future internet

Article
An Energy Efficient MAC Protocol for Wireless
Passive Sensor Networks
Qingyao Yu 1 , Guangming Li 1, *, Xiaojie Hang 1 , Kun Fu 1 and Tianqi Li 2
1 School of Mechanical, Electrical and Information Engineering, Shandong University, Weihai 264209, China;
yoyo_yqy@126.com (Q.Y.); hangxiaojie1992@163.com (X.H.); fukun_z@163.com (K.F.)
2 China Mobile Group Shandong Company Limited Dongying Brunch, Dongying 257000, China;
litianqi@sd.chinamobile.com
* Correspondence: gmli@sdu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-0631-5688338

Academic Editor: Jose Ignacio Moreno Novella

Received: 9 March 2017; Accepted: 15 April 2017; Published: 19 April 2017

Abstract: Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol is one of the key network protocols that ensure
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) maintain high performance during communication. MAC protocol
design plays an important role in improving the performances of the whole network. First,
Wireless Passive Sensor Networks (WPSNs) and MAC protocols are introduced in this paper. Second,
some existing MAC protocols are introduced. Sensor MAC (S-MAC) protocol is analyzed and
existing improved backoff algorithms are introduced. A new MAC protocol called Improved Sensor
MAC (IS-MAC) is then proposed to solve the problem that the contention window (CW) during
carrier sense is fixed in S-MAC protocol. IS-MAC protocol is able to adjust CW in terms of network
load, so energy consumption can be decreased. Finally, according to the simulation results on NS2,
the proposed protocol has better performance in terms of throughput and energy consumption.

Keywords: Wireless Passive Sensor Networks (WPSNs); Medium Access Control (MAC) protocol;
backoff algorithm; contention window (CW); energy efficiency

1. Introduction
Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) are a kind of multi-hop ad-hoc network and are composed
of large amounts of tiny and low-cost sensor nodes. Nodes have the capability to communicate
and compute. They connect with each other wirelessly [1]. In WSNs, sensor nodes cooperate with
each other under a certain topology to accomplish the goals of monitoring environments, gathering
data, processing data, and communicating [2]. WSNs are classified into two types according to
two different kinds of sensor nodes: active wireless sensor networks and passive wireless sensor
networks [3]. At present, active wireless sensor networks called classic WSNs in this paper are widely
used. Active wireless sensor networks are composed of active sensor nodes that are powered by
batteries, so their energy is limited [4]. Meanwhile, Wireless Passive Sensor Networks (WPSNs) are
composed of passive sensor nodes. Passive sensor nodes are powered via an external Radio Frequency
(RF) source that provides infinite power [5]. In a word, the fundamental difference between classic
WSNs and WPSNs is the way of power supply [6]. In order to ensure nodes to maintain work as much
as possible when the RF source can not provide enough energy, the super capacitor has been applied
to the design of passive sensor nodes [7], but it is not sure that nodes can acheive communication.
In WSNs, Medium Access Control (MAC) protocols determine the usage of the wireless channel,
which will ensure a reasonable allocation of cmmunication resources for a large number of wireless
nodes and avoid the collision of nodes while they transmitting data at the same time [8]. At present,
nodes mainly consume the energy for hardware platforms. MAC protocols directly control the activities
of the radio frequency transceiver and determine when to send out data or receive data [9]. The same

Future Internet 2017, 9, 14; doi:10.3390/fi9020014 www.mdpi.com/journal/futureinternet

Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 2 of 12

MAC protocol can be used in both classic WSNs and WPSNs. However, the same protocol has different
effects in two networks. For example, the S-MAC protocol used in classic WSNs saves more energy
than in WPSNs. WPSNs only focus on saving energy. Therefore, MAC protocols that cannot save
much energy are not fit for WPSNs. Although the energy of WPSNs is infinite, the infinite energy is
relative to infinite time. The energy per unit time is limited. For example, WPSNs can only provide
10 mA current, but 100 mA current is needed to achieve communication, so it is necessary to minimize
energy to maintain daily work. MAC protocols for WPSNs only need to consider saving energy and
do not need to consider delay, throughput, or other parameters. This is the difference in the design of
MAC protocols for WPSNs.
The four main sources of energy consumption in the MAC layer are idle listening, data collision,
overhearing, and control overhead. Idle listening and data collision are the main factors leading to
excessive energy consumption [10]. This paper mainly discusses data collision. One of the strategies
to avoid data collision is to design effective backoff algorithms. Based on dynamically changing the
contention window of communication, some classic backoff algorithms were previously proposed,
but they mainly focused on throughput.
This paper presented an energy efficient MAC protocol called the Improved Sensor MAC (IS-MAC)
protocol based on dynamically changing the contention window. It compares the IS-MAC protocol,
the Sensor MAC (S-MAC) protocol, and the IEEE 802.11 protocol using the NS2 simulator from two
aspects of energy consumption and throughput. The remainder of this paper presents related work
in Section 2, a brief description of the IS-MAC protocol in Section 3, the analysis of the simulation in
Section 4, and concluding remarks in Section 5.

2. Related Work
This section first introduces several existing MAC protocols. Then, S-MAC protocol’s backoff
mechanism is analyzed. Finally, some classic improved backoff algorithms are introduced.

2.1. Several Existing MAC Protocols

There are several existing MAC protocols for WSNs, including the S-MAC protocol, the Timeout
MAC (T-MAC) protocol, the Data gathering tree-based MAC (D-MAC) protocol, and the Berkeley MAC
(B-MAC) protocol. The S-MAC protocol works with a periodic sleep/listening mechanism and a low
duty cycle in order to reduce the energy consumption of nodes. Each node independently controls
its working state and should be in sleep state as much as possible. When a node wakes up, it will
determine whether to send or receive data packets after listening to the channel. Neighboring nodes
consult with each other to have a common sleep/listening mechanism, so they will sleep and listen
at the same time. The idle time of nodes is reduced, and the transmission delay is reduced through
the adaptive traffic mechanism [11]. The neighboring node of the communication node does not sleep
immediately after the communication but keeps listening for some time. If the node receives the RTS
frame during this period, it can receive the data packets without waiting for the next listening period.
Therefore, the transmission delay of the data packets is reduced. The T-MAC protocol is proposed
based on the S-MAC protocol. The S-MAC protocol cannot adaptively change duty cycle according to
the current network load. The T-MAC protocol solves this problem: the scheduling period is divided
into active states with variable length and sleep states. The idle time can be reduced by dynamically
changing the duration of the active states. However, the disadvantage of the T-MAC protocol is that
random sleep leads to nodes sleeping early and the delay increases relative to the delay of the S-MAC
protocol [12]. In view of the problems of the S-MAC and T-MAC protocols, the D-MAC protocol is
proposed. According to the data gathering tree formed by the nodes forwarding data, the D-MAC
protocol adopts the staggered wakeup scheduling mechanism to divide a period into receiving time,
sending time, and sleeping time. The scheduling of each node has different offsets and the sending
time of the lower nodes corresponds to the receiving time of the upper nodes. Ideally, the data can be
transmitted continuously from the source node to the sink node so the sleep delay can be eliminated.
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 3 of 12

However, the D-MAC protocol also has its disadvantage. Nodes need strict clock synchronization
and the protocol is not suitable for mobile nodes and larger WSNs [13]. The B-MAC protocol has the
biggest difference. It adopts a clock asynchronization mechanism so the sleep scheduling has more
initiative and the dependence on the accuracy of clock synchronization is reduced. B-MAC protocol
uses the Low Power Listening (LPL) mechanism. The nodes have the same duty cycle but do not
need to be synchronized. When the nodes wake up from sleep, LPL is used for channel sampling.
If the preamble sequence is detected, it means the node will receive data packets. The node will be
synchronized by the preamble sequence and then receive data. The sending nodes must send a long
preamble sequence before sending data packets so that the receiver can be synchronized. However,
the B-MAC protocol has advantages only when network traffic is low [14].

2.2. Analysis of S-MAC Protocol’s Backoff Mechanism

2.2.1. A Description of S-MAC Protocol’s Backoff Algorithm

The discrete backoff algorithm is adopted in S-MAC protocol and it is adopted in IEEE 802.11
MAC protocol as well [11]. The basic idea is the use of a random backoff time in the range of 0 to
CW. CW refers to the value of current contention window. Each time the node fails to send out data,
the value of current CW is doubled. If the transmission is successful, the value of current CW is set to
the minimum [15]. The random backoff time Backo f f Time is obtained based on Equation (1).

Backo f f Time = Random(0, CW ) × aSlotTime (1)

In Equation (1), aSlotTime refers to the size of time slot that is determined by the physical layer.
Random(0, CW ) represents the random integers that uniformly distribute in (0, CW ). CW is a random
integer in [CWmin , CWmax ]. When the first transmission starts, CWis set to CWmin (the minimum value
of CW). If the transmission fails, CW is doubled until it increases by CWmax (the maximum value of
CW). CW will be reset to CWmin after a successful transmittion.

2.2.2. The Disadvantages of S-MAC Protocol’s Backoff Algorithm

The backoff algorithm of the S-MAC protocol is known for its high efficiency and simple
implementation. The last node that successfully sends out data has the shortest backoff time, so it can
keep its advantage during next competition. However, these kind of nodes always have the maximum
competition priority, so the actual condition of the channel is not able to be reflected, which leads
to a poor fairness [16]. The contention window drops to the minimum value immediately after the
successful transmission and it increases until it reaches the maximum. It is obvious that the wide
fluctuations of contention window have adverse effects on the network. The contention window for
calculating random backoff time during carrier sense is fixed, which leads to unreasonable channel
allocation [17]. In an actual network environment, the load of the network is constantly changing.
On one hand, a small contention window is enough for a network to achieve backoff when the network
load is not large. Although adopting a big contention window can primely avoid collision, this will
lead to too much idle listening. On the other hand, when the network load is large, a relatively
small contention window will lead to fierce competition and data retransmission caused by collision.
Both of these conditions make throughput and energy efficiency decrease [15]. Apparently, the S-MAC
protocol cannot adapt to the dynamic changes of network load due to the fixed contention window.

2.3. Some Improved Classic Backoff Algorithms

In order to improve the throughput and energy efficiency of sensor nodes, different backoff
algorithms were proposed in recent years. Dynamically changing contention windows and the size
of contention windows can adapt to the dynamic changes of network load. However, they have
a common shortcoming: energy efficiency is hardly improved.
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 4 of 12

(1) Multiplicative Increase Linear Decrease (MILD) algorithm [18]. When data collision occurs
in the network, the contention window becomes two times larger than the original window.
The contention window will decrease linearly after sending out data successfully. When the
number of nodes in the network is not yet large, the contention window is large. This algorithm
cannot reduce the contention window rapidly and causes larger transmission delays that reduce
the utilization rate of channel.
(2) Multiplicative Increase Multiplicative Decrease (MIMD) algorithm [19]. When collision happens,
the contention window is doubled. When data is sent out successfully, the contention window
becomes half the size of the original window. MIMD solves the problem of initializing contention
window, but there is still no way to satisfy the dynamic changes of network topology and traffic.
(3) Slow Decrease (SD) algorithm [19]. The current contention window of nodes becomes a times
(a = 0.85) as much as the original contention window while accomplishing data transmission.
Moreover, this algorithm can improve throughput and fairness among nodes when the number
of nodes is large. However, when there are fewer nodes, nodes need to successfully send multiple
times to reduce contention window.
(4) Gentle Distributed Coordination Function (GDCF) algorithm [20]. Parameter c is introduced
in this algorithm and it refers to the number of messages. The current contention window
decreases by half of the original window only if nodes successively succeed in sending c messages.
The value of c is related to the number of nodes in the network. When the number of nodes is
unknown, c is in the range of 4–16. The advantage of this algorithm is that it can provide priority
services to the nodes working in the network. The contention window of nodes with smaller
value of c decreases rapidly, so nodes have higher priority to access the channel. In this algorithm,
throughput is greater than in the Binary Exponential Backoff (BEB) algorithm when the number
of nodes is large.

3. IS-MAC Protocol
This study proposes a new MAC protocol based on dynamically changing the value of contention
window by summarizing the disadvantages of backoff algorithms mentioned in Section 2. The new
protocol is called the IS-MAC protocol. The IS-MAC protocol uses several methods including
multiplicative increase and multiplicative/linear reduction to adjust the contention window. At the
same time, the IS-MAC protocol dynamically adjusts the size of the contention window according to
the load of the network.

3.1. Parameters Used in the Improved Algorithm

(1) Current contention window CW: The size of contention window is not fixed, and it can be
dynamically changed within a specific range. This parameter is used to record the value of
current contention window.
(2) Minimum of contention window CWmin : The lower limit of the range of the current contention
window is fixed from the beginning.
(3) Maximum of contention window CWmax : The upper limit of the range of the current contention
window, CWmax > CWmin > 0, is fixed from the beginning.
(4) The initial value of contention window CWinit : CWinit = (CWmin + CWmax )/2, values of CWmax
and CWmin will be set in accordance with the network environment.
(5) Counter for successful competition SC: This value is used to record the number of consecutive
successful transmission and its initial value is 0. The counter plus one as long as the node sends
out data successfully. On the contrary, the counter is reset the moment of transmission fails.
The counter has an upper limit determined by network load.
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 5 of 12

(6) Threshold of counter for successful competition SClim : This is the maximum of SC. The current
window will change on the basis of the network load when SC reaches its limit. It is fixed from
the beginning.
(7) Counter for failed competition FC: The purpose of this counter is to protect nodes that fail to
compete and to prevent nodes from unsuccessfully accessing channel for a long time because of
its increasing contention window. This value is used to record the number of consecutive failed
transmission and its initial value is 0. The value of this counter increases by one while collision
happens. Meanwhile, the counter is reset after successfully sending out data.
(8) Threshold of counter for failed competition FClim : This is the upper limit of FC. The current
window will change in line with network load when FC reaches its limit. It is fixed from
the beginning.
The values of those parameters used in our simulation are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Parameters and their values in the improved backoff algorithm.

Name Value
CWmin 3
CWmax 63
SClim 5
FClim 5

3.2. The Improved Backoff Algorithm

(1) Node fails to access channel. SC is reset and FC plus one. It is divided into two cases as follows.

a. When the number of continuous failed competition of channel is more than its
corresponding threshold, the value of FC is greater than FClim . The current contention
window is too small and needs to be adjusted much larger via multiplicative increase.
The new contention window is expressed as CW = min(CWmax , CW × 2), which rapidly
makes the contention window depart from area where collision happened just now.
b. When the number of continuous failed competition of the channel is less than its
corresponding threshold, the value of FC is less than FClim . If the current contention
window is smaller than CWinit , then the new contention window becomes CW = CWmin .
If the current contention window is larger than CWinit , then the new contention window is
CW = CWinit .

(2) Node succeeds in accessing channel. FC is reset and SC plus one. It is also divided into two cases
as follows.

a. When the number of continuous successful competition of channel is more than its
corresponding threshold, the value of SC is greater than SClim . It is considered that the
current contention window is too large. There are not so many nodes in the network
or there is not so high data traffic. Therefore, the competition of the channel is not
intense. In this case, it is not essential to set such a large contention window, so the current
contention window value needs to be appropriately adjusted. The new contention window
is expressed as CW = min(CW/2, CWinit ). The contention window will be maintained
within a certain area in case of its frequent changes.
b. When the number of continuous successful competition of channel is less than its
corresponding threshold, the value of SC is less than SClim . The traffic load is relatively
large right now, and the competition of channel is intense. Therefore, the current contention
window merely requires minor adjustment, so it will be reduced by two to get the new
contention window, CW = CW − 2.
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 6 of 12

FutureThe flow
Internet chart
2017, 9, 14of this improved backoff algorithm is shown in Figure 1. 6 of 11

Figure 1. Flow
Figure 1. Flow chart
chart for
for the
the improved
improvedbackoff
backoffalgorithm.
algorithm.

4.
4. Experiments
Experiments and
and Analysis
Analysis
NS2
NS2 isis adopted
adoptedinin this
this paper
paper to analyze
to analyze the protocol—IS-MAC.
the new new protocol—IS-MAC.
NS2 is aNS2 is a simulator
network network
simulator which is object-oriented and driven by discrete event. It is widely used in a variety
which is object-oriented and driven by discrete event. It is widely used in a variety of network of
network simulations.
simulations.

4.1.
4.1. Network
Network Model
Model and
and Parameters
Parameters Configuring
Configuring
4.1.1. Network Model Selection
4.1.1. Network Model Selection
A network model is set up before evaluation. The network model includes the number of nodes,
A network model is set up before evaluation. The network model includes the number of nodes,
the communication range of each node, the size of data packets, and other ingredients. In order
the communication range of each node, the size of data packets, and other ingredients. In order to
to choose a suitable network model, indicators named energy rate and throughput are introduced.
choose a suitable network model, indicators named energy rate and throughput are introduced.
Energy rate refers to the energy consumption of transmittiong one bit data of all nodes. Throughput is
Energy rate refers to the energy consumption of transmittiong one bit data of all nodes. Throughput
the total amounts of data packets received by nodes in unit time. Time interval refers to the transmission
is the total amounts of data packets received by nodes in unit time. Time interval refers to the
interval of per data packet. For example, the time interval is 1 s means that when accomplishing
transmission interval of per data packet. For example, the time interval is 1 s means that when
sending a data packet, the node will send the next data packet after 1 s. When the time interval is
accomplishing sending a data packet, the node will send the next data packet after 1 s. When the time
1 s, the energy rate and throughput of different numbers of nodes are compared. The time interval
interval is 1 s, the energy rate and throughput of different numbers of nodes are compared. The time
is chosen as 1 s because at this time the channel competition is very intense and the superiority of
interval is chosen as 1 s because at this time the channel competition is very intense and the
the IS-MAC protcol is verified strongly. Figure 2 shows the curves of energy rate and throughput.
superiority of the IS-MAC protcol is verified strongly. Figure 2 shows the curves of energy rate and
The horizontal ordinate represents the number of nodes.
throughput. The horizontal ordinate represents the number of nodes.
It can be concluded from (a) that with the increase of nodes’ numbers, the gap of energy rate
It can be concluded from (a) that with the increase of nodes’ numbers, the gap of energy rate
between IS-MAC protocol, and S-MAC protocol become larger and larger. This means that the network
between IS-MAC protocol, and S-MAC protocol become larger and larger. This means that the
saves more and more energy and the IS-MAC protocol performs better than the S-MAC protocol when
network saves more and more energy and the IS-MAC protocol performs better than the S-MAC
the number of nodes is large. In (b), the throughput of both protocols declines. With the increase of the
protocol when the number of nodes is large. In (b), the throughput of both protocols declines. With
number of nodes, channel competition will become more intense, and data collision will happen more
the increase of the number of nodes, channel competition will become more intense, and data
frequently. The throughput of nodes will reduce. The throughput of the IS-MAC protocol declines
collision will happen more frequently. The throughput of nodes will reduce. The throughput of the
relatively gentle and the throughput of the S-MAC protocol declines rapidly. This means that the
IS-MAC protocol declines relatively gentle and the throughput of the S-MAC protocol declines
IS-MAC protocol performs better than the S-MAC protocol, especially when the number of nodes is
rapidly. This means that the IS-MAC protocol performs better than the S-MAC protocol, especially
large. In conclusion, the IS-MAC protocol performs better than the S-MAC protocol when the number
when the number of nodes is large. In conclusion, the IS-MAC protocol performs better than the S-
of nodes is large.
MAC protocol when the number of nodes is large.
 Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 7 of 12
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 7 of 11

0.0010 2017, 9, 14
Future Internet 14000 7 of 11
0.0009 S-MAC 13000
0.0010 14000
0.0008
IS-MAC 12000
0.0009 S-MAC 13000
11000
0.0007 IS-MAC 12000
0.0008

T h r o u g h p u t (b it/s )
E n e r g y r a te (J/b it)

10000
0.0006
0.0007
11000
9000

T h r o u g h p u t (b it/s )
E n e r g y r a te (J/b it)

0.0005 10000
0.0006
9000 8000
0.0004
0.0005
8000 7000
0.0004
0.0003
7000 6000
0.0003
0.0002 6000 5000
0.0002 S-MAC
0.0001 5000 4000
0.0001 4000 S-MAC IS-MAC
0.0000 3000 IS-MAC
0
0.0000 10 20 30 40 50 3000 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 10 The20number of
30 nodes 40 50 0 10 20 The 30
number of40nodes 50
The number of nodes The number of nodes
(a)
(a) (b)
(b)
Figure
Figure
Figure2. 2.
(a)(a)
2. Energy
(a) EnergyRate
Energy Rateof
Rate of S-MAC
of S-MAC protocoland
S-MAC protocol
protocol and
and IS-MAC
IS-MAC
IS-MAC protocol
protocol
protocol under
under
under different
different
different numbers
numbers
numbers of nodes;
of nodes;
of nodes;
(b)(b)
throughput
throughput of
ofS-MAC
S-MAC protocol
protocol and
and IS-MAC
IS-MAC protocol
protocol under
under different
different numbers
numbers
(b) throughput of S-MAC protocol and IS-MAC protocol under different numbers of dodes. of of
dodes.dodes.

Limited
Limited totothethecomplexity largenumber
complexity of large numberofof nodes,
nodes,
nodes, thethe network
network
network model
model
model is setisup
is set set
up up five
with
with with five nodes.
fivenodes.
nodes.
If aIf aa conclusion
conclusionthat
Ifconclusion thatIS-MAC
that IS-MACprotocol
IS-MAC protocolisisis
protocol better
better
better than S-MAC
than
than S-MAC
S-MAC protocol can
protocol
protocol can be
becandrawn
be drawn
drawn when
when the
when
the number
numberthe of
number
of nodes
nodes is is small,
small, it it
is is obvious
obvious that
that thethe conclusion
conclusion will
will remain
remain when
when thethe number
number of
of nodes is small, it is obvious that the conclusion will remain when the number of nodes is large. of nodes
nodes is is large.
large.

4.1.2. Network Model Establishment and Parameters Configuring

4.1.2. Network Model Establishment and Parameters Configuring
To quantitatively evaluate the performance of the IS-MAC protocol, the IS-MAC protocol is
To quantitatively evaluate the performance of thenetwork
compared against the S-MAC protocol under aa random
IS-MAC protocol,There the IS-MAC protocol is
random network scenario.scenario. There are five nodes
compared
deployedagainst the area
in a square S-MAC protocol
of 1000 * 1000 munder a random
and there are no network
no hidden
hidden scenario.
terminal There are
and exposed five nodes
terminal
deployed
problems.in The
a square area of 1000
communication range* 1000 m node
of each and there are
250 m.
is 250 no topology
m. The
The hidden
topologyterminal
ofnodes
of nodesisand exposed
isaastar
star topology.
topology. terminal
problems. The communication range of each node is 250 m. The topology of nodes
In a star topology, each node in the network is connected to a central node through the point-to-point is a star topology.
In amode
star topology, each node
and information in the network
is transmitted is connected
to the destination to abycentral
node nodenode.
the central through the point-to-point
The central node
performs centralized
centralized communication
communication control strategy,
control so
strategy, the
so central
the node
central is very
node
mode and information is transmitted to the destination node by the central node. The central iscomplex.
very The
complex. central
The node
node is node
central
performs 200 misaway
200 mfrom
centralized away each node.
from
communicationeachThe topology
node. of the network
The topology
control strategy, ofsothethe iscentral
shown
network is in Figure
shown
node in3.Figure
is 3.
very complex. The
central node is 200 m away from each node. The topology of the network is shown in Figure 3.

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Topology of Nodes
Topology of Nodes in
in the
the Network.
Network.

In this experiment, the nodes are classified into three types: sending nodes, receiving nodes, and
In this experiment, the nodes
Figureare classified of
3. Topology into threeintypes:
Nodes sending nodes, receiving nodes,
the Network.
forwarding nodes (central nodes). When communication starts, sending nodes will send data flow to
and forwarding nodes (central nodes). When communication starts, sending nodes will send data
their fixed destination (receiving node) by forwarding nodes. Forwarding nodes can forward data
flow to their
In this fixed destination
experiment, (receiving
the nodes node) by forwarding
are classified nodes.sending
Forwarding nodes can forward and
from sending nodes as well as sending their own into
data.three
Events types:
happen randomlynodes, receiving
within the fieldnodes,
and
data from sending(central
forwarding nodes asnodes).
well as When
sending their own data. Events
starts, happen randomly within the field
nodes can nodes
generate one unit of data packetcommunication
when one event happens sending nodes
within their will
sensing send
range.data
Tableflow to
and nodes can generate one unit of data packet when one event happens within their sensing range.
their fixed
2 lists thedestination
key network(receiving
parametersnode)
used inby forwarding
this simulation. nodes. Forwarding nodes can forward data
Table 2 lists the key network parameters used in this simulation.
from sending nodes as well as sending their own data. Events happen randomly within the field and
nodes can generate one unit of data packet when one event happens within their sensing range. Table
2 lists the key network parameters used in this simulation.
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 8 of 11

Table 2. Network parameters.

Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 8 of 12
Name Value
Initial
Tableenergy
2. Network parameters. 1000 J
Receiving energy 0.3682 W
Name
Transmitting energy Value 0.386 W
Initial energy
Idle energy 1000 J 0.7442 W
Receiving energy 0.3682 W
Sleep energy
Transmitting energy 0.386 W5 × 10 W
−5

Duty cycle
Idle energy 0.7442 W 30%
Sleep energy 5 × 10−5 W
Duty cycle 30%
The size of per data packet used in these simulations was 512 bytes and the max packets of each
node’s interface queue was 50. In order to generate comparable results, all parameters were the same
The size of per data packet used in these simulations was 512 bytes and the max packets of each
for allnode’s
three protocols. Thewas
interface queue initial
50. energy
In order of each node
to generate was 1000results,
comparable J in order to provide
all parameters unlimited
were the sameenergy.
Compared withprotocols.
for all three classic WSNs, theenergy
The initial energy of provided for 1000
each node was eachJ node intounit
in order timeunlimited
provide is reduced by half in
energy.
order Compared
to simulate WPSNs.
with classic WSNs, the energy provided for each node in unit time is reduced by half in
order
The to simulate
duty cycle was WPSNs.
set 30% because the proposed algorithm performs best when the duty cycle
is 30%. WhenThe duty
the cycle
dutywas set was
cycle 30% because
changed thefrom
proposed
30% algorithm performs
to 80%, the S-MAC bestprotocol
when the and
duty the
cycleIS-MAC
is 30%. When the duty cycle was changed from 30% to 80%, the S-MAC protocol and the IS-MAC
protocol were compared in energy consumption and throughput. Energy consumption is the total
protocol were compared in energy consumption and throughput. Energy consumption is the total
energy consumption of all nodes during a time period in the network. The vertical ordinate
energy consumption of all nodes during a time period in the network. The vertical ordinate represents
represents
energyenergy consumption
consumption and throughput.
and throughput. Theordinate
The horizontal horizontal ordinate
represents dutyrepresents duty are
cycle. The results cycle. The
resultsshown
are shown in 4.Figure 4.
in Figure

850
7000
800

6000
750
E n e rg y c o n su m p tio n (J)

T h r o u g h p u t (b it/s )

700 5000

650 4000

600
3000
550
2000
500 S-MAC S-MAC

IS-MAC IS-MAC
450 1000
30 40 50 60 70 80 30 40 50 60 70 80
Duty cycle (%) Duty cycle (%)
(a) (b)
FigureFigure
4. (a)4. Energy
(a) Energyconsumption
consumption ofofS-MAC
S-MAC protocol
protocol and IS-MAC
and IS-MAC protocol
protocol under under
different different
duty cycles; duty
cycles; (b) throughput of S-MAC protocol and IS-MAC protocol under different duty cycles.
(b) throughput of S-MAC protocol and IS-MAC protocol under different duty cycles.

It is obvious thatthat
It is obvious thethe
gapgapofofenergy
energyconsumption
consumption and and throughput
throughput between
between the IS-MAC
the IS-MAC protocol
protocol
and the S-MAC protocol is biggest when duty cycle is 30%. Moreover, to simplify the
and the S-MAC protocol is biggest when duty cycle is 30%. Moreover, to simplify the experiments, experiments,
the influence
the influence of routing
of routing trafficwas
traffic wasnegrlected
negrlected and
andititwas assumed
was thatthat
assumed therethere
was nowasobstacle and
no obstacle and
interference between any two nodes. The energy consumption of MAC protocol was considered to be
interference between any two nodes. The energy consumption of MAC protocol was considered to
the most significant indicator.
be the most significant indicator.
4.2. Simulation Results
4.2. Simulation Results
In order to confirm the high energy efficiency of the IS-MAC protocol, the IS-MAC and S-MAC
protocols
In order towere simulated
confirm the under the sameefficiency
high energy network environment and the
of the IS-MAC results were
protocol, comparedand
the IS-MAC andS-MAC
analyzed from two aspects—energy consumption and throughput.
protocols were simulated under the same network environment and the results were compared and
analyzed from two aspects—energy consumption and throughput.

4.2.1. Energy Consumption

The vertical ordinate represents energy consumption and the horizontal ordinate represents
time interval. The time interval changed from 1 s to 10 s and one point was taken every second. The
 Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 9 of 12

4.2.1. Energy Consumption

The vertical ordinate represents energy consumption and the horizontal ordinate represents time
interval. The time interval changed from 1 s to 10 s and one point was taken every second. The results
Future Internet 2017,consumption
of energy 9, 14 are shown in Figure 5. 9 of 11

900

800
Energy consumption (J)

700

600

500

IEEE802.11
400 S-MAC
IS-MAC

0 2 4 6 8 10
Time interval (s)

Figure 5. Energy
Figure consumption
5. Energy consumptionof
ofsensor nodesunder
sensor nodes under different
different loads.
loads.

With theWithincrement
the increment of time interval,
of time interval, both
bothcurves decreaseinindifferent
curves decrease different degrees.
degrees. WithWith the increase
the increase
of timeofinterval, the transmission
time interval, the transmission interval
intervalofofdata
data packets
packets ininthe thenetwork
network becomes
becomes largerlarger
and theand the
competition of the channel is not as intense as before. This indicates
competition of the channel is not as intense as before. This indicates that the probability of data that the probability of data
collision
collision becomes becomes
small, small,
andandnodes nodes rarelyretransmit
rarely retransmit data
databecause
because of of
data collision,
data so the
collision, soenergy
the energy
consumption becomes smaller. In the backoff algorithm of the S-MAC protocol, the contention window
consumption becomes smaller. In the backoff algorithm of the S-MAC protocol, the contention
is a fixed value, which means that it will not be adjusted adaptively with the change of the network
window is a fixed value, which means that it will not be adjusted adaptively with the change of the
load. On the contrary, the IS-MAC protocol is able to dynamically change the contention window
network load. On
according the channel
to the contrary, the IS-MAC
condition. When protocol
the channel is is
able to extraordinarily
in an dynamically change the contention
intense condition,
window theaccording to the window
current contention channelis increased.
condition.When When the the channel
channel is in an
is not intense, theextraordinarily
current contentionintense
condition,
windowthe current
is reduced. contention
This leads window is increased.
to the result that data When
collisionthe channel
is easier is not intense,
to happen the current
in the S-MAC
protocol, so the S-MAC protocol requires more energy to maintain packet
contention window is reduced. This leads to the result that data collision is easier to happen in the S-retransmission. However,
the IS-MACsoprotocol
MAC protocol, the S-MACadopts the methodrequires
protocol of dynamically
morechanging
energy contention
to maintain window
packetandretransmission.
obviously
consumes less energy. When the time interval is bigger than 4 s, the collision of data packets becomes
However, the IS-MAC protocol adopts the method of dynamically changing contention window and
small. The energy consumption of the nodes mainly come from transmitting data packets. The total
obviously consumes
amounts less energy.
of data packets are almostWhen the time
the same interval
in both protocols.is Meanwhile,
bigger than 4 s,using
nodes the collision
the IS-MAC of data
packetsorbecomes small. can
S-MAC protocol Thesuccessfully
energy consumption of the
transmit the vast nodesofmainly
majority comeTherefor,
data packets. from transmitting
the energy data
packets.consumption of the IS-MAC and S-MAC protocols is the same. It can also be concluded from the figure nodes
The total amounts of data packets are almost the same in both protocols. Meanwhile,
using the
thatIS-MAC
the energyorconsumption
S-MAC protocol of the IEEEcan 802.11
successfully transmit
MAC protocol theall
is high vast
the majority of data
time. Although packets.
it has
the same backoff mechanism as the S-MAC protocol, it does not follow
Therefor, the energy consumption of the IS-MAC and S-MAC protocols is the same. It can also be the periodic sleep/listening
mechanism and the nodes are always active. The amount of energy when the medium is idle is almost
concluded from the figure that the energy consumption of the IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol is high all
consumed as much as when the medium is busy. Therefore, large amount of energy will be consumed
the time. Although it has the same backoff mechanism as the S-MAC protocol, it does not follow the
during the whole work.
periodic sleep/listening mechanism and the nodes are always active. The amount of energy when the
medium 4.2.2. Throughput
is idle is almost consumed as much as when the medium is busy. Therefore, large amount
of energy will be consumed
Throughput during
is another the whole
important work.
indicator to measure network performances. Figure 6 shows
curves of throughput. The vertical ordinate represents throughput and the horizontal ordinate
4.2.2. Throughput
represents time interval.
In the S-MAC protocol, each node uses a fixed contention window to compete for the access of
channel. Therefore, the probability of collision among nodes is extraordinarily high. As can be seen
6000
hput (bit/s)

4000
 With the increment of time interval, both curves decrease in different degrees. With the increase
of time interval, the transmission interval of data packets in the network becomes larger and the
competition of the channel is not as intense as before. This indicates that the probability of data
collision becomes small, and nodes rarely retransmit data because of data collision, so the energy
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14
consumption becomes smaller. In the backoff algorithm of the S-MAC protocol, the10contention of 12

window is a fixed value, which means that it will not be adjusted adaptively with the change of the
network fromload. On the
the figure, allcontrary,
curves show thea downward
IS-MAC protocol
trend withisdifferent
able todegrees
dynamically
becausechange the contention
the throughput of
the network naturally decreases with the decrease of the data flow
window according to the channel condition. When the channel is in an extraordinarily intense of the network. The throughput
of thethe
condition, IEEE 802.11contention
current MAC protocol is the heaviest
window becauseWhen
is increased. the nodesthe are alwaysisinnot
channel theintense,
listening the
state. current
When data is incoming or outgoing, data transmission happens immediately, so the amounts of data
contention window is reduced. This leads to the result that data collision is easier to happen in the S-
packets are large. When the time interval is less than 4 s, the network load is relatively heavy and
MAC protocol,
the throughput so the S-MAC
of the IS-MAC protocol
protocolrequires morethat
is higher than energy
of the to maintain
S-MAC packet
protocol. Whenretransmission.
the time
However, the is
interval IS-MAC protocol adopts
1 s, the advantage the method
of the IS-MAC protocolof is
dynamically
most obvious. changing contention
In this case, window and
the transmission
obviously consumes less energy. When the time interval is bigger than 4 s,
interval of data packets is 1 s, the network load is the heaviest, and the competition is the most intense.the collision of data
packetsThe value of small.
becomes the contention window
The energy determines theofbackoff
consumption time. When
the nodes mainly thecome
networkfromloadtransmitting
is relatively data
heavy, the fixed contention window will lead to consecutive data collisions,
packets. The total amounts of data packets are almost the same in both protocols. Meanwhile, nodes so data retransmission
will be frequent. This reduces the network throughput. The fixed contention window is adopted in the
using the IS-MAC or S-MAC protocol can successfully transmit the vast majority of data packets.
S-MAC protocol while the contention window is dynamically changed according to the network load
Therefor, the energy consumption of the IS-MAC and S-MAC protocols is the same. It can also be
in the IS-MAC protocol. Therefore, the data collision is more likely to happen in the S-MAC protocol
concluded
than infrom the figure
the IS-MAC that under
protocol the energy consumption
heavy network of the
load, which IEEE
means 802.11
that MAC protocol
data retransmission has is
less high all
the time. Although
frequency and itthehas the sameisbackoff
throughput larger in mechanism as the S-MAC
the IS-MAC protocol. However, protocol,
when the it time
doesinterval
not followis the
periodic sleep/listening
more than 4 s, the networkmechanism and the nodes
load is relatively small andarethe
always active.becomes
data collision The amount of energy
little. The throughput when the
medium of the IS-MAC
is idle protocol
is almost is only slightly
consumed higher
as much asthan
when thatthe
of S-MAC
medium protocol.
is busy. In Therefore,
summary, when largethe amount
network load is small, the IS-MAC
of energy will be consumed during the whole work. protocol has no greater advantage than the S-MAC protocol in
throughput. When the network load is larger, the IS-MAC protocol has an obvious advantage over the
S-MAC protocol.
4.2.2. Throughput

6000
Throughput (bit/s)

4000

2000

IEEE802.11
S-MAC
IS-MAC
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time interval (s)

Figure 6. 6.
Figure Throughput
Throughput under different
under different loads.
loads.

5. Conclusions
WPSNs are developing rapidly in practical applications. A MAC protocol called IS-MAC was
proposed for avoiding data collision in WPSNs based on a dynamically changing contention window.
The proper contention window is computed for energy conservation according to the current network
load. Meanwhile, this study introduced some parameters into the procedure of computing the
contention window. Besides, this study verified the effectiveness of the improved algorithm on the
NS2 platform. The simulation results show that the IS-MAC protocol can significantly outperform the
S-MAC protocol in terms of throughput and energy consumption when the network load is heavy.

Acknowledgments: This research was supported in part by the Science and Technology Development Project of
Shandong, China, (No. 2015GSF120003), the Independent Innovation Foundation of Shandong University, China,
and the Science and Technology Development Plan Project of Weihai Municipal in 2016. The authors would like
to thank Chengyou Wang and Zunhua Guo for their help and valuable suggestions. The authors also thank the
anonymous reviewers and the editor for their valuable comments for improving the presentation of the paper.
Future Internet 2017, 9, 14 11 of 12

Author Contributions: Q.Y. and G.L. conceived and designed the experiments; Q.Y. performed the experiments;
Q.Y. and X.H. analyzed the data; K.F. and T.L. contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools; Q.Y. wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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