Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Spring 2007
The multiplicative group of nonzero elements in a field
Theorem
The nonzero elements of a field form a group under the field
multiplication.
Proof.
Straightforward. See Exercise 37 of Section 18.
Notation
The mutliplicative group of nonzero elements in a field F will be
denoted by F × .
Fermat’s theorem
Proof.
The group Z×
p has p − 1 elements. Then by the Lagrange
theorem (Theorem 10.10), for all a ∈ Z×
p,a
p−1 ≡ 1 mod p.
Corollary and examples
Corollary (20.2)
Let p be a prime. Then
ap ≡ a mod p
for all a ∈ Z.
Theorem (20.6)
The set Z×
n of nonzero elements of Zn that are not zero divisors
forms a group.
Proof.
• closed:
• Suppose that a and b are not 0 nor zero divisors. We need
to show that ab is neither 0 nor a zero divisor.
• Since a and b are not 0 nor zero divisors, ab 6= 0.
• Now suppose that (ab)c = 0.
• Then a(bc) = 0. Since a is not 0 nor a zero divisors,
bc = 0.
• By the same token bc = 0 implies c = 0. Thus ab is not a
zero divisor.
Proof of Theorem 20.6, continued
• associativity: obvious.
• identity: 1 is the multiplicative identity.
• inverse:
• We will argue along the same line as the proof of Theorem
19.11 that every finite integral domain is a field.
• Let a1 , . . . , ak be the elements of Z× ×
n . For a ∈ Zn , we
consider aa1 , . . . , aak .
• Suppose that aai = aaj . Then a(ai − aj ) = 0.
• Since a is not 0 nor a zero divisor, we have ai − aj = 0 or
equivalently ai = aj .
• This shows that aa1 , . . . , aak are all distinct, and thus one of
them must be 1.
• This shows that a has an inverse in Z× n .
Euler’s φ-function
Definition
The Euler’s φ-function φ(n) is defined as the number of
elements in Z×n . (By Theorem 19.3,
φ(n) = {1 ≤ k ≤ n : gcd(k , n) = 1}.)
Example
1. Z×
12 = {1, 5, 7, 11}. Thus φ(12) = 4.
2. Z×
15 = {1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 14}, and φ(15) = 8.
Remark Q
In general, φ(n) = n p|n,p primes (1 − 1/p).
Euler’s theorem
aφ(n) ≡ 1 mod n.
Proof.
Similar to the proof of Fermat’s theorem. (Apply the Lagrange
theorem to the group Z× n .)
Example
Let us compute 499 mod 35. We have 4φ(35) ≡ 1 mod 35, i.e.,
424 ≡ 1 mod 35. Thus, 499 ≡ 43 = 64 ≡ 29 mod 35.
In-class exercises
Thus
1=4−1×3
= 4 − 1 × (7 − 1 × 4) = 2 × 4 − 1 × 7
= 2 × (11 − 1 × 7) − 1 × 7 = 2 × 11 − 3 × 7
= 2 × 11 − 3 × (29 − 2 × 11) = 8 × 11 − 3 × 29.
Theorem (20.10)
Let n be a positive integer and let a ∈ Zn be relatively prime to
n. Then for each b ∈ Zn , the equation ax = b has a unique
solution in Zn .
Proof.
Let a−1 be the multiplicative inverse of a in Zn . Then a−1 b is
the unique solution of ax = b in Zn .
Theorem (20.12)
Let n be a positive integer and let a, b ∈ Zn . Let d = gcd(a, n).
The equation ax = b has a solution in Zn if and only if d divides
b. When d divides b, the equation has exactly d solutions in Zn .
Proof.
• d - b. For all integers c, all elements in the residue class
ac + nZ = {ac + kn : k ∈ Z} are all multiples of
d = gcd(a, n). They cannot be congruent to b modulo n if
b is not a multiple of d.
Proof of Theorem 20.12, continued
• d|b.
n a b
• Observe that n|(ax − b) ⇐⇒ x− , that is, x
d d d
is a solution of ax ≡ b mod n if and only if x is a solution of
(a/d)x ≡ (b/d) mod (n/d).
• Now a/d and n/d are relatively prime. Thus, by Theorem
20.10, there is a unique residue class s modulo n/d that
satisfies (a/d)s ≡ b/d mod n/d.
• Among all the residue classes modulo n, the residue
classes represented by
s, s + n/d, · · · , s + (d − 1)n/d
Solution.
• An integer a satisfies 15a ≡ 27 mod 18 if and only if it
satisfies 5a ≡ 9 mod 6.
• The multiplicative inverse of 5 modulo 6 is 5. Thus if
5a ≡ 9 mod 6, then a ≡ 5 × 9 ≡ 3 mod 6.
• The solutions are 3 + 6k for k ∈ Z.
• Note that the integers 3 + 6k fall in three residue classes
3 + 18Z, 9 + 18Z, and 15 + 18Z modulo 18.
Examples
RSA algorithm.
• Invented by Clifford Cocks in 1973. Also by Rivest, Shamir,
and Adleman independently in 1977.
• Is a public-key cryptosystem (meaning that the encryption
key is open to public).
• Still widely used in electronic commerce.
• Uses the properties that it is easy to determine whether a
large integer is a prime, but it is very difficult to factorize a
large composite number.
RSA algorithm
Key selection.
• Choose two large primes p and q, and let n = pq. This n
will be made public.
• Pick a positive integer e < φ(n) such that gcd(e, φ(n)) = 1.
This e will be released as the public key.
• Compute d that satisfies de ≡ 1 mod φ(n) (i.e.,
de = 1 + k φ(n) for some k ). This d is the private key.
RSA algorithm
Encryption phase.
• Alice sends (n, e) to Bob and keeps the private key d in a
safe place.
• Suppose that m is the message that Bob wishes to encrypt
and send to Alice. He computes c ≡ me mod n and send
c.
Decryption phase.
• To decipher the code c, Alice computes c d modulo n.
• Now by Euler’s Theorem, we have