The Institution is not, as a body, responsible for the opinions expressed by individual authors or speakers.

THE PROCEEDINGS OF
THE INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS
EDITED UNDER THB SUPERINTENDENCE OF G. F. GMNSBOUGH, B . S C , P H . D . , M.I.E.E., SECRBTARY

VOL. 109. PART A. No. 48. DECEMBER 1962

621.313.323 : 621.318.2 The Institution of Electrical Engineers

Paper No. 3977 U
Dec. 1962

THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

By D. P. M. CAHILL, B.E.; M.Sc, Graduate, and B. ADKINS, MA., D.Sc, Member.
{The paper was first received 6th March, and in revised form 1st May, 1962.)
SUMMARY this type of motor have been built, a complete theory of its
A synchronous motor, constructed by modifying an induction motor operation has not previously been published. The present paper
by fitting a permanent magnet inside the squirrel-cage rotor, is very gives such a theory. The tests recorded in the paper were made
useful for drives where synchronous operation is required or where on a motor of an existing design, and the results of the investigar
the drop in speed of an induction motor is too great. The paper tion indicated several ways in which the design could be improved.
presents a theory of operation of this type of motor and suggests an There are two periods while the motor is being started
empirical design method. The analysis is based on the 2-axis theory when heavy currents flow in the stator winding. At standstill,
of the salient-pole synchronous motor and shows how the properties
of the permanent magnet can be taken into account. a current of several times the running value flows, but its mag-
The principal difficulty in designing the motor arises from the netic effect is almost entirely neutralized by corresponding
demagnetizing effect on the magnet of the heavy currents which flow currents in the squirrel cage. As the motor approaches synr
when the motor is started up and synchronized. The analysis consists chronous speed, the current drops at first, but there is another
of two parts. First, the performance characteristics are .related to the surge of current as the rotor puJls into synchronism. Demag-
direct-axis and quadrature-axis characteristics, which show separately netization is most likely to occur at this time, since the rotor is
the variation of flux and magnetomotive force on each axis. A method then moving slowly through the stator flux and the squirrel cage
is then developed for calculating the axis characteristics from the is almost inoperative. Just before synchronizing, the rotor
BIHcmvt of the permanent magnet and the dimensions of the machine. takes up, successively, every possible angular position relative
In this way the performance can be predetermined. to the stator field, corresponding to the full range of the
The method is verified by tests on an existing machine. Finally,
two other designs, which could be expected to give improved per- synchronous load angle. In order to study the operation, it
formance, have been worked out. was therefore necessary to determine the characteristics over the
entire range of synchronous operation. For this purpose the
motor was coupled to a large synchronous machine which
maintained stable operation with any load angle between 0
(1) INTRODUCTION and 360°.
For a small synchronous machine, whether generator or motor, The small motor used for the investigation recorded in the
it is convenient to provide the excitation by fitting a permanent paper was designed on the basis of the proposals made by
1
magnet in the rotor. The arrangement is simpler than that for F. W. Merrill.2 A study of the magnetic characteristics of a
d.c. excitation, for which a winding, slip rings and a d.c. source machine of this type was made by Hanrahan and Toffolo,3 and
are required. The main problem is to ensure that the magnet is a study of a motor has been made by Douglas.4 The present
aot demagnetized under any condition that may occur in service. investigation5 followed other work on the same machine by
An alternator may have its flux reduced to zero if a short-circuit Bagchi,6 who made comparisons with other types of motor,
occurs, but a motor is subjected to a reversal of flux every time and Retnasami,7 who studied the magnetic conditions by means
it is started up. Thus a permanent-magnet motor presents a of tests made with direct current.
more difficult problem than an alternator. The present motor gives a lower normal output and a much
The motor is constructed by fitting a permanent magnet inside lower pull-out torque than the induction motor of the same size,
a squirrel-cage rotor. Although many satisfactory examples of and operates at a worse power factor. From the results of the
investigation it appears possible that an improved design would
Written contributions on papers published without being read at meetings are enable a synchronous motor of this type to have an output a a i
invited for consideration with a view to publication.
Dr. Adkins is, and Mr. Cahill was formerly, at the Imperial College of Science a power factor better than those of the corresponding iadt*©-
and Technology, University of London. Mr. Cahill is now with Fcrranti, Ltd.
tion motor.
VOL. 109, PART A, No. 48. :
[ 483 ] 18
© 1962: The Institution of Electrical Engineers.
484 CAHELL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
(2) DESCRIPTION OF THE MOTOR AND THE TEST exceeds that at D. The recoil line has approximately the same
EQUIPMENT slope as the main curve at A.
(2.1) The Permanent-Magnet Motor (2.2) The Corresponding Induction Motor
The stator of the motor is that of a standard 2-pole induction The standard induction motor has deeper rotor punchings but
motor with outside diameter 13-2 cm, inside diameter 7-95 cm, no magnet and no special inter-polar slots, but is otherwise
and core length 7-62 cm. The rotor, shown in Fig. 1, has a similar to the permanent-magnet synchronous motor shown in
Fig. 1. It is rated at 400 V, 50 c/s, 3-phase, 2 860r.p.m., 0 • 75 hp.
The following particulars are based on test results recorded in
Reference 6:
Current at full load = 1 • 1A at 0 • 9 pF.
Stator copper loss = 38 W.
Rotor copper loss = 30 W.
Core and friction losses = 66 W.
Total loss = 134W.
Temperature rise, by thermometer = 34° C.
Temperature rise, by resistance = 54° C.
Pull-out torque =2-4 times full load.
(2.3) Test Equipment
For the tests, the permanent-magnet motor was coupled to a
special load machine consisting of a 2-pole wound-rotor induc-
tion motor, excited so as to cause it to operate synchronously.
The 3-phase secondary winding of the load machine was excited
from two separate d.c. supplies so that the excitation on the two
Fig. 1.—Section through the permanent-magnet rotor. axes could be controlled and reversed independently. By this
means, stable operation was obtained with any angle 8 from
squirrel-cage winding in a ring of punchings, with a magnet 0 to 360°.
fitted inside the ring. Two deep, inter-polar slots are made in The load angle of the test motor was measured by stroboscopic
the ring to limit the magnet leakageflux,as proposed by Merrill.2 equipment consisting of a disc on the rotor, a scale on the stator
The permanent-magnet motor is rated at 400 V, 50c/s, 3-phase, and a neon lamp. The disc and scale were carefully located in
3000r.p.m. and 0-5hp. relation to the pole axis and the stator winding to provide a
The stator has 24 slots with 98 conductors per slot and a skew reliable zero, since with this type of motor, as will be explained
of one slot pitch. It has a double-layer winding, of 10/12 pitch later, it is not possible to determine the zero position by a no-load
and star-connected. The resistance per phase at 20° C is 10 • 4 Q.. test.
The rotor has 36 slots and the magnet is a solid block of The test motor was supplied from a 3-phase variable auto-
Ticonal G.8 transformer with reversing switches, so as to be able to vary
The following relations are deduced on the assumption that the voltage continuously from 400 V down to zero and up to
the air-gap flux <I> is sinusoidally distributed: 400 V with reversed phase.
To obtain a known degree of magnetization in the machine,
Induced voltage per phase = 8000<D. a circuit was provided for connecting two terminals to a d.c.
Maximum m.m.f. = 486/. supply. The normal procedure for magnetization during the
where / = r.m.s. current per phase. tests was to connect 400 V to the terminals, thereby passing 19 A
through two phases in series for a few seconds. Another circuit
The B\H curve of the permanent-magnet material is shown in
was provided to enable a quick measurement of the resistance
Fig. 2. On the main hysteresis loop, A gives the remanent flux
to be made, which was used to check the temperature rise at
any time.

(3) CHARACTERISTICS AS A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE

6 8 10 12x10"
H.AT/m
Fig. 2.—Hysteresis loops of Ticonal G.
density Br and C gives the coercive force Hc. If the material is
demagnetized to D, the characteristic becomes a narrow recoil
loop DE, which, for present purposes, can be approximated by a
straight line. Stable operation along this recoil line continues
indefinitely provided that the negative magnetization never
(3.1) Power-Angle Curves and Current Loci
Before taking the tests recorded in Figs. 3 and 4, the motor
was magnetized as explained above, the rotor being locked in the
direct-axis position. The motor was then passed through the
complete cycle of operation as a synchronous machine, with 8
varying from 0 to 360°, in order to subject it to maximum
demagnetization. After that, the curves could be repeated as
often as desired.
The load test was made with the motor supplied at 400 V,
3-phase, 50 c/s. Fig. 3 shows the relation between the input
power and the load angle 8, and Fig. 4 gives the current locus
with 8 marked at intervals. These curves, as well as all the
later ones, show per-unit quantities, based on the following units:
Unit voltage = 231 V/phase (normal rated value).
Unit current = 1 A/phase.
Unit power = 692 W total.
Unit flux = 0 • 029 Wb/pole.
Unit m.m.f. = 486AT/pole.
 CAHILL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
It should be pointed out here that a production machine
would have its rotor magnetized in a powerful magnet and
would consequently give a rather better performance than that
obtained after passing a 19 A direct current in the stator
winding.

(3.2) Measurement of the Direct-Axis and Quadrature-Axis

Characteristics
The method of calculation developed later applies the normal
synchronous-machine 2-axis theory to the permanent-magnet
motor. For this purpose the open-circuit voltage, VQ, and two
reactances, Xd and Xq, are required. For the test motor the
-ieO\ \-135 4? 9O 135180° open-circuit line voltage is found to be 145 V and the short-
s, DEG circuit current 0-44 A. However, it is not possible to measure
open- and short-circuit characteristics in the usual way because
the excitation cannot be varied. Neither can Xd and Xg be
0-5 measured by a slip test, because this requires the excitation to
be removed.
The tests described in this Section were made in order to
verify whether it is legitimate to superimpose the flux and
-1-0 m.m.f. components along the two axes and whether the effective
Fig. 3.—Variation of input power with load angle. reactances are constant with varying voltage.
Test. The current locus of Fig. 5 was obtained by using the synchro-
Calculated.

075

-0-5

5 2-75
Fig. 5.—Current locus for direct-axis test.
Iq — /COS *
Id " / s i n 4>
-0-25

nous-load machine to hold the rotor in the direct-axis position,

8 = 0 , and measuring the current with varying voltage. The
power component of the current depends on the ohrnic loss and
-075 the core loss. The per-unit voltages are marked at several
points.
Point A of Fig. 5 coincides with A of Fig. 4, since both are
Fig. 4.—Current locus for normal operation. for F = l , 8 = 0 .
Test.
Calculated.
Point B of Fig. 5 is for V = - 1, S = 0, while B of Fig. 4
is for V — 1, 8 = 180°, and hence the currents are equal but
The curves have peculiar shapes compared with those of an opposite.
ordinary synchronous machine, but, as shown later, they can When passing between the points A and B, either on the load
be explained by ordinary salient-pole synchronous-machine test or on the axis test, the magnet on the direct axis undergoes
theory if it is assumed that the quadrature-axis reactance is exactly the same cycle of change. The difference in the machine
much larger than the direct-axis reactance. In particular, the as a whole is that on the load test there is flux on the quadrature
operation is unstable in the region of 8 = 0, and the maximum axis as well. At point B the power input is 230 W. The
power occurs at an angle greater than 90°. calculated copper loss is 179 W and the core and friction loss is
The output power was deduced from the measured input 66 W, giving a total of 245 W. The difference between these
power by deducting the losses. The results of such a calcula- figures is probably due to a small error in the zero setting of §.
tion showed that, for a rated output of 0 • 5 hp from the synchro- Fig. 6 shows the relation between the voltage and the reactive
nous motor, the current was 1 -22 A at 0-57 power factor, and component of current during the direct-axis test. Curve AB is
the pull-out torque was about 1 • 25 times full load. The total that obtained after the conditions have been stabilized and
loss at 0-5hp was HOW. It is clear that the output is Limited, corresponds to the curve of Fig. 5. Curve CB is that obtained
not by the temperature, but by the pull-out torque and the immediately after the machine has been remagnetized with
power factor. Compared with the induction motor, the syn- 19A d.c. The open-circuit voltage was first measured and is
chronous motor has an advantage, because there are no rotor shown as C on Fig. 6. When the terminals were connected to
losses and it runs at a higher speed at full load. If the pull-out an equal voltage from the variable auto-transformer, the curreat
torque and the power factor could be improved, it would give a taken was small, being only that for core loss and harmonic
greater output than an induction motor of the same size. effects. After that, the voltage was reduced to zero and raised
 CAHILL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
in the region corresponding to normal working conditions,
give the following values for use with normal synchronous-
machine theory:
K o = 0-43 p.u.
^ = 0-95 p.u.

0-8
-1-2
Fig. 6.—Direct-axis characteristics.
CB: Before demagnetization.
BA: After demagnetization from 400 V.
EF: After demagnetization from 300 V.
CH: After demagnetization from 200 V.
(3.3) Derivation of the Operating Characteristics by Direct
Superposition of the Axis Quantities
The full-line curves shown in Figs. 3 and 4 have been cal-
culated from the results of the axis tests shown in Figs. 5 and 7,
by assuming that the fluxes and m.m.f.s on the two axes can be
superimposed.
The method of calculation is illustrated by Fig. 8(a), which
shows the voltage and current components corresponding to
the two axes for a load angle, 8 = 30°. The voltage components
are ^ = 0 - 8 6 6 / and Vd= - 0 - 5 0 . Vq is induced by the
direct-axis flux, and Vd by the quadrature-axis flux. The corre-

to 400 V in the opposite direction, following the curve CB. ^q.Iq.PU

When the voltage was brought back to +400 V, the different
curve BA, corresponding to a recoil line of the permanent
magnet, was obtained.
On a second test the voltage was limited to 300 V, and the
operating curve EF was higher. Curve GH was similarly taken
at 200 V.
In Fig. 7 the direct-axis magnetization curve AB is replotted,

-2 8 -2 4 -2 0 -1 -12 -0 8
I . p. U

Fig. 7.—Direct- and quadrature-axis characteristics.

Test curves.
Straight-line approximations.

together with a corresponding curve LM for the quadrature

axis. To obtain the quadrature-axis curve the magnet was
demagnetized beforehand by passing an appropriate direct
current through the winding, with the rotor on the direct axis.
The curve LM was obtained by driving the motor synchronously
with the rotor held on the quadrature axis (S = 90°) and varying
the voltage from +400 V to —400 V. The active component of
current in this test was negligible.
The two curves of Fig. 7 are similar to the curves that would
be obtained from similar tests on any synchronous machine
with its field excited. The direct-axis curve does not pass
through the origin because of the excitation provided by the
permaneot magnet. If the curves were straight lines, the slopes
would give, respectively, the direct- and quadrature-axis syn- (C)
chronous reactances, Xd and Xq. It can be seen from Fig. 7
that Xq is much larger than Xd. Fig. 8.—Vector diagrams for combining the current components.
The curves of Fig. 7 are not by any means straight lines. The fa) S - 30°
(b) S - 90°
dotted straight lines, which approximate to the measured curves (c) S - 120*
 CAHILL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR 487
spending current components are obtained from Figs. 5 and 7.
The current in the winding necessary to set up the direct-axis
flux is Iy *• 0-40 + 0-035y, and that for the quadrature-axis
flux is 72 =»0 15y. These current components are shown on
Fig. 8(a), as well as the resultant current, Ir — 0-4 + 0-185./.
However, the components of the current must be related to
the terminal voltage V instead of to the axes, and hence the
current vector on the locus diagram, Fig. 4, when 8 = 30°, is
/ = — 0 04 — 0-436,/. Figs. 8(b) and (c) are similar diagrams
for operating points at 8 — 90° and 120°, which correspond
respectively to loads in the region of normal operation as a
motor and peak overload.
The analysis based on these diagrams explains quite clearly
in general terms the peculiar shape of the current locus. There
is, however, a serious discrepancy between the measured currents
and those calculated from the axis characteristics. Both the
power factor and the peak input are appreciably less than the
calculated values. The main reason for the difference is that the
principle of superposition does not apply accurately because
there is appreciable saturation, particularly in the rotor ring.
One of the important conclusions of the present investigation
is that the depth of the rotor ring needs to be increased, and
it could be expected that the discrepancy would then be
reduced. - 1 0
The input power corresponding to any value of 8 is calculated
directly from the active component of the current. The calcu- Fig. 10.—Power-angle curves.
lated curve, Fig. 3, differs from the test curve and shows how the (a) Calculated from parameters of Fig. 9.
peak power is reduced because of saturation. (b) Excitation component ( K9 K/Jf,j) sin S.
(c) Salioncy component, — / —. — _ J sin 28.
(3.4) Derivation of the Characteristics from Synchronous-Machine (d) Calculated from measured axis characteristics.
Theory Using Constant Reactances
the curve has the special shape already noted. The conditions
The straight-line-axis characteristics indicated in Fig. 7 are are unstable in the region 8 = 0 , and normal operation as a
reproduced in Fig. 9. If V = 1, they are determined completely motor is obtained at relatively large values of 8. Fig. 10, curve
by the three quantities Vo, Xd and Xq, or alternatively by the {d), is calculated from the experimental axis characteristics.
three currents VolXd, VjXd and VjXq, marked on the diagram.
V25

•0-8 LA
7T>
AH / XQ
- -6 -1-2 -0-8 -04 04 08

—1-2

Fig. 9.—Straight-line-axis characteristics.

Vo - 0-43; Xd - 0-95; Xq - 2-86 Fig. 11.—Current loci.
Calculated from parameters of Fig. 9.
Curve (a) in Fig. 10 is the power-angle curve calculated by Calculated from measured axis characteristics.
using the values of VQ, Xd and Xq from Fig. 9 in the expression
Fig. 11, curve (a), is the current locus, calculated by using the
values of Vo, Xd and Xq from Fig. 9 in the expression
(1)

Curves (b) and (c) show the two sinusoidal components

separately. For the permanent-magnet motor, the second term
has a large negative coefficient, because Xq is much greater than The re-entrant loop occurs because Xq is much greater thaa JQ,
Xd. Consequently, P is negative at the lower values of 8, and and corresponds to the dip in toe power-angle curve. Curve {k)
488 CAHJLL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
is calculated from the experimental axis characteristics. Owing
to the high degree of saturation in the machine tested, there is
a large discrepancy between the two curves.
Although eqn. (2) does not determine the current locus
accurately, some useful deductions can be made. The working
range is in the region of 8 = 90°, when

I =
y-jy 0)
The power is near its maximum at 8 = 120°, and the active
component of the current is then
Fig. 13.—Direct-axis magnetic circuit.
• • (4)
4X, 2X,
-1-6
Eqns. (3) and (4) show that, in order to obtain a high operating
power factor and a high maximum power, Xq should be small
and Xd and Vo should be large. The way in which these quan-
tities depend on the design of the machine is studied in the next
Section.

(4) CALCULATION OF THE AXIS CHARACTERISTICS

(4.1) The Magnetic Circuit
In this Section a method is developed for calculating the axis
characteristics from the dimensions of the machine. For each
of the direct and quadrature axes, a curve relating the flux and
the magnetomotive force provided by the stator winding is cal-
culated. If the stator resistance and leakage reactance are
neglected, these curves are identical on a per-unit basis with the
corresponding curves relating voltage and current. The method
is an approximate one, which makes use of empirical factors
chosen so as to give a reasonable agreement with the experi-
mental curves. -1-6
The paths followed by the direct- and quadrature-axis com-
ponents of flux are indicated in Figs. 12(a) and (b), respectively, Fig. 14.—Calculated magnetic characteristics.
(a) Stator, air-gap and rotor teeth.
(b) Main characteristic of magnet.
(c) Recoil line of magnet.
(</) Rotor ring.

(.a)
Fig. 12.—Typical flux paths in the permanent-magnet motor.
(a) Direct-axis paths.
(b) Quadrature-axis paths.
assuming them to exist independently. The quadrature-axis
flux path is a simple one, since it can be assumed that it does
not enter the magnet or pass across the slot in the rotor ring.
The direct-axis flux path is more complicated, because the flux
in the rotor passes through the permanent magnet and the rotor
ring in parallel.
(4.2) The Direct-Axis Characteristic
For the approximate calculation the direct-axis magnetic
circuit is idealized as shown in Fig. 13. The stator leakage flux
is neglected, and consequently the flux O in the stator core, the
air-gap and the rotor teeth is equal to the sum of <I>m in the
magnet and O r in the rotor ring. The total m.m.f., M, is the
sum of Ms, across the stator, air-gap and rotor teeth, and Mm,
which acts on the magnet and the rotor ring in parallel.
Fig. 14 gives the curves relating flux and m.m.f. for each of
the three parts separately; flux and m.m.f. are calculated as
follows:
(a) Stator, Air-Gap and Rotor Teeth. The calculation of Ms
is carried out in the same way as for an induction motor, by
summing the contributions of the several parts, but it does not
include any contribution from the rotor core.
(b) Permanent Magnet: Main Characteristic. The magnet
is treated as a rectangular body of area 31 -4 cm2 and length
2-2cm/pole. Mm and OOT are calculated from Fig. 2.
(c) Permanent Magnet: Recoil Line. The particular recoil
line along which the motor operates depends on the point of
maximum demagnetization, and its position has to be determined
in the course of the calculation.
(d) Rotor Ring. The area of the laminated iron ring under-
neath the squirrel-cage bars is 7-0cm.2 At the centre, the flux
passes across the inter-polar slot with a narrow iron bridge in
parallel. The length of the slot in the direction of the flux is
0-097 cm/pole and the effective length of the path in the iron
ring is estimated at 3 • 17 cm/pole. The area of the slot is 8 • 8 cm2
and the area of the iron bridge is 1-13 cm2. A preliminary
calculation based on these dimensions did not agree with the
experimental results, and it was decided to multiply the area of
the rotor ring by an empirical factor. The factor required to
obtain a reasonable agreement was 1 • 5.
It is easy to see why a calculation based on the actual dimension
of the rotor ring is pessimistic; additional flux can leak across
 CAHILL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
the squirrel-cage slots and other air spaces, and, moreover, the
stator leakage and reactance drops reduce the flux passing
through the rotor to less than that assumed in the idealized
system. Nevertheless it is difficult to justify on theoretical
grounds the use of as large a factor as 1-5, and this is a matter
requiring further investigation. However, the assumption makes
it possible to work out a complete design method for predeter-
mining the performance of a permanent-magnet motor from its
dimensions.
Fig. 14, curve (d), gives the relation between the flux €>r and
m.m.f. Mm in the rotor ring. At very low values the flux
passes through the iron bridge, but when this becomes saturated,
the flux passes across the slot and the curve becomes a straight
line. At high flux the curve bends over because of saturation
in the rotor ring.
The characteristics of the three parts of the system, given in
Fig. 14, can now be combined to determine the relation between
total m.m.f. and total flux. In Fig. 15, curve (a) is derived from
-1-2
Fig. 15.—Derivation of the direct-axis characteristic.
fa) and (b) <D/Afm.
(cj and (d) <3>/M, calculated.
(c) and (/) <3>/M, measured.
a), (c) and (e) refer to the main characteristic.
\b), (rf)and (/) refer to the recoil line.
curves (6) and (d) of Fig. 14 by adding the fluxes for each m.m.f.
Mm. Fig. 15(c) is then derived from Figs. I5(a) and I4(a)
by adding the m.m.f.s for each value of flux <D. Fig. 15(d) is
derived in the same way from the recoil line of Fig. 14(c). The
experimental direct-axis characteristic, transcribed from Fig. 6,
is shown by the dotted curves (e) and ( / ) .
(4.3) The Quadrature-Axis Characteristic
The quadrature-axis magnetic circuit is virtually that of the
induction-motor part of the machine, since the permanent
magnet can be ignored. The m.m.f. is equal to that shown in
Fig. 14(a) for the stator, air-gap and rotor teeth, with the
addition of a contribution for the rotor core. A curve calculated
from the actual dimensions of the rotor ring showed excessive
saturation, but good agreement with the curve LM of Fig. 7
was obtained when the empirical factor 1 • 5 was used.
(4.4) Some General Deductions
The analysis of the previous Sections has led to a systematic
method of calculating the current locus and the power-angle
curve of a permanent-magnet motor from its dimensions. The
calculation is carried out in two parts.
(a) The axis characteristics are calculated from the dimensions
and the B/H curves of the iron materials. The main inaccuracy
arises because the stator resistance and leakage reactance have not
been allowed for directly, but only by an empirical factor applied
489
to the rotor leakage path. The empirical method gives good
agreement for the existing motor and is used for the investigations
recorded in the next Section.
(b) The load characteristics are calculated from the axis charac-
teristics by superposition. The measured torque and power factor
are both appreciably less than those calculated in this way, evidently
because of the high degree of saturation present in this machine.
It would be expected that there would be better agreement for a
machine of improved design with less saturation.
In Section 5, three modified designs are investigated. All use
the same stator, air-gap and squirrel cage as the existing machine,
but modifications are proposed as a result of the following
deductions:
(i) The rated output is not limited by temperature but by the
pull-out torque. It is desirable to improve the power factor,
although it does not limit the rating in the present machine. If
the rating were greatly increased, it would be necessary to obtain a
high power factor, over 0-9, so as to limit the losses.
(ii) The torque is produced by two effects, which, to a considerable
extent, can be considered separately. The 'excitation torque', due
to the permanent magnet, depends on the open-circuit voltage FQ.
The 'reluctance torque', due to the difference in reluctance on the
two axes, depends on the difference between Xd and Xq. It may
be noted that the reluctance torque depends mainly on the presence
of the inter-polar slots and very little on the permanent magnet.
(in) In the present motor, the magnet is demagnetized more than
it should be, with the result that the open-circuit voltage VQ is low
and the excitation torque is small. The machine is primarily a
reluctance motor and has a low power factor. The demagnetization
occurs because the rotor ring saturates at too low a flux. The
ring should, in fact, be able to carry between 1^ times and twice
the normal flux without becoming saturated.
(iv) The properties of the permaneot-magnet material (Ticonal G)
are not the best for the purpose in hand. Even when the demag-
netization is reduced by providing a deeper rotor ring, the flux
carried by the magnet when operating on a recoil line is still much'
less than the remanent flux. On the other hand, the stator current
of the motor is severely limited by the coercive force. A magnet
material with lower remanent flux density and higher coercive force
would give much better results.
(v) The iron bridge in parallel with the inter-polar slot is detri-
mental. Better results would be obtained if a mechanical construe-'
tion could be devised which did not require the iron bridge.
(5) INVESTIGATION OF SOME MODIFIED DESIGNS
(5.1) Present Design with Reduced Flux
Saturation in the machine can be reduced by operating with a
reduced flux, e.g. by increasing the number of stator turns of
a 400 V motor. This modification can be tested by operating
the existing machine at a reduced voltage. Calculations and
tests were made for a supply voltage of 300 V.
The measured direct-axis characteristic at 300 V is shown in
Fig. 6, curve EF. The demagnetization is appreciably less than
at 400 V and the open-circuit voltage Vo is much higher. A
calculation of the direct-axis characteristic by the empirical
method agreed well with the measured curve.
The current locus at 300 V was derived from the axis charac-
teristics by the method of superposition. Fig. 16 shows the
measured and calculated curves as well as the measured curve at
400 V. In many ways, the conditions are greatly improved for
300 V. The power factor is much larger and the peak value
of active current is increased, because of the higher open-circuit
voltage. Moreover there is much better agreement between
calculation and test, as is to be expected with less saturation.
Nevertheless, there is little gain in the important quantity, the
pull-out torque, because the increase in current is offset by the
reduction in voltage.
(5.2) New Design with Increased Section of the Rotor
Leakage Path
With a given permanent-magnet material, the best means of
improvement is not to reduce the main flux but to increase the
49© CAffiLL AND ADKINS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
135'.
strated by the tests at 300 V. It therefore seems reasonable to
expect that a rated output of 0-75hp might be achieved with
this design. This compares with the induction-motor rating,
although the pull-out torque would of course be much less.

(5.3) New Design with Better Permanent-Magnet Material

180*
-1-25
Fig. 16.—Current loci.
(a) 300 V, calculated.
(b) 300 V, measured.
(c) 400 V, measured.
section of the rotor leakage path. Calculations have been made
for a modified design with the depth of the rotor ring increased
by 50%, but no test results are available.
If this result were achieved by reducing the inner diameter of
t&e rotor ring from 5 -08 cm to 4-48 cm (see Fig. 1), the effective
length of the magnet would be reduced and some of the benefit
would be lost. It is suggested that a better method is to retain
the present inner diameter and to fill the space between the
magnet and the rotor ring with soft iron, leaving a gap at the
centre as a prolongation of the inter-polar slot.
Several alternative arrangements with a deeper rotor leakage
path were worked out. The best current locus obtained is
It is clear from the foregoing analysis that the high remanent
flux-density of Ticonal G is largely wasted in the design con-
sidered, but that the maximum current is limited by the coercive
force of this material. Calculations have been made for a
modified design using Ticonal K, for which the coercive force
is 9 x 104A/m and the remanent flux-density is 0-86Wb/m2.
Compare this with Fig. 2.
The new material has two obvious advantages in that the
stator can carry a higher current without demagnetizing the
magnet and the flux to be carried by the rotor leakage path
when the stator flux reverses is reduced because of the greater
slope of the recoil line. The rotor dimensions for the new
design are similar to those shown in Fig. 1, but the width of the
magnet is reduced to 3 -4cm, and the space between the magnet
and the ring contains iron to provide a rotor leakage path capable
of carrying the reversal flux without saturation. Inter-polar
air-gaps are provided corresponding to the inter-polar slots of
Fig. 1, but it is assumed that it is not necessary to have an iron
bridge. The air-gap length of the slots is 0 • 185 cm.
Fig. 18 shows the curves used to calculate the direct-axis
characteristic of the motor, following the empirical method
explained earlier. Curve (a) gives the relation between flux and

-1-5

r>e Fig. 18.—Calculated direct-axis characteristics of new design with

(a Ticonal K magnet.
(a) */M, (see Fig. 13)
O) */Af
(c) and (d) * m /M m
(e) */M
2 1-5 1-8 30
I COS 4 p.u. m.m.f. for the stator and air-gap. Curve (b), for the rotor
-0-3
leakage path, is nearly a straight line even at high negative values.
Curves (c) and (d) are, respectively, the main characteristic of the
magnet and the recoil line along which it operates after demag-
-0-6 netization. Curve (e) is the direct-axis characteristic of the
machine, calculated from curves (a), (b) and id). The open-
-OS circuit voltage is 0 • 5 p.u., and the short-circuit current is 1 • 1 p.u.
Fig. 19(a) shows the current locus for the new design of motor,
calculated from the direct-axis characteristic of Fig. 18 and a
-12 quadrature-axis characteristic that is assumed to be the same as
Fig. 17.—Calculated current loci. that in Fig. 7 for the existing machine. Fig. 19(6) shows, for
(a) Modified design with the same magnetic material. comparison, the calculated current locus for the existing motor.
(b) Existing design.
There is a very large increase both in the power factor and in
shown in Fig. 17, where it is compared with the curve for the the maximum power, and, moreover, it can be expected that
existing machine calculated by the same method. It shows a test curves would agree much better with the calculated curves,
much better power factor and a slightly larger maximum active because of the absence of saturation. There is good reason to
current. Moreover the discrepancy between calculation and think that a rated output of lhp would be possible from a
test would be less than that shown in Fig. 4, as has been demon- machine of this design.
 CAHEX AND ADKUNS: THE PERMANENT-MAGNET SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Fig. 19.—Calculated current loci.
(a) New design with Ticonal K magnet.
(b) Existing design.
(6) CONCLUSION
The paper presents a new theory of the permanent-magnet
motor, which throws light on its operation and indicates how its
performance can be improved. However, a good deal of further
work is necessary to finalize the design of a practical machine.
It is hoped to continue the work by constructing and testing a
redesigned model. The following points require further study:
(a) Can a magnet with the required properties be obtained
economically ?
DISCUSSION ON
'A METHOD OF MEASURING LOSS DISTRIBUTION IN
ELECTRICAL MACHINES'*
Before the SHEFFIELD SUB-CENTRE at SHEFFIELD llth January, and the RUGBY SUB-CENTRE at RUGBY 31st January, 1962.
Mr. G. F. L. Dixon (at Sheffield): This work is another example
of the versatility of the thermocouple. I believe it is correct to
say that the thermocouple is our oldest transducer; the principle
was, in fact, discovered as long ago as 1828. Moreover, the
thermocouple has the great advantage that it has no separate
sensing head, the end of the electrical circuit constituting its
own head. The fact that ingenious investigations like the pre-
sent one have not occurred before is no doubt due to the non-
existence, until recently, of suitable electronic recording gear.
Although the thermocouple is essentially so simple, it has to
be applied with great skill to avoid spurious results. Two
fruitful sources of error are electromagnetic pick-up and direct-
conduction pick-up. Off-hand, it is difficult to imagine a more
'noisy' electromagnetic environment than the field of an alter-
nator. Has the author encountered great trouble in devising
* GILBBRT, A. J.: Paper No. 3548 M, June, 1961 (see 108 A, p. 239).
491
(b) Can a mechanical construction be devised which dispenses
with the iron bridge?
(c) Direct measurements of the torque developed are needed to
determine the extent of stray losses.
(d) Can the theory be extended without undue oompEeatiofc
to allow more accurately for the stator resistance and leakage
reactance?
(<?) Is the assumption correct that the maximum demagnetizatioa
occurs during synchronization?
(/) The present investigation is confined to the permaaent-amgiict
motor. However, the permanent-magnet generator is in mwa®r
respects a more important practical device. The method of analysis
could be applied with advantage to a study of the permanent-magnet
alternator.
(7) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Mr. H. H. Jones of Walter Joaes
and Co., who provided the equipment used for the tests. They
also acknowledge with thanks a grant made to one of them toy
the Central Electricity Generating Board.
(8) REFERENCES
(1) SAUNDERS, R. M., and WEAKLEY, R. H.: 'Design of Per-
manent Magnet Alternators', Transactions of the American
I.E.E., 1951, 70, Part H, p. 1578.
(2) MERRILL, F. W.: 'Permanent Magnet Excited Synchroaoius
Motors', ibid., 1955, 74, Part n , p. 1754.
(3) HANRAHAN, D. X, and TOFFOLO, D, S.: 'Permanent Magaet
Generators', ibid., 1957, 76, Part II, p. 1098,
(4) DOUGLAS, J. F. H.: 'Current Loci of Permanent Magaot
Synchronous Motors', ibid., 1959, 78, Part III, p. 76.
(5) CAHLLL, D. P. M.: 'The Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motor', M.Sc. Thesis, London University, 1962.
(6) BAGCHI, C : 'Permanent Magnet Motors', M.Sc. Thesis,
London University, 1958.
(7) RETNASAMI, R.: D.I.C. Dissertation, Imperial College of
Science and Technology, 1958.
(8) 'Permanent Magnets', Milliard Technical Publication^,
April, 1953,
adequate screening measures ? I notice that he had some trouble
from 'beat' e.m.f.s generated because of the nearness of the
d.c.-amplifier chopper frequency (namely 50c/s) to the alternator
frequency. I would have thought that the most satisfactory
way of avoiding this trouble was to use an amplifier, with a
different (or even variable) chopper frequency. Every thermo-
couple is soldered directly to a field lamination. Superficially,
this seems likely to cause trouble by the direct metallic pick-up
of various eddy-current e.m.f.s. Was there much trouble ia
practice?
In Sheffield a few years ago we, of the Electricity Board,
carried out some research into the transient heating of buried
33 kV cables. At first we used thermocouples directly soldered
to the cable sheaths. We encountered so much trouble from
the direct metallic pick-up of sheath e.m.f.s that we eventually
devised and built several forms of thermocouple head in which