the
March to April, room temperature during these days is about 270C. This
temperature is quite moderate and also variable during this session. 270C is not
the exact temperature but its more average temperature during this month.

10
3.1.1 Materials

Concrete is mixtures of the various aggregates, sand cement and the water. In
order to get a pretty suitable concrete block, it is essential to use proper and
appropriate materials. Researchers are also supposed to follow the guidelines
provided by the local government and building codes. Sand as fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate and water has been used in this experimental analysis. Cement
has been used as the binder material. The more details of these materials are
described as below.

3.1.2 Water

We use water, which is the type of Potable water.

The Properties of this water is given below From IS 456:2000:-
1. Water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from injurious
amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugar , organic materials or other
substance that may be deleterious to concrete or steel.
2. For potable water there are some following concentrations which
represent the maximum permissible values:
3. To Neutralize 100 ml sample of water using phenolphthalein as an
indicator, it should not be requiring more than 5 ml of 0.02 normal
NaOH.
4. To neutralize 100 ml sample of water using mixed indicator it
should not require more than 25 ml of 0.02 Normal H2SO4.
5. pH Value of water shall not be less than 6.
6. The initial setting time of test block made with the appreciate cement and
the water proposed to be used shall not be less than 30 min and shall not
differ by 30 min from the initial setting time of control test block
prepared with the same cement and distilled water.

3.1.3 Aggregate

A very common and easy available aggregate has been used in the experiments.
A quite unique mixture of the aggregates had been taken into the account.
Usually in the normal construction conditions specific shape and size is not
being used. Mixture of the aggregate has always attracted the practioners. One
reason can be considered as the economy but this may not be justification to the
exact tendency. Mixture has various aggregates, which are different in the
shape, size as well as behavior to certain conditions. They have different water
absorption capacity, different crystal structure, which make a lot impact on the
strength of the concrete.

11
The choice of aggregate is probably the more important since some aggregates,
such as flint or Thames gravel, break up at relatively low temperatures (below
350 °C) while other aggregates, such as granite, exhibit thermal stability, up to
600 °C. The thermal stability of different aggregates increases in the following
order: flint, Thames gravel, limestone, basalt, granite, and gabbro. Other
desirable features in aggregates are: (a) low thermal expansion, which improves
thermal compatibility with the cement paste; (b) rough angular surface, which
improves the physical bond with the paste; and (c) the presence of reactive
silica, which improves the chemical bond with the paste.

A sieve analysis has been performed before mixing the concrete. Different
aggregates show the different response for different exposed conditions. The
material availability and their detailed information is discussed into the table 1.
The sieve analysis results are shown in the table. 2.

Properties Cement Fine Aggregate Coarse

Aggregate
Size - 10 20mm
Grade PPC 33 - -
Occurrence Jaypee Cement Yamuna River Jhansi
Haldwani

Table:1 : Material properties and their sources

The sieve analysis the primary test to be performed before making the
mixture. Keeping this in mind the sieve analysis has been done. The results and
observation of the sieve analysis of the coarse aggregates are shown in the table
2. Table 3 shows the same experiment results of the fine aggregates. Various
Indian standards sieves had been instrument to evaluate the sieve quantity.

1.Coarse Aggregate: 20 mm Nominal Size

Table 2: Sieve analysis of the coarse aggregates

I.S % % 40% Recommended % by weight for

Sieve Passing Passing 10mm
10 mm 20 mm Combined
(mm) by Wt. by Wt. +

12
 for 10 for 20 60% Single Single 20 mm
mm mm 20mm
Size Size +
Nominal Nominal
Size Size 10 mm
40 100 100 100 100 100
20 100 80.3 88.18 85-100 85-100
12.5 100 - - - -
10 85.80 1.6 35.28 0-20 0-20
4.75 .90 0.3 0.54 0.54 0-5

Remarks:

1. The gradation of size 10mm and 20mm aggregates conforms to recommended

gradation of size 10mm and 20mm aggregates respectively.

2. The gradation of combined aggregate of 20mm + 10mm Nominal Size, confirms

to requirements of graded aggregates of size 20mm

(a) Specific gravity 2,65

(b) Water absorption 0.50
(c) Free surface moisture Nil

Table 3 Sieve analysis of the fine aggregates

I.S % Passing Recommended % Passing For Gradation Zone

Sieve (mm) by Weight
I II III IV

10 100 100 100 100 100

4.75 99.03 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100

2.36 96.68 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100

1.18 86.54 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100

600 55.43 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100

300 15.15 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50

150 1.40 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

Conforms to Gradation Zone II of Table 4 of IS33:1970 as mentioned above.

13
 (b) Specific Gravity 2.65
(c) Water Absorption Nil
(d) Free Surface Moisture 2%

3.1.4 Cement

As for the cement blend, an important feature is the C/S ratio. A low C/S ratio
results in a low calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2 ) content in the original mix and
ensures a more beneficial hydrothermal reaction. Calcium hydroxide is not
desirable because it dissociates at about 400 °C into CaO and CO. The CaO
rehydrates expansively and detrimentally upon cooling and exposure to
moisture. The C/S ratio is reduced in practice by the use of slag, PFA or silica
fume. Tests by the author show that the use of slag produces the best results at
high temperatures, followed by PFA and then silica fume. The relatively low
performance of the silica fume cement paste (contrary to its high durability
performance at room temperature) may be attributed to the dense, low
permeability structure of the paste which does not readily allow moisture to
escape from the heated concrete, thus resulting in high pore pressures and the
development of micro cracks.

The five deicing chemicals, CaCl2 , CaCl2 -inhib, NaCl, K Acetate, and Agr-
deicing, were directly received from suppliers. NaCl and CaCl2 deicing
chemicals were selected because of their wide applications. CaCl2 -inhib
deicing chemical was employed to evaluate the damaging effect of inhibitor on
concrete. The corrosion inhibitor (tetraethanolamine (TEA), approximately
2000 ppm) was pre-mixed in the CaCl2 solution. K Acetate is a more
expensive alternative to chloride deicing chemical. It is commonly used at
airfield facilities, where its lower corrosiveness makes it economical to the more
damaging chlorides. The K Acetate used was a 50% (by weight) aqueous
potassium acetate solution with less than 1% silicate phosphate-based corrosion
inhibitor. The Agr-deicing chemical is an organic product derived from an
agricultural by-product that has recently become available on the commercial
market. The chemical components of the Agr-deicing product can be found in
Table 3 . It looks more like a gelatinous paste than a solution. The pH value of
the Agr-deicing product was 7.8.

3.2 Endurance of Concrete

Concrete can not be set on fire like other materials. As a non-combustible
material, it does not emit toxic fumes, produce smoke, or drip molten particles
when exposed to fire, unlike plastics or metals. Also, concrete does not add to
the fire load in a building. For these reasons, concrete is readily accepted in

14
building codes as having a high degree of fire resistance. In many applications
concrete is virtually fireproof. Concrete’s excellent performance in fire is due to
its main constituent materials—cement, water, and aggregates—which, when
combined, form a material that is non-combustible and has a thermal
conductivity equal to 1/21 that of steel. It is this slow rate of heat transfer that
enables concrete to act as an effective fire shield, not only between adjacent
spaces but also in protecting reinforcing bars and internal concrete from
damage.
Concrete’s fire resistance has been proven by hundreds of fire tests, some of
which are discussed below. Testing has shown that the rate of temperature
increase through the cross section of a concrete column or shear wall is
relatively slow, and so internal zones do not reach the same high temperatures
as relatively thin sections of steel beams and columns when exposed to fire. The
minimum concrete column dimension typically used in very tall high-rise
buildings is 24” square, due to structural requirements. Using these typical
dimensions, HSC columns with fire exposure on four sides are rated at four
hours.
3.3 Critical Temperatures

Three critical temperatures for structural concrete can be identified

1. spalling critical surface temperature: experimental evidence indicates that

the concrete surface temperatures when spalling occurs fall in the range
of about 250–420 °C, depending upon the heating rate and characteristics
of the concrete
2. Initiation of strength loss critical temperature: this depends upon the type
of concrete and for siliceous concrete it is about 300 °C, but can be lower
for flint aggregate concrete and higher for granite aggregate concrete.
3. Generic loss of load-bearing capacity critical temperature: Portland-
cement-based concretes experience considerable creep at about 550–600
°C, at which temperature the material would not be structurally useful in
the ‘hot’ state.

3.4 Fire and concrete structures

Fire impacts upon concrete structures insofar as it generates a heat flow into the
concrete’s exposed surface, producing temperature, moisture and pore pressure
gradients within the concrete mass. Thermal strains, stresses and cracking
develop within the heated structure. Explosive spalling of the concrete can take
place. Also, both the concrete and steel, as well as the bond between them,
experience strength losses upon heating. The designer should, therefore, ensure
that all these factors combined do not prejudice the structure’s primary

15
separating and/or load bearing functions for the duration of, and following, the
fire.

3.5 Temperatures Distribution

Knowledge of the development of temperature distribution in concrete

structures is the first key step in the understanding of the structure’s behavior in
fire. Air temperatures in fires frequently exceed 900 °C. However, the good
insulating properties of concrete mean that the temperature gradient is large and
only the temperature of the outside layer is markedly increased, while the
temperature of the internal concrete remains comparatively low. This fact is
illustrated by the example of a 160-mm, wide beam exposed on three sides to a
standard ISO 834 (BS 476) fire . The temperature after 1 h of fire exposure in
the region away from the influence of the corner will be as follows: 600 °C at
16mm depth and 300 °C at 42 mm depth (Fig. 1). The 500 C isotherm reaches
10mm at 30 min, 20 mm at 60 min, and 32 mm at 90 min. The temperature at a
given distance from the exposed surface will be higher at corners of an element
due to the transmission of heat from the two surfaces.

3.6 Fire Resistance

The concept of ‘fire resistance’ has been for decades at the heart of research,
design and assessment of concrete structures exposed to fire. Fire resistance can
be defined as the ability of an element (not a material) of building construction
to fulfill its designed function for a period of time in the event of a fire. Fire
resistance time of a structural element exposed to a standard furnace test is
defined as the time elapsed before a fire limit state is violated. These fire limit
states are given in BS 476: Part 20 as follows for separating (E and I) and load-
bearing (R) functions

Limit state for insulation (I): A fire on one side of a wall, or underside of a
floor, acting as a compartment boundary, should not cause combustion of
objects on the unexposed side. Limits of temperature rise of 140 C (average) or
180 C (peak) above ambient temperature are specified in the standard fire
resistance test.

1. Limit state for integrity (E): A wall or floor acting as a compartment

boundary should not allow passage of smoke or flame from one
compartment to another as a result of breaks or cracks in the wall or floor.
Both insulation and integrity criteria also apply to members embedded in
walls or floors.

16
 1. Limit state for load-carrying capacity (R): The members in a structural
assembly should resist the applied loads in a fire. Hence, normally, each
part of the structure will have a different function in fire, according to its
type and position. This function could be to contain a fire (as with non-
load-bearing walls), to support the design loads (as with beams and
columns), or both (as with a floor). The fire design process for separating
structures comprise only thermal analysis, whilst for load-bearing
structures both thermal and structural analyses are required.

Design for fire resistance also aims to ensure:

1. overall dimensions of the section of an element sufficient to keep the
heat transfer through this element within acceptable limits;
2. Average concrete cover to the reinforcement sufficient to keep the
temperature of the reinforcement below critical values (500 °C for
reinforcing steel and 350 °C for pre-stressing steel) before the required
fire resistance period is attained. Concrete cover in fire applications is
defined as the distance between the nearest heated face of the concrete
and the surface of the main reinforcement, or an average value
determined in BS 8110: Part 2. This cover is defined differently from the
‘nominal cover’ of BS 8110: Part 1

The cover thickness for a specified steel temperature limit depends upon the
thermal diffusivity (k /_C where k" thermal conductivity, C" specific heat, and
_" density) of aggregate used. The cover has to provide lasting protection to the
reinforcement from both fire and environmental attack. Choice of cover
thickness should be on the basis of the more onerous requirement. Reinforced or
pre-stressed members generally fail in fire as a result of excessive temperature
rise in the steel. This failure applies mainly to simply support flexural members.
Loss of concrete cover by spalling of the concrete, especially explosive spalling
in the region of the tensile steel, endangers the carrying capacity because of the
increased rate of heat transfer to the steel and reduction in overall thickness of
concrete. Hence, a maximum cover to reinforcement is recommended to reduce
the potential for spalling, but a minimum thickness is required for thermal
insulation. Therefore, the actual thickness should be between these two limits.

The fire resistance of a whole concrete structure would not necessarily be that
ascribed to its individual elements. Better fire behaviour could arise from such
factors as robustness, adequate continuity of reinforcement, reduced level of
loading, composite construction, and the availability of alternative paths for
load support. The provision of continuity of reinforcement in the design allows
the redistribution of forces and moments to gradually take place towards the
parts of the structure not exposed to the fire as the exposed parts are weakened,

17
thus ensuring an improved fire resistance relative to the situation of the simply
supported single element. It is, therefore, necessary to pay particular attention to
detailing.

Factors affecting fire resistance of concrete elements according to BS 8110 are:

1. size and shape of elements;

2. disposition and properties of reinforcement or tendon;
3. the load supported;
4. the type of concrete and aggregate;
5. protective concrete cover provided to reinforcement or tendons;
6. Conditions of end support.
7. the overall thickness of the section in order to keep heat transfer through
the floor or wall within acceptable limits;
8. Provision of surface insulation.

Fire engineering calculations, or a full-scale test, allow interaction between

these factors to be taken into account (see next section).

3.7 TYPES OF FAILURE IN FIRE

The failure of structural concrete in fire varies according to the nature of the fire
(e.g. rate of temperature increase and maximum temperature); the loading
system; and the type of structure exposed to the fire. Failure could occur due to:

1. _ loss of bending or tensile strength;

2. _ loss of bond strength;
3. _ loss of shear or tensional strength;
4. _ loss of compressive strength;
5. _ spalling of concrete

3.7 .1 Bending`tensile failure

Bending failure of load-bearing bending elements generally occurs when the

reinforcement fails as the tensile strength of the steel is reduced on heating.
Failure due to bending in the centre of the span of length L of simply supported
load-bearing members is indicated by deflections of the order of L/30.

3.7 .2 Bond failure

18
Failure of reinforced concrete members may occur in fire when heating reduces
the bond strength between the steel and concrete. Bond failure is usually
combined with concrete tensile failure as the tensile strength decreases rapidly
with heating.

3.8 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT OF FIRE RESISTANCE

The engineer has at his/her disposal three methods of assessment of fire

resistance (Fig. 12), namely:
1. _ fire testing;
2. _ prescriptive methods;
3. _ performance-based methods.
The first two have been established for several decades. It is only now that
performance-based methods based on fire engineering calculation are being
accepted in an increasing number of countries. For any of the three methods of
design, the detailing of the structure should be such as to implement the design
assumptions for the changes during a fire in the distribution of load and the
characteristic strengths of the materials. In particular, the reinforcement
detailing should ensure that both elements and the structure as a whole contain
adequate supports, ties, bonds and anchorages for the required fire resistance.

3.8.1 Fire testing

Fire testing of an element or subassembly when exposed to a ‘standard’

temperature–time regime (e.g. according to BS 476), is the most expensive of
the three options, particularly for larger, more complex structures. Any form of
concrete element covered by a valid fire test report may be deemed to have the
fire resistance ascribed to it by such a test, provided that the element has similar
details of construction, stress level, and support as the test specimen. Standard
tests for fire resistance are usually conducted on single building elements where
it is not feasible to reproduce in the test furnace the nature and magnitude of
restraint and continuity of the adjoining construction.
In some cases, therefore, the fire performance of structural elements in the
building could be expected to be much greater than that of the simple element
when tested in the furnace. In other cases, thermal movement can reduce the fire
resistance. Another advantage of fire testing over prescriptive methods is that it
provides an indication of temperature distributions within, and deflections of,
the element during heating as well as detailing weaknesses not discovered
without tests. However, its accuracy is sensitive to the testing apparatus and
method employed, hence the considerable discussions at international
committee level on harmonization of laboratory testing between different
countries. The preparation for testing and performing the test is lengthy, and the

19
cost of setting it up and execution is high. Furthermore, testing of a complete
construction in fire is a formidable task, as evidenced by the full-scale fire tests
undertaken on a building by the Building Research Establishment in the great
airship hangar in Cardington, England.

3.8.2 Prescriptive methods

Current building fire engineering practice is largely based on the application of

prescriptive codes whereby the engineer designs in accordance with
predetermined requirements, based on generic occupancies or classes of fire
risk. Prescriptive codes are rigid and restrictive, and do not allow for
engineering thinking. Although the cheapest to implement, they are the least
accurate of the three methods. The safety level achieved by this method can
vary significantly. In many cases it is very conservative and not cost efficient,
but sometimes it can also be unsafe. The fire resistance requirement in the
prescriptive method is expressed by target fire resistance ratings for members
exposed to BS 476 or ISO 834 fire. This means that a structural member should
be designed in such a way that it does not collapse within 30, 60, 90 or may be
120 min. No classes in between are available. Hence, if a test specimen
collapses after 59 min, it will be categorized in the R30 fire class, irrespective of
the loading level. Such deficiencies have provided the driving force for the
development and wider acceptance of performance-based methods (see below).

Engineers apply prescriptive methods for the fire resistance of building

elements or subassemblies from tabulated data presented in the codes and
standards. BS 8110: Part 2: 1985 gives tables specifying minimum dimensions,
including cover (in mm) for fire resistances ranging from 30 min to 4 h for
concrete beams, columns and floors. The standard refers, erroneously, only to
density of the concrete, hence the distinction made in the tables just between
‘dense’ and ‘lightweight’ i.e.( 2000 kgm ) concretes and their strength change
with temperature. The foregoing discussion on materials properties shows that
the behavior of heated ‘dense’ concrete is very dependent upon the type of
aggregate used. Some aggregates (e.g. Thames gravel) break up at 350 °C while
others (e.g. granite and gabbros) can be thermally stable even at 600 °C. Also,
the behavior of the lightweight aggregates depends upon their density.

The data also distinguishes between simply supported and continuous

constructions for flexural members for both reinforced and prestressed concrete.
The tables are based on the assumption that the elements are supporting the full
design load. The tabulated data for simply supported elements are based on the
steel reinforcement retaining a proportion of its strength at high temperatures;
reinforcing bars and prestressing tendons are considered to retain about 50% of
their ambient strength at 550 °C and 450 °C respectively. If any dimension of a

20
particular construction is less than the minimum specified in the tables and it is
not possible or desirable to increase it to meet the requirements, the fire
resistance may be enhanced by the application of a protective coating, system or
membrane. It is necessary to appreciate that these periods do not signify the
duration of an actual fire. For example a 60-min fire does not imply that a
construction is expected to withstand a fire of 60 min duration, but that it will
withstand a fire of a longer or a shorter duration whose severity corresponds to
the 60-min

3.8.3 Furnace test.

Specific provisions of test for fire resistance of elements of structure in terms of

the three performance criteria mentioned above are given in the Building
Regulations . The regulations also set out the minimum periods of fire
resistance in minutes for elements of structure at basement, ground and upper
levels of various types of building. The regulations state that where one element
of structure supports or carries or gives stability to another, the fire resistance of
the supporting element should be no less than the minimum period of fire
resistance for the other element (whether that other element is load-bearing or
not). Circumstances for varying this principle are also given

3.8.4 Performance-based methods

Performance-based methods are based on fire engineering calculations, and
provide a cost-effective and flexible method of assessment superior to
prescriptive methods. A given problem can be studied or different fire scenarios,
geometries, material properties, loading or support conditions. This can be
performed in a relatively short period of time, thus allowing a better
understanding of the behaviour of the structure subjected to fire until collapse.
Moreover, computer programs can even simulate structural conditions that are
very difficult to study in a fire test.
In the performance-based design, the structure is not allowed to collapse during
the complete fire process, including the cooling phase.

Performance-based methods can be classified into three categories of increasing

sophistication and complexity.
1. simplified calculations based on limit state analysis;
2. thermo-mechanical finite element analysis;
3. Comprehensive thermo hydromechanical finite element analysis.

3.8.5 Thermal analysis

For separating functions, only thermal analysis is required. For the load-bearing
function, thermal analysis will need to be conducted in all three performance-

21
based categories as part of the structural analysis. For the simplified limit state
method, it would be a stand-alone finite element calculation to determine, for
example, the location of the 500C (or other) contour. Without taking into
consideration moisture migration, thermal analysis would provide approximate
results, particularly in the temperature range 100–200 C when moisture
migration and evaporation play a significant role. Normally this can be partly
accounted for by introducing a latent heat of evaporation component to the
specific heat capacity, but this still does not entirely solve the problem.
This component may not be significant in terms of load-bearing capacity
assessment, but in other examples (e.g. spalling or in nuclear reactor concrete) it
is important.

3.8.6 Assessment after fire

An immediate and thorough appraisal is normally required after a fire. Such an
appraisal should begin as soon as the building can be entered, and generally
before the removal of debris. After a fire, an estimate is made of the severity of
temperature exposure in terms of an equivalent standard test. A visual
examination and classification of damage for each structural member is carried
out. The maximum concrete temperature profile during a fire can be estimated
from results of previous tests, from computer simulations, and from post-fire
assessment of the concrete (e.g. through its colour change or by a thermo
luminescent technique). Key diagrams and schedules are then prepared.
Following this, a general assessment of the likely repairs required may be drawn
up. Normally, concrete exposed to temperatures above 300 C is replaced if
possible. Otherwise the dimensions are increased (e.g. reinforced columns),
depending upon the design load. The fire resistance of a concrete structure is
frequently well above minimum requirements. Because of the structural
continuity present in most buildings, there are reserves of strength which may
enable the structure to survive fires and be reinstated. Reinstatement by repair
will usually be economically preferable to demolition and rebuilding in terms of
capital expenditure and earlier reoccupation.

3.9 Elevated temperature Test

The experimental work was carried out to decide upon the temperature range
and duration of burning. It was decided to limit to maximum exposure to fire
flame to about 400 °C, 600 °C and 800 °C with two different exposure durations
of 1.0 and 2.0 hours which covered the range of situation in the majority of
elevated temperature test.

22
3.9.1 Composition of concrete

The test specimens for the whole experimental program were made from the
concrete mixture composition given in Table 1. This composition corresponds
to that used in real structures. Minerals content in percentage by weight may be
found in the mineral composition of cement in % per volume is collected in
Table 2. Applied starting material is Portland cement with a small amount of fly
ash and traces of slag. The clinker used for its production was burned on the
optimum content of free CaO and it has a high fraction of alite; C4AF prevails
over C3A in it. An average size of crystals ranges between 0.025 and 0.030 mm
and a size of belite grains is about 0.20 mm in average.

3.9..2 Manufacturing of samples

The mixing of concrete mixtures was carried out in the laboratory mixer with
the forced circulation. The uniform procedure of loading the ingredients to the
mixer and the constant time schedule of mixing was used at the manufacturing.
The goal of this measure was to attain in all cases a homogeneous mixture of
concrete. The result of the precisely kept procedure was the constant quality of
the concrete mixtures in all the performed batches. The test specimens for the
whole experimental program were manufactured during two relays.
Furthermore, the great attention was paid to the specimens curing. First, they
were covered with polyethylene foil which restrained the leakage of excessive
water from the surface bed of the test bodies. Then, approximately 6 h after the
manufacturing ended, the

samples, including the forms, were covered with the polyethylene foil. The
resulting basic specimen of the experimental program was the beam of sizes
0.1* 0.1× 0.4 m.

3.9.3 Heat treatment of specimens

The samples of concrete have been studied at the age of 7, 14 and 28days,
respectively. They were exposed to stabilized heating 2 0C per min. The
specimens then remain at the chosen elevated temperatures approximately 120
min and after that they were cooled down in a controlled way to the room
temperature during 24 h. The duration of exposure at elevated temperatures
practically guarantees that the test samples are heated uniformly and the
required stable temperature is reached within the whole specimen volume with
sufficient accuracy. This time period has been estimated from the solution of

23
heat equation; appropriate input parameters in particular, thermal conductivity
coefficient, resp. specific heat capacity and its dependency on temperature.
Measurements have been performed on unsealed specimens which were
continuously heated up to temperatures 250C, 1000C, 1500C, 2000C, 2500C and
280 0C.

3.9.4 Porosity measurements

The fragments (of the average volume 0.5 cm3) drilled out from the beams were
utilized after strength test to determine their texture. Determination of porosity
is, in fact, a quite complex problem. Pore structure of concrete consists of
several types of pores: gel micro pores (of characteristic sizes 0.5–10 nm),
capillary mesopores (10–5000 nm) and macropores. Although the influence of
the gel pore distribution (via overall porosity of concrete) may be neglected in
S=(P) relationship, to measure the remaining pore system through mercury
porosimetry means that the maximal pressure has to be sufficient to cause
intrusion of Hg into the smallest capillary pores; otherwise, rather apparent
porosity is determined.

In our case, porosity of hardened cement paste of concrete has been measured
using high-pressure porosimeter. Before measurements, all of the specimens
have been dried up at temperature 105 0C for 4 h. This is the reason why it was
impossible to determine porosity exactly at room temperature, i.e.
corresponding to the case without heat pretreatment of the sample. On the other
hand, experiments confirmed that porosity is independent of the repeating
frequency of annealing (e.g., if the sample is heated once, or twice to
temperature, say, 100 0C).

Furthermore, in order to guarantee the measurements to be representative, the

porosity was measured on the ensemble of 6–10 small-drilled cores for every
value of temperature (instead of determination of overall porosity from
differences in weights between water saturated and ‘‘dry’’ samples) and our
results were statistically treated.

24
3.10 Materials and Mixture Properties

The cement used Ordinary Portland Cement (O.P.C) .). The physical properties
and chemical composition are presented in table (1). The gravel used maximum
size 19 mm and the fine aggregate well graded natural silica sand was used.
Deformed steel bars of 10 mm diameter were used for longitudinal
reinforcement and plain bars of 6mm were used for stirrups.

The concrete mix was designed according to British mix design method BS
5328 : part 2 :1991, the concrete proportions of the concrete mix are
summarized in table (2).

Table (1): a – physical properties of cement

Physical properties Test results IQS :1984 limits

No.5

Fineness, Blaine, cm²/gm 3190 ≥ 2300

setting time , vicat´s method

Initial hrs : min 1 : 35 ≥1:0

Final hrs : min 3 : 50 ≤ 10 : 0

Compressive strength of 70.7 mm cube

, MPa

3 days
23.5 ≥ 15
7 days
28 ≥ 23

B – Chemical Properties of the Cement

25
 Oxide % IQS :1984 limits

No.5

CaO 60.50

SiO2 20.36

Fe2O3 3.25

Al2O3 6.30

MgO 4.14 ≤ 5

SO3 2.32 ≤ 2.8

Free lime 0.72

L.O.I 1.62 ≤ 4.0

I.R 0.66 ≤ 1.5

Table (2): Mix Properties

Weight proportion Mix properties kg / m³

Slump w/c Cement : sand : gravel Water Cement Sand Gravel

mm ratio

60 0.45 1.0 : 1.2 : 2.7 195 435 525 1215

3.10.1 Volume Change of Concrete

Test Specimens

26
For the volume changes tests, prisms, specimens of ( 100*100*500mm) were
used in this work, multi position gauge was used for measurement. an
extensometer while more type, with an accuracy of (0.002mm /division ) was
used to measure strain in the panels prisms .

Test Procedure

Shrinkage tests were performed according to ASTM C 157 : 93 setting gauge

plugs : the gauge length was selected to be 200 mm, the stainless steel in the
figure (1). Specimens were cured in water at age of 28 days. The specimens
were exposed to drying in laboratory for another 28 days ( i.e. 28 days curing in
water + 28 days air dried in laboratory ) .

Drying Shrinkage

The drying shrinkage was monitored for the concrete after the 28 days in water
and the measurements were done from 28 days to 60 days age at ages of 29, 32,
37, 45 and 60 days.

Shrinkage after Burning

Shrinkage of specimens were monitored after exposure to fire flame and cooling
the laboratory to room temperature. Shrinkage was measured after the
specimens were cooled to room temperature, at ages of ( 1, 3, 7, 15 and 30 days
) after burning.

Burning and Cooling

The concrete specimens and the reinforced concrete beams were burnt with
direct fire flame from a net work of methane burners inside the frame. The
dimension of this burner net area (1500×1500mm) (length × width )
respectively as shown in plate (1). The bars of flame were intended to simulate
the heating condition in a actual fire. When the target was reached, the
temperature continuously measured by digital thermometers, one of them was
positioned in the bottom surface of the beams in the contact with the flame,
while the other was positioned at the unexposed upper surface of the beam, and
by thermocouple that was inserted in the near center of each beam to measure
the temperature at the mid-depth (75 mm from the exposed or unexposed
surface ).

27
The measurement devices are shown in plate (2). After burning the concrete
specimens and the reinforced concrete beams were quenched immediately in
water for 2.0hours and then stored in laboratory environment about 20 hours
also before testing.

3.11 Beams Specimens Preparation and Details

The total number of beams cast was sixteen samples. Four beams were retained
as reference Beams for 30 days of age, twelve were exposed to fire flame with
different temperature, different periods of exposed. The beams were covered
with polyethylene sheet in the laboratory for about 24 hours, and then demolded
for curing in water for 28 days.

The beams were simply supported. All beams were 1000 mm length, 150 mm
height and 100 mm width as shown in figure (2).

Table (3): Test values of compressive strength of concrete specimens before

Age at Period of Compressive strength (MPa) Rtios

exposure exposure
2 Temperature (°C) Fca / Fcb
(days) (hours)
25(1) 400(2) 600(3) 800(4) (2/1) (3/1) (4/1)

30 1.0 30.06 23.20 18.70 0.72 0.55 0.45

2.0 41.80 26.40 21.82 16.12 0.63 0.52 0.38

60 1.0 31.76 27.60 21.30 0.71 0.62 0.49

2.0 44.65 28.20 25.0 19.80 0.63 0.56 0.44

90 1.0 32.64 28.0 22.24 0.69 0.59 0.48

2.0 46.82 29.0 26.65 20.43 0.62 0.57 0.44

and after exposure to fire flame.

Fca= compressive strength (cube) after exposure to fire flame.

28
Fcb= compressive strength (cube) before exposure to fire flame.

3.11.1 Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete

Test results of the modulus of elasticity are summarized in Table (3). Figures
(5and 6) illustrates the relationship between the residual modulus of elasticity
and fire flame temperatures. From these results, it can be seen that the reduction
values of concrete modulus of elasticity were more significant than that of the
compressive at identical fire flame temperatures.

At 400°C, there was a significant reduction in the concrete modulus of elasticity

due to effect of fire flame. The residual value of modulus of elasticity was
ranged from (64-70%).

At 600°C, the residual value of modulus of elasticity was (28- 31%).

At 800°C, the residual value of modulus of elasticity was (18-22%). The

reduction in modulus of elasticity of concrete can be attributed to the increase in
the amount of cracks formation due to exposure to fire and the physico -
chemical transformation in concrete constituenents during burning will
yield strength loss .

Table (4): Test values of modulus of elasticity of concrete before and after
exposure to fire flame .

Age at Period of Modulus of Elasticity of Rtios

exposure exposure Concrete (GPa)
mca / mcb
(days) (hours)
Temperature (°C)

25(1) 400(2) 600(3) 800(4) (2/1) (3/1) (4/1)

30 1.0 23.0 10.7 7.6 0.67 0.31 0.22

2.0 34.5 20.4 10.2 6.9 0.50 0.29 0.20

60 1.0 25.7 11.3 7.8 0.69 0.30 0.21

2.0 37.0 23.6 10.3 7.0 0.64 0.28 0.18

90 1.0 28.0 11.9 8.0 0.70 0.30 0.20

2.0 39.8 25.8 11.1 7.6 0.65 0.28 0.19

29
 Mca= modulus of elasticity of concrete after exposure to fire flame.

Mcb= modulus of elasticity of concrete before exposure to fire flame.

50 50
45 The age (days) 45 The age (days)
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)

40

Modulus of elasticity (GPa)

30 40 30
60
35 35 60
90
90
30 30
25 25
20 20
15 15
10 10
5 5
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
o
700 800 900 1000 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Temperature C o
Temperature C
Figure (5): The effect of fire flame on the modulus Figure (6): The effect of fire flame on the modulus
of elasticity of concrete at 1.0 hour period of of elasticity of concrete at 2.0 hour period of
exposure. exposure.
The values of shrinkage before and after exposure to fire flame are shown
in

table (4) and plotted in figures (7, 8 and 9) against age. It can be seen
from these There is no significant increase in shrinkage values due to the
increase of

Table (5): Test values of shrinkage before and after exposure to fire
flame (prisms 100*100*500mm)

Temperature Period exposure(hour) Age ( days ) Strain in

( °C) (millionths)

0 0

1 145

3 275
25 before burning ____ 7 320

15 405

30 485

45 560

60 590

30
 61 160

63 275
1.0 67 335

75 345
400 after burning 90 345

61 165

63 280
2.0 67 345

75 360

90 360

61 170

63 290
1.0 67 380

75 435
600 after burning 90 435

61 175

63 295
2.0 67 405

75 440

90 440

61 180

63 305
1.0 67 410

75 445

31
 800 after burning 90 445

61 185

63 310
2.0 67 415

75 445

90 445

700 600

600
500
500
Strain in millionths

Strain in millionths

400 400

300
300 Strain at temperature
200
400 oC
o
200 600 C
100
800 oC
0
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Age (days) 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Age (days)

Figure (8): The effect of fire flame on the strain of

Figure (7): relation between strain and age of concrete
concrete at 1.0 hour period of exposure.
before exposure to fire flame.

32
 500

400

Strain in millioths
300
Strain in temperature

400 oC
200 600 C
o

800 oC

100
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Age (days)

Figure (9): The effect of fire flame on the strain of concrete

at 2.0 hour period of exposure.

3.12 Deflection Before and After Burning

Single load was applied at mid span because of the limitation of the machine
available. The deflection were recorded at each stage of loading at mid span of
beam, the load at the first visible crack and at failure were recorded .

The best results were summarized in Table (6) and the relation between the load
and deflection were illustrated in figures (10 and 11). After the beam were
Subjected to fire flam, two types of cracks developed, the first was thermal
cracks appearing in a honeycomb fashion all over the surface, They originated
from top or bottoms edges and terminated near the mid-depth of the beam. The
crack width was (1.25 mm). The patterns of fine crack were consistent with the
release of moisture being greater in the outer lagers than in the interior resulting
in differential shrinkage. The second crack were flexural tensile cracks due to
loading developed in the mid-span region .

Table (6) : the measured values of service load deflection at mid span of the
beam .

Temperature Period of exposure Service load Experimental

°C (hour) deflection ( mm )
( Kn )

25 ___ 35.80 2.20

33
 1.0 29.05 1.74

400

2.0 25.84 1.52

1.0 24.22 1.30

600 2.0 22.27 1.01

1.0 22.12 0.92

800

2.0 17.84 0.69

40 40

35 o
25 C 35 25 C

30 400 C
o
30
400 C
o
25 600 C 25
Loaed (kN)
Load (kN)

o
800 C 600 C
20 20
o
800 C
15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Deflection (mm) Deflection (mm)

Figure (10): Load-deflection behavior or reinforced Figure (11): Load-deflection behavior or reinforced
Effect ofbeam
concrete Firebefore
Flame andon the Steel
exposure to fireReinforcement
flame at Bars
concrete beam before and exposure to fire flame at
1.0 hour. 2.0 hour.
The effect of fire temperature on the properties of steel reinforcement bars is
summarized in Table (7). At temperature of (400°C), both burning and
subsequent cooling did not affect the mechanical properties of the steel

34
reinforcement bars, but this effect was observed at burning temperature of
600°C and 800°C.

The percentages of residual yield tensile stress and ultimate tensile stress were
(90.6%, 78.8% and 89.8%, 81.4%) at temperature (600 and 800°C) respectively.

Table (7): Effect of fire temperature on the properties of steel bars .

Exposure Yield Residual Ultimate Residual Modulus Residual

Temperature. Tensile Yield Tensile Ultimate of Es

Tensile
(°C) Stress Stress Tensile Elasticity %
Stress
N/mm2 N/mm2 Stress Es (Gpa)
%
%

25 345 100 480 100 205 100

400 345 100 480 100 205 100

600 315 90.6 438 89.8 205 100

800 260 78.8 414 81.4 205 100

Surface Condition and Fire Endurance of Tested Beam

The aim of design for fire safety should be to limit damage due to fire. The
unexposed surface of each tested beam was observed throughout 1.0 and 2.0
hour fire test.

Figure (12) shows the temperature-time curves for the exposed mid-depth and
unexposed surface for beam. At the beginning the beams are at room
temperature, measured to be 25 ºC.

The experimental results clearly indicated that the temperature near the surface
to fire is higher and decreases to words the top of the beam thickness.

35
 800

700
Temperature at

600 Exposed surface

( C)
o Mid-depth
500
unexposed surface
Temperature

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Time (min.)

BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES IN

FIRE

Figure (12): beam temperature as a function of time at various depths (beam

thickness: 10cm) The behavior of structures exposed to fire is usually described
in terms of the concept of fire resistance, which is the period of time under
exposure to a standard fire time-temperature curve at which some prescribed
form of limiting behavior occurs. In performance-based design this limiting
behavior may be defined as real structural collapse or as a failure of integrity
(which allows fire-spread to occur), but is more usually defined in terms of a
deflection limit. Current design have taken a step towards full performance-
based design by allowing designers to treat fire as one of the basic design limit
states, taking account of:

• Non-uniform heating due to partial protection, which may be inherent in the

framing system or specially applied,

• The level of loading in the fire limit state, using partial safety factors lower
than those

36
 used for ultimate limit states, because of the relative improbability of such
accidental conditions,

• Realistic stress-strain characteristics of materials at elevated temperatures.

The main limitation of these approaches is that they are based on the
behaviour under test of isolated simply supported members, usually heated
according to the standard ISO834 time-temperature curve. In real buildings
structural elements form part of a continuous assembly, and building fires
often remain localised, with the fire-affected region of the structure receiving
significant restraint from cooler areas surrounding it. The real behaviour of
these structural elements can therefore be very different from that indicated
by standard furnace tests.

Six large fire tests were carried out on a full-scale composite building at the
BRE Fire Research Laboratory at Cardington. The tests made it clear that
unprotected steel members could have significantly greater fire resistance
within real multi-storey buildings than when tested as isolated members. This
was undoubtedly due to interaction between the heated members within the
fire compartment, the concrete floor slabs (both heated and unheated) and
the adjacent composite frame structure. If such interactions are to be used by
designers in specifying fire protection strategies, as part of an integrated limit
state design process, then this can not practically be based on testing because
of the extremely high implicit costs. It is therefore becoming increasingly
important that software models be developed to enable the behaviour of such
structures under fire conditions to be predicted with sufficient accuracy.

Generic 37.5m × 37.5m normal-weight reinforced concrete structure comprising

four floors has been considered, with realistic loading conditions and structural
layout. In order to develop a better understanding of the interactions between
the cool and hot zones of the structure, a series of analyses has been carried out
for different extents and positions of localised fire compartments.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE PROGRAM

A reinforced concrete building is modelled as an assembly of finite beam-

column and slab elements. It is assumed that the nodes of these different types
of element are defined in common reference plane, as shown in Fig. 1. The

37
reference plane is assumed to coincide with the mid-surface of the concrete slab
element. Its location is fixed throughout the analysis.

The beam-columns are represented by 3-noded line elements. The model is

based on a formulation for geometrically non-linear modelling of elastic beams.
The cross-section of the beam-column is divided into a matrix of segments, and
each segment may have different material, temperature and mechanical
properties. The complications of structural behaviour in fire conditions, such as
thermal expansion, degradation of stress-strain curves, failure of concrete
segments by cracking and crushing, and yielding of steel member or
reinforcement segments, are included. The details of the formulations of beam-
column elements and the constitutive modelling of concrete and steel at elevated
temperatures have been presented previously.

a non-linear layered finite element procedure has been developed for predicting
the structural response of reinforced concrete slabs subjected to fire . The slab
elements are sub-divided into concrete and reinforcing steel layers to take into
account temperature distributions through the thickness of slabs, thermal strains
and material degradation for each layer, and failure layer-by-layer based on
stress levels at Gauss points.

38
 ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURE WITH WHOLE FLOOR
HEATED
3 2
• Self-weight (assuming concrete density of 24kN/m ): 7.5kN/m
2
• Raised floor: 0.5kN/m
2
• Ceiling and services: 0.5kN/m
2
• Partitions: 1.0kN/m
2
• Imposed load: 2.5kN/m

39
Fig. 2 - Concrete structure layout for whole ground floor heated by the ISO384
2
fire. At the fire limit state, the total design load on the structure is 10.75 kN/m
when the partial safety factor of 0.5 is applied to the imposed load. This
loading is used throughout the example. The characteristic strength of
concrete and reinforcing steel are assumed to be 45MPa and 460MPa,
respectively. It is also assumed that two hours’ fire resistance is required for
the building. Therefore the nominal covers of beams, slabs and columns for the
required fire resistance are 30mm, 25mm and 25mm respectively . Each floor
slab is nominally 250mm thick and designed as a flat slab. The dimensions of
the cross-sections of beams and columns are 500mm x 350mm and 350mm x
350mm respectively. Fig. 3 shows the cross-section details of beams and
columns.

In this case it is assumed that the whole ground floor of the building is
engulfed in fire. Because of the inherent symmetry of the case, only a quarter
of the structure is modelled. The temperature histories of the main reinforcing
steel bars in the beam and column sections, and the reinforcing mesh in the
slab are shown in Fig. 4. The maximum temperatures of reinforcement at
120min and 180min are about 530°C and 660°C respectively. It is obvious that
the concrete covers provide very good thermal insulation to the reinforcement
during the fire. In this thermal analysis it is assumed that no concrete spalling
happens in the fire condition.

In other words, it is assumed that all the reinforced concrete cross-sections

remain intact. The temperatures of the cross-sections of the members,
generated by thermal analysis, are then used to carry out the structural
analysis. The deflections of some key positions within the structure analysed
are presented .

It is evident that the maximum deflection of the floor slabs at 120min is about
250mm, which is span/30. Fig 6 shows the vertical deflections at the tops of
three ground floor columns, A1, B2 and C3. It is evident that the columns
initially extend upwards due to thermal expansion, then downwards after
about 110min because of the reduction of the strength and stiffness of their
concrete. The analysis was finally stopped due to buckling of Column B2. It is
very clear that, as in composite structures, some fire protection of columns

40
within reinforced concrete buildings is crucial for the extended survival of such
structures in fire conditions. For reinforced concrete columns it is also essential
to prevent spalling from the column faces in order to avoid direct exposure of
the reinforcement to the fire.

The deflection profile of the structure modelled at 150min. A vector plot of the
distribution of principal membrane tractions (forces per unit width of slab) at
the Gauss points of the slab elements at 150min is shown in Fig. 8. In this plot,
the lengths of the vectors are proportional to their magnitudes; thin vector
lines denote tension and thick lines denote compression. The figure shows
repeated patterns clearly indicating tension fields in the central region of each
floor panel, together with the peripheral compression ‘rings’ which are
characteristic of tensile membrane action. It is obvious that the area in tension
is rather smaller than the compression region. This is because the deflections
are relatively small, less than span/30, so tensile membrane action is not very
significant.

On detailed inspection of the compression and tension forces across the cut-
lines it is clear that the compressive membrane forces are much larger than
the tensile membrane forces. Hence, in order to maintain the equilibrium at
this advanced stage of the fire, the reinforced concrete beams should probably
carry tensile forces, since it is unlikely that the whole resultant of the slab
forces is balanced by column shear. The change with time of the axial forces of
the concrete beams at three key positions . It can be seen that at ambient
temperature the beams are all subject to resultant tension force. During the
first 30min of the fire the tensile forces within the beams increase
dramatically, to about three times the ambient-temperature value. Since
concrete is very weak in tension the tensile forces within the beams are
predominantly carried by the main reinforcing bars. It is evident from the
figure that even after 150min the tensile forces of the beams are about twice
their values at ambient temperature. Hence the possibility of tensile failure of
the beam reinforcement in the initial stages of the fire is quite high, depending
on the type of fire and dimensions of cross-sections of the beam and slabs.

41
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR WITH FIRE COMPARTMENTS IN DIFFERENT
LOCATIONS

In order to study the interactions between the cool and hot zones of the
structure, a series of analyses has been carried out for different extents and
positions of localised fire compartments. Three different locations are
modelled, as indicated in Fig. 10. The temperature distributions for the
structural members within the fire compartment are assumed to remain the
same as above. The structure beyond the fire compartment is assumed to
remain at 20°C.

The increase in deflection, at the centre of the fire compartment, with

time for the three different cases. The time at which the deflection reaches
220mm is about 50min more for Case III (fire in an internal bay) than for Case I
(fire in the corner bay). The structural behavior within each compartment is
clearly different, especially at high temperatures. This is because of the extent
of restraint, from the adjacent cool structure and continuity of the floor slabs,
which is greater for the internal bays than for the corner bays.

The distributions of the principal membrane tractions in the slab at 150min for
Cases I, II and III. It is evident that no tensile membrane forces are formed for
Cases II and III within the fire compartment and that even for Case I only a very
small portion of area within the fire compartment experiences tensile
membrane forces.

It is clear from the above analyses that the presence or absence of

adjacent cool slab areas has significant influence on the behaviour of the
structure within the fire compartment. The restraint and continuity from this
cool structure provide some benefits in increasing the fire resistance of the
structure within the fire compartment. All analyses were eventually
terminated due to buckling of heated columns. Once again, these confirm that
prevention of column failure is most important in designing reinforced
concrete structures for high fire resistance periods.

42
 CHAPTER: 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The behaviour of concrete material in fire depends very much on the specific concrete mix
proportions and constituents used, and are determined by complex physicochemical
transformations during heating. However, all Portland-cement-based concretes lose their
load-bearing capacity at temperatures above 550–600 °C. At lower temperatures (i.e. that of
the bulk of the concrete member during fire) the deterioration in mechanical properties during
heating can be reduced by judicious concrete mix design whereby thermally stable aggregates
of low thermal expansion are employed, and cement blends are selected that produce a low
CaO/SiO2 ratio, but not too low a permeability (also important to reduce the risk of spalling).
A key property unique to concrete amongst structural materials is the load-induced thermal
strain (LITS), also called transient creep. Any structural analysis of heated concrete that
ignores LITS will be wholly inappropriate and will yield erroneous results, particularly for
columns exposed to fire. Normal strength concretes and high-performance concretes micro
structurally follow similar trends when heated, but ultra-high-performance concrete behaves
differently.

4.1 FIRE AND CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Failure of structural concrete in fire varies according to the nature of the fire, the loading
system and the type of structure exposed to the fire. Failure could occur due to loss of
bending or tensile strength; loss of bond strength; loss of shear or torsional strength; loss of
compressive strength; and spalling of the concrete.
The structural element should, therefore, be designed to fulfill its separating and/or load-
bearing function without failure for the required period of time in a given fire scenario.
Design for fire resistance aims to ensure overall dimensions of the section of an element
sufficient to keep the heat transfer through this element within acceptable limits, and an
average concrete cover to the reinforcement sufficient to keep the temperature of the
reinforcement below critical values long enough for the required fire resistance period to be
attained.

43
4.2 Results and Discussion

The table number 1 shows the experimental results. These results are noted down very
carefully in order to avoid the human error. It contains the compressive strength of the
concrete at the specific date i.e. 7 days strength. It will be cheating to say it as characteristics
strength but since we are analyzing the system with 7days results only. We are calling this
strength as characteristics strength. We had 5 samples for each grade of the concrete, but due
to some handling error and other unavoidable reasons, we are omitting the results of other
samples. We have analyzed the reasons of the failure of other samples and realized that those
were bad sample while molding.

Sample No. Grade of Concrete No. of Days Compressive

Strength (Kg/cm2)

A M15 7 134.44

B M15 7 120.00

C M15 7 122.22

1 M20 7 128.88

2 M20 7 124.44

3 M20 7 121.11

I M25 7 184.44

II M25 7 188.78

III M25 7 182.22

Table 1: Compressive strength of the cubes before fire exposure

44
Sample No. Grade of Concrete No. of Days Compressive Strength (Kg/cm2)

A M15 14 150.00

B M15 14 151.00

C M15 14 150.55

1 M20 14 200.01

2 M20 14 201.12

3 M20 14 202.00

I M25 14 250.05

II M25 14 252.01

III M25 14 252.00

Table 1(a): Compressive strength of the cubes before fire exposure

Sample No. Grade of Concrete No. of Days Compressive

Strength (Kg/cm2)

A M15 28 150.67

B M15 28 151.604

C M15 28 151.10

1 M20 28 200.80

2 M20 28 201.80

3 M20 28 202.80

I M25 28 251.00

II M25 28 251.50

III M25 28 253.05

Table 1(b): Compressive strength of the cubes before fire exposure

45
 Fig. Mixing of concrete

Fig. 4.1 Mould for Cube in the testing Machine (Compressive testing machine)

Fig. 4.2 Cube after testing and failure (Compressive testing machine)

46
Figure 4.1 shows the cube placed under the compression testing machine. Top and bottom
end of the sample are confined with the pressing plate. These ends are assumed to be fixed
end. These boundary conditions are very essential for doing the numerical analysis of these
kind of research work. Boundary condition plays a vital role in deciding the strength of the
concrete. In this experiment work these faces have only the friction force.

Table number 2 shows the compressive strength of the concrete which is exposed to the
air. The fire is kept at the temperature of 2000C. The cubes were kept in the fire for 2 and half
hours continuous. The tables show the numbers of compressive strength in kg/cm2. If we
compare these numbers with concrete strength without fire exposed, we may get the exact
idea. This comparison enforces you to think about the strength gaining during the fire
exposed.

Sample Grade of No. of Temperature Temperature Compressive

no. concrete Days Strength
(in oC ) Time (Kg/cm2)
(in Hours)

A M15 7 200 2.5 119.65

B M15 7 200 2.5 106.00

C M15 7 200 2.5 108.58

1 M20 7 200 2.5 113.41

2 M20 7 200 2.5 117.72

3 M20 7 200 2.5 110.22

I M25 7 200 2.5 164.15

II M25 7 200 2.5 166.12

III M25 7 200 2.5 162.83

Table 2: Compressive strength of the cubes after fire exposure

47
 Sample Grade of No. of Temperature Temperature Compressive
no. concrete Days Strength
(in oC ) Time (Kg/cm2)
(in Hours)

A M15 14 200 2.5 133.50

B M15 14 200 2.5 137.41

C M15 14 200 2.5 133.41

1 M20 14 200 2.5 178.00

2 M20 14 200 2.5 178.89

3 M20 14 200 2.5 183.82

I M25 14 200 2.5 222.50

II M25 14 200 2.5 222.95

III M25 14 200 2.5 224.28

Table 2(a): Compressive strength of the cubes after fire exposure

Sample Grade of No. of Temperature Temperature Compressive

no. concrete Days Strength
(in oC ) Time (Kg/cm2)
(in Hours)

A M15 28 200 2.5 132.52

B M15 28 200 2.5 133.41

C M15 28 200 2.5 134.48

1 M20 28 200 2.5 178.71

2 M20 28 200 2.5 179.60

3 M20 28 200 2.5 176.44

I M25 28 200 2.5 220.88

II M25 28 200 2.5 223.83

III M25 28 200 2.5 227.70

48
 Table 2(b): Compressive strength of the cubes after fire exposure

Table 3 shows the results of oven fired exposed concrete. The cubes were in the micro-
woven at 2000C. These samples were kept in the woven for a very long time. Times were
different for different sample which varies from 24 hr to 48 hr for M25 samples. There is
pretty much difference between the process of the heating in the direct heating and micro-
woven. During the direct heating, the temperature gradient is generated, which makes some
portion very weak by degrading its constituent but few portion may not be get affected.

Comparision of strength of concrete

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3

 Before fire expore

 After fire exposure
 Oven exposure

Fig. 4.4: Comparison of the average characteristics strength in different exposed conditions

Performing an experiment was not that tough work. It’s also not so easy to do experiments
but results analysis after the experiment is quite tricky thing. It need better plotting
techniques and better interpretation techniques.

We have used the bar chart for post processing of the results. Figure 4.4 shows the
comparison of the compressive strength of the various concrete mixtures at the different
exposed conditions.

In this plot the average values has been used to plot the results. The average of all the
samples has been considered to get the exact the behavior of the concrete. It’s important to
get the knowledge of the trend line of the strength of concrete. These bar chart gives a better,
feasible and accurate way to analyze the trend line behavior.

49
Sample Grade of No. of Days Temperature Temperature Compressive
no. concrete Strength (Kg/cm2)
(in oC ) Time

A M15 7 200 48 hours 200

B M15 7 200 48 hours 204.44

C M15 7 200 48 hours 213.33

1 M20 7 200 24 hours 251.11

2 M20 7 200 24 hours 233.78

3 M20 7 200 24 hours 277.78

I M25 7 200 24 hours 311.12

II M25 7 200 24 hours 302.22

III M25 7 200 24 hours 248.88

Table 3: Compressive strength of the cubes after fire work in Hot air oven

Comparision of strength of M15

concrete
350
Compressive Strength

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3
Sample Number

 Before fire expore

 After fire exposure
 Oven exposure

Fig. 4.5: Comparison of the average characteristics strength (M15) in different exposed
conditions

50
 Comparision of strength of M20
concrete
Compressive Strength 400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3
Sample Number

 Before fire expore

 After fire exposure
 Oven exposure

Fig. 4.6: Comparison of the average characteristics strength (M20) in different exposed
conditions

Comparision of strength of M25

concrete
400
Compressive Strength

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3
Sample Number

 Before fire expore

 After fire exposure
 Oven exposure

Fig. 4.7: Comparison of the average characteristics strength (M25) in different exposed
conditions

51
 Figure 4.4, 4.5, and 4.6 talks about the strength variation of each mixture such as M15,
M20,and M25 respectively. We have considered only 3 samples to make the comparison
between the different mixtures of concrete. IS guidelines has been considered and
implemented during the making the mixture even while during the calculating the ratio of
constituents.

An immediate and thorough appraisal is normally required after a fire. Such an appraisal
should begin as soon as the building can be entered, and generally before the removal of
debris.
After a fire, an estimate is made of the severity of temperature exposure in terms of an
equivalent standard test. A visual examination and classification of damage for each
structural member is carried out.

The maximum concrete temperature profile during a fire can be estimated from results of
previous tests, from computer simulations, and from post-fire assessment of the concrete (e.g.
through its colour change or by a thermo luminescent technique). Key diagrams and
schedules are then prepared. Following this, a general assessment of the likely repairs
required may be drawn up. Normally, concrete exposed to temperatures above 300 3C is
replaced if possible. Otherwise the dimensions are increased (e.g. reinforced columns),
depending upon the design load.

The fire resistance of a concrete structure is frequently well above minimum

requirements.
Because of the structural continuity present in most buildings, there are reserves of
strength which may enable the structure to survive fires and be reinstated. Reinstatement by
repair will usually be economically preferable to demolition and rebuilding in terms of capital
expenditure and earlier reoccupation.

The behavior of concrete in fire depends on its mix proportions and constituents and is
determined by complex physicochemical transformations during heating. Normal-strength
concretes and high performance concretes micro structurally follow similar trends when
heated, but ultra-high-performance concrete behaves differently. A key property unique to
concrete amongst structural materials is transient creep. Any structural analysis of heated
concrete that ignores transient creep will yield erroneous results, particularly for columns
exposed to fire. Failure of structural concrete in fire varies according to the nature of the fire;
the loading system and the type of structure. Failure could occur from loss of bending or
tensile strength; loss of bond strength; loss of shear or torsional strength; loss of compressive
strength; and spalling of the concrete. The structural element should, therefore, be designed to
fulfill its separating and/or load-bearing function without failure for the required period of
time in a given fire scenario.

Design for fire resistance aims to ensure overall dimensions of the section of an element
sufficient to keep the heat transfer through this element within acceptable limits, and an
average concrete cover to the reinforcement sufficient to keep the temperature of the

52
reinforcement below critical values long enough for the required fire resistance period to be
attained. The prediction of spalling hitherto an imprecise empirical exercise ` is now
becoming possible with the development of thermo hydro mechanical nonlinear finite
element models capable of predicting pore pressures. The risk of explosive spalling in fire
increases with decrease in concrete permeability and could be eliminated by the appropriate
inclusion of polypropylene fibers in the mix and/or by protecting the exposed concrete
surface with a thermal barrier. There are three methods of assessment of fire resistance: (a)
fire testing; (b) prescriptive methods, which are rigid; and (c) performance based methods,
which are flexible. Performance based methods can be classified into three categories of
increasing sophistication and complexity: (a) simplified calculations based on limit state
analysis; (b) thermo mechanical finite element analysis; and (c) comprehensive thermo hydro
mechanical finite element analysis. It is only now that performance-based methods are being
accepted in an increasing number of countries.

The risk of explosive spalling in fire is significantly reduced in high-permeability

concrete. In low permeability concrete, spalling could be eliminated by the appropriate
inclusion of polypropylene fibers in the mix (this requiring further research) and/or by
protecting the exposed concrete surface with a thermal barrier. Until now, the prediction of
spalling during heating has been largely an imprecise empirical exercise. Attempts to predict
spalling by analytical methods have failed, owing to the complex microstructure and
multiphase nature of heated concrete. The inability to predict the occurrence of spalling has
been a limiting factor in the development of robust models capable of predicting the response
of concrete structures to fire. This prediction is now becoming possible with the development
of Thermo hydro mechanical, nonlinear finite element models capable of predicting pore
pressures and hence spalling in heated concrete structures. Experts differ as to the
mechanisms responsible for explosive spalling. The balance of evidence suggests that it is the
combination of pore pressure spalling and thermal stress spalling, with pore pressure spalling
being the dominant mechanism in both normal-strength and high-performance-concretes.
However, thermal stress spalling may assume greater importance in ultra-high-performance
concretes containing a high proportion of expansive silica.

53
 Chapter: 5
CONCLUSION

Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions can be

drawn:
Concrete has traditionally been used to provide superior fire resistance
and safety for occupants. The fire resistance rating required by the
building code for a wall will depend on many factors including the type
of construction, the use of building, and the location of the wall within
the building. Concrete assemblies of varying ratio have been tested to
provide designers with standard wall sections and details that comply
with the various fire resistance ratings. Alternatively, for non-standard
assemblies, calculation methods presented herein can provide the fire
resistance rating of the proposed wall sections based on the results of
previously tested assemblies.
Strength of concrete was found to be increasing after it was made before the
fire exposure.

Strength of concrete was found to be decreasing after it was exposed to fire

On design mix strength of the concrete was further increased and it gave better
results.

54
References
1. A.Y.Nassif,Post fire full stress–strain response of fire-damaged concrete,
Fire Mater. 30 (5) (2006) pp. 323–332.
2. Y.F.Chang, Y.H.Chen ,M.S.Sheu, G.C.Yao, Residual stress–strain
relationship for concrete after exposure to high temperatures, Cem.
Concr. Res. 36 (10) (2006) pp. 1999–2005.
3. C.S.Poon, S.Azhar, M.Anson, Y.L.Wong, Strength and durability
recovery of fire-damaged concrete after post-fire-curing, Cem.Concr.Res.
31 (2001) pp. 1307–1318.
4. I.C.Neves, J.P.C.Rodrigues, A.P.Loureiro, Mechanical properties of
reinforcing and prestressing steels after heating, J.Mater.Civ.Eng. 8(4)
(1996) pp. 189–194.
5. K.D.Hertz, Quenched reinforcement exposed to fire, Mag.Concr. Res.
58 (1) (2006) pp. 31–48.
6. C.Y.Xu, Bond deterioration of reinforcing barsandit’s effect on the
characteristics of beam column connection after exposure to fire. Ph.D.
Thesis, Department of Construction Engineering, National Taiwan
University of Science and Technology, Taiwan,1991.
7. C.H. Chiang, C.L.T sai, Time-temperature analysis of bond strength of a
rebar after fire exposure, Cem. Concr. Res. 33 (2003) pp.1651–1654.
8. M.M. EI-Hawary, A.M.Ragab, A.A.EI-Azim, S.Elibiari, Effect of fire on
flexural behavior of RC beams, Constr. Build. Mater.10 (2) (1996) pp.
147–150.
9. M.M. EI-Hawary, A.M. Ragab, A.A.EI-Azim, S.Elibiari, Effect of fire
on shear behavior of RC beams, Compos. Struct. 65 (2) (1997) pp. 281–
287.
10. G.T.G.Mohamed bhai, Residual strength of reinforced concrete members
subjected to elevated temperatures, Proc. Instn. Civ. Eng. Part 273 (1982)
pp. 407–420.
11. C.H.Lin, C.S.Tsai, Deterioration of strength and stiffness of reinforced
concrete columns after fire, J.Chin.Inst.Eng. 13 (3) (1990) pp. 273–283.
12. T.T.Lie, T.J.Rowe, T.D.Lin, Residual Strength of Fire-Exposed
Reinforced Concrete Columns, Evaluation and Repair of Fire Damage to
Concrete, SP92, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Michigan, 1984,
pp.153–174.

55
13. A. Guettala a,, A. Abibsi, H. Houari , Durability study of stabilized earth
concrete under both laboratory and climatic conditions exposure,
Construction and Building Materials 20 (2006) pp. 119–127
14. Houben H, Guillaud H. CRATerre. Earth Construction 1984, Primer
Brussels, CRAT erre/ PGC/ CRA/ UNCHS /AGCD.
15. Heathcote KA. Durability of earth wall buildings. Building Mater
1995;3(9): pp. 185–189.
16. Venkatarama RBV. Long-term strength and durability of stabilized mud
blocks. Vietnam International Conference on nonconventional materials
and technology, Vietnam; 2002. pp. 422–31.
17. Yih-Houng Chen Yun-FeiChang _, GeorgeC.Yao , Maw-ShyongSheu,
Experimental research on post-fire behaviour of reinforced concrete
columns, Fire Safety Journal 44 (2009) pp. 741-748
18. The-Duong Nguyen , Fekri Meftah , Rabih Chammas , Ahmed Mebarki,
The behaviour of masonry walls subjected to fire: Modelling and
parametrical studies in the case of hollow burnt-clay bricks, Fire Safety
Journal 44 (2009) pp. 629–641
19. EN1363-1, Fire resistance test—part 1:general requirements. European
Committee of Normalization, 2000
20. ISO834-1, Fire-resistance tests—element of building construction, part1:
general requirements, International Organisation for Standardization,
Geneva, Switzerland, 1999
21. JohnW. Bull, Computational Modeling of Masonry, Brickwork and
Block work Structures, Saxe-Coburg Publications, 2001.
22. S. Masse,et al., Elastic modulus changes in cementitious materials
submitted to thermal treatments upto 1000 1C, Advances in Cement
Research 14 (2002) pp. 169–177.
23. CTMNC, Behaviours of fire clay brick samples at high temperature,
Internal report, 2006.
24. NFEN1996-1-2, Euro code 6—Design of Masonry Structures. Parts1–2:
General rules—Structural Fire Design, 2006.
25. CP 121, Code of Practice for Walling, Part 1: Brick and Block Masonry,
1973.
26. ACI 216.1-07, Code Requirements for Determining Fire Resistance of
Concrete and Masonry Construction Assemblies, 2007
27. B.R.Ki`rby, Recent developments and applications in structural fire
engineering design—a review, Fire Safety J.11 (1986) pp. 141–179.
28. Y. Anderberg, Fire engineering design of structures based on design
guides, in: Second International Conference on Performance-Based
Codes & Fire Safety Design Methods Maui, USA, 1998.
29. J.A.Milke, Analytical methods to evaluate fire resistance of structure
members, J. Struct. Eng. 125 (10) (1999) pp. 1179–1187.

56
APPENDIX
Experimental project requires a consolidated timeline of the project. Date (day)
and time of experiment is very essential while performing the experimental
analysis. Since India is country with multiple number of seasons and weathers,
hence there is possibility of climate change. It changes drastically. Temperature
variation is also not avoidable, which varies from very low to very high. Since
we had done all the experiments in the Kanpur. Kanpur is all these variations
such as climate change, weather variation, temperature gradient and etc.

Table number 1 shows the date and time details of sampling. This table
emphasis on the details of the date of mould preparation as well as the ratio of
the concrete mixture. Table 2 talks about the date details of the testing of cubes.

Mix No. of Cubes Ratio Date of

Preparation

M 15 9 1:2:4 10/03/14

M 20 9 1:1.5:3 16/03/14

M 25 9 1:1:2 22/03/14

Table 1. Mixing and mould preparation date

Mix No of Ratio Date of Date of No of Days

Cube preparation testing

M 15 3 1:2:4 10/03/14 17/03/14 7

M 20 3 1:1.5:3 16/03/14 23/03/14 7

M 25 3 1:1:2 22/03/14 19/03/14 7

Table 2. Mould preparation and testing of respective sample date details

57
Mix No of Ratio Date of Date of No of Days
Cube preparation testing

M 15 3 1:2:4 10/03/14 24/03/14 14

M 20 3 1:1.5:3 16/03/14 30/03/14 14

M 25 3 1:1:2 22/03/14 6/04/14 14

Mix No of Ratio Date of Date of No of Days

Cube preparation testing

M 15 3 1:2:4 10/03/14 17/03/14 28

M 20 3 1:1.5:3 16/03/14 23/03/14 28

M 25 3 1:1:2 22/03/14 19/03/14 28

58
 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
INTRODUCTION

The process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their relative
amounts with the objective of producing a concrete of the required, strength, durability, and
workability as economically as possible, is termed the concrete mix design. The
proportioning of ingredient of concrete is governed by the required performance of concrete
in 2 states, namely the plastic and the hardened states. If the plastic concrete is not workable,
it cannot be properly placed and compacted. The property of workability, therefore, becomes
of vital importance.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete which is generally considered to be an index
of its other properties, depends upon many factors, e.g. quality and quantity of cement, water
and aggregates; batching and mixing; placing, compaction and curing. The cost of concrete is
made up of the cost of materials, plant and labour. The variations in the cost of materials arise
from the fact that the cement is several times costly than the aggregate, thus the aim is to
produce as lean a mix as possible. From technical point of view the rich mixes may lead to
high shrinkage and cracking in the structural concrete, and to evolution of high heat of
hydration in mass concrete which may cause cracking.
The actual cost of concrete is related to the cost of materials required for producing a
minimum mean strength called characteristic strength that is specified by the designer of the
structure. This depends on the quality control measures, but there is no doubt that the quality
control adds to the cost of concrete. The extent of quality control is often an economic
compromise, and depends on the size and type of job. The cost of labour depends on the
workability of mix, e.g., a concrete mix of inadequate workability may result in a high cost of
labour to obtain a degree of compaction with available equipment.

Requirements of concrete mix design

The requirements which form the basis of selection and proportioning of
mix ingredients are :
a) The minimum compressive strength required from structural
consideration
59
 b) The adequate workability necessary for full compaction with the
compacting equipment available.
c) Maximum water-cement ratio and/or maximum cement content to give
adequate durability for the particular site conditions
d) Maximum cement content to avoid shrinkage cracking due to
temperature cycle in mass concrete.

Types of Mixes

1. Nominal Mixes
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement,
fine and coarse aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which
ensures adequate strength are termed nominal mixes. These offer simplicity and
under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength above that specified.
However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a
given workability varies widely in strength.
2. Standard mixes
The nominal mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio (by volume) vary widely in
strength and may result in under- or over-rich mixes. For this reason, the
minimum compressive strength has been included in many specifications. These
mixes are termed standard mixes.
IS 456-2000 has designated the concrete mixes into a number of grades as M10,
M15, M20, M25, M30, M35 and M40. In this designation the letter M refers to
the mix and the number to the specified 28 day cube strength of mix in N/mm 2.
The mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond approximately to the
mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
3. Designed Mixes
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but
the mix proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the
minimum cement content can be laid down. This is most rational approach to
the selection of mix proportions with specific materials in mind possessing
more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the production of
concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the
designed mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct
mix proportions for the prescribed performance.
For the concrete with undemanding performance nominal or standard mixes
(prescribed in the codes by quantities of dry ingredients per cubic meter and by
slump) may be used only for very small jobs, when the 28-day strength of

60
 concrete does not exceed 30 N/mm2. No control testing is necessary reliance
being placed on the masses of the ingredients.
Factors affecting the choice of mix proportions
The various factors affecting the mix design are:
1. Compressive strength
It is one of the most important properties of concrete and influences many other
describable properties of the hardened concrete. The mean compressive strength
required at a specific age, usually 28 days, determines the nominal water-
cement ratio of the mix. The other factor affecting the strength of concrete at a
given age and cured at a prescribed temperature is the degree of compaction.
According to Abraham’s law the strength of fully compacted concrete is
inversely proportional to the water-cement ratio.
2. Workability
The degree of workability required depends on three factors. These are the size
of the section to be concreted, the amount of reinforcement, and the method of
compaction to be used. For the narrow and complicated section with numerous
corners or inaccessible parts, the concrete must have a high workability so that
full compaction can be achieved with a reasonable amount of effort. This also
applies to the embedded steel sections. The desired workability depends on the
compacting equipment available at the site.
3. Durability
The durability of concrete is its resistance to the aggressive environmental
conditions. High strength concrete is generally more durable than low strength
concrete. In the situations when the high strength is not necessary but the
conditions of exposure are such that high durability is vital, the durability
requirement will determine the water-cement ratio to be used.
4. Maximum nominal size of aggregate
In general, larger the maximum size of aggregate, smaller is the cement
requirement for a particular water-cement ratio, because the workability of
concrete increases with increase in maximum size of the aggregate. However,
the compressive strength tends to increase with the decrease in size of
aggregate.
IS 456:2000 and IS 1343:1980 recommend that the nominal size of the
aggregate should be as large as possible.
5. Grading and type of aggregate
The grading of aggregate influences the mix proportions for a specified
workability and water-cement ratio. Coarser the grading leaner will be mix

61
 which can be used. Very lean mix is not desirable since it does not contain
enough finer material to make the concrete cohesive.
The type of aggregate influences strongly the aggregate-cement ratio for the
desired workability and stipulated water cement ratio. An important feature of a
satisfactory aggregate is the uniformity of the grading which can be achieved by
mixing different size fractions.
6. Quality Control
The degree of control can be estimated statistically by the variations in test
results. The variation in strength results from the variations in the properties of
the mix ingredients and lack of control of accuracy in batching, mixing, placing,
curing and testing. The lower the difference between the mean and minimum
strengths of the mix lower will be the cement-content required. The factor
controlling this difference is termed as quality control.

Mix Proportion designations

The common method of expressing the proportions of ingredients of a concrete
mix is in the terms of parts or ratios of cement, fine and coarse aggregates. For
e.g., a concrete mix of proportions 1:2:4 means that cement, fine and coarse
aggregate are in the ratio 1:2:4 or the mix contains one part of cement, two parts
of fine aggregate and four parts of coarse aggregate. The proportions are either
by volume or by mass. The water-cement ratio is usually expressed in mass

Factors to be considered for mix design

The grade designation giving the characteristic strength requirement of concrete.

The type of cement influences the rate of development of compressive strength
of concrete.
Maximum nominal size of aggregates to be used in concrete may be as large as
possible within the limits prescribed by IS 456:2000.
The cement content is to be limited from shrinkage, cracking and creep.
The workability of concrete for satisfactory placing and compaction is related to
the size and shape of section, quantity and spacing of reinforcement and
technique used for transportation, placing and compaction.

A: MIX DISIGN

1. Design Stipulation

62
 1.1.1 Characteristic compressive strength of concrete required in the field after 28
days 25 N/mm2
1.1.2 Maximum size of angular aggregate 20 mm

2. Coarse Aggregate: 20 mm Nominal Size

(d) S
I.Si % % 40% Recommended % by weight for
e
Sieve Passing Passing 10mm
v 10 mm 20 mm Combined
(mm) by Wt. by Wt. +
e for 10 for 20 60% Single Single 20 mm
mm mm 20mm
A Size Size +
Nominal Nominal
n Size Size 10 mm
a
40 100 100 100 100 100
l
20y 100 80.3 88.18 85-100 85-100
s
12.5 100 - - - -
i
10s 85.80 1.6 35.28 0-20 0-20
4.75 .90 0.3 0.54 0.54 0-5
R
emarks:

3. The gradation of size 10mm and 20mm aggregates conforms to recommended

gradation of size 10mm and 20mm aggregates respectively.

4. The gradation of combined aggregate of 20mm + 10mm Nominal Size, confirms

to requirements of graded aggregates of size 20mm

(e) Specific gravity 2,65

(f) Water absorption 0.50
(g) Free surface moisture Nil

5. Fine aggregate

(a) Sieve Analysis

I.S % Passing Recommended % Passing For Gradation Zone
Sieve (mm) by Weight
I II III IV

10 100 100 100 100 100

4.75 99.03 90-100 90-100 90-100 95-100

63
 2.36 96.68 60-95 75-100 85-100 95-100

1.18 86.54 30-70 55-90 75-100 90-100

600 55.43 15-34 35-59 60-79 80-100

300 15.15 5-20 8-30 12-40 15-50

150 1.40 0-10 0-10 0-10 0-15

Conforms to Gradation Zone II of Table 4 of IS33:1970 as mentioned above.

(b) Specific Gravity 2.65
(c) Water Absorption Nil
(d) Free Surface Moisture 2%

6. Target Mean Strength of Concrete:

The target mean strength of concrete is given by

ft. = fck+1.65 × KxS
Where;
Fck= Target Mean Strength in N/mm
S= Standard Deviation = 4
For a tolerance factor of 1.65 and using table 39 of SP23-1982 the target mean
strength of specified characteristic compressive strength is
25+1.65 × 4 = 31.6 N/mm2

7. Selection of Water Cement Ratio

W/C ratio = 0.46

8. Selection of Water and Sand Content

Water content = 186kg /cubic meter of concrete.

Sand content = 35% of the total aggregate by absolute volume.
Approx. air entrapped = 2% volume of concrete.
From find table in sieve analysis to conforming grading zone third.
Water = 186 kg/m3 of concrete.
Sand content = 35 -1.5 = 33.50%.

9. Determination of Cement Content

W/C ratio = 0.46
Water = 186 litre

64
 Cement = 186/0.46 =404 kg/m3
10. Determination of coarse and fine aggregates

𝐶 1 𝑓𝑎
𝑉 = [𝑊 + + ]
𝑆𝑒 𝑃 𝑆𝑓𝑎
404 1 𝑓𝑎 1
0.98 = [186 + + ]
3.15 0.335 2.60 1000
fa = 605 kg/m3
1−𝑃 𝑆𝑐𝑎
𝐶𝑎 = × 𝑓𝑎 ×
𝑃 𝑆𝑓𝑎
1 − 0.335 1
𝐶𝑎 = × 605 ×
0.335 1
Ca = 1200.9 kg/m3

11. 28 Days Compressive Strength of Concrete

S. No. Crushing Load Crushing Strength Remark

(KN) (MPa)
1. 790 35.11
2. 800 35.55 All values greater
3. 710 31.55 than
The target mean
strength 34.55
MPa

65