D esign A spect of C reep
B y R. W. BAILEY,* MANCHESTER, ENGLAND
This paper is an abstract2 o f a m anuscript subm itted
by Mr. Bailey a t th e request o f th e P lasticity C om m ittee
o f th e Applied M echanics Division through its chairm an,
Dr. Nadai. The paper is also an abridgm ent o f Mr.
Bailey's paper read before th e In stitu tion o f M echanical
Engineers, London, November 22, 1935. The purpose o f
this abstract is to indicate th e wide range o f topics
treated fully in th e original paper and to give a u seful and
adequate sum m ary o f th is pioneer work by Mr. Bailey.
In m any cases, because o f lack o f space, th e bases o f the
ESIGN of parts for elevated temperatures where a con­
D dition of general creep will occur presents two principal
requirements. A satisfactory means is necessary for
determining the stress distribution and for relating creep in
the practical case, which is usually one involving compound
stress, with th a t of simple tension for which practically all test
data have been obtained. Also, it is necessary th a t test data
be obtained under conditions comparable with those in practice,
particularly in regard to the amount of creep permissible and
any weakening effect of service upon the material.
G e n e r a l E x p r e s s io n s f o r C r e e p
The author proposes the following expressions for creep under
the general system of stress specified by the principal stresses
X , Y, and Z (4- when tensile)
where C„ C„ and C, are the tensile creep rates in the directions
of X , Y, and Z, respectively; and where A, m, and n are con­
stants which can be determined experimentally from simple
tension and torsion tests. These formulas demand further th at
the sign of a term within parentheses in the last bracketed factor,
if this term happens to be negative, be arbitrarily made positive
1 Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd., Manchester, England.
2 Abstract prepared by G. H. MacCullough, Professor of Engineer­
ing Mechanics, Worcester Polytechnic Institute.
Presented at the Annual Meeting of T h e A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f
M e c h a n ic a l E n g i n e e r s , held in New York, N. Y., December 2 to 6,
1935.
Discussion of this paper should be addressed to the Secretary,
A.S.M.E., 29 West 39th Street, New York, N. Y., and will be ac­
cepted until May 10, 1936, for publication at a later date.
N o t e : Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be
understood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those
of the Society.
A-l
author's conclusions are n ot discussed in th is abstract
nor are th e m ath em atical derivations included. The
reader interested in th ese details should consult the
London paper. Footnotes have been added to th is ab­
stract m en tion in g references w hich are readily available
and w hich will supplem ent and illu m in ate th is abbre­
viated treatm en t. Comprehensive and som ew hat differ­
en t abstracts o f th e original London paper have also
appeared in “Engineering,” November 29 and December
13, 1935, and in “The Engineer,” Decem ber 6, 1935.
and th a t the sign in front of the parenthesis be changed in this
case.
The case of simple tension, tensile stress = X , say, is given
by Equation [1 ] by setting Y and Z equal to zero, th a t is
Equations [1], [2], and [3] are based upon the following views
of creep in a polycrystalline isotropic material:
1 Creep is due to shear uninfluenced by the stress acting
perpendicularly on a plane of shear.
2 Creep is not confined to planes of maximum shear stress
b ut occurs on planes of lower shear stress than the maximum.
3 Creep by shear upon a plane is, as a rule, influenced by
the general system of stress as represented by the specific elastic-
shear strain energy. In other words, creep by shear upon a
plane may be influenced by shear stresses upon other planes.
The dependence of rate of creep upon shear stress is reflected
in the last bracketed factor of Equations [1], [2], and [3]. For
instance, Cx must be some function of (X — Y) and (X — Z).
This is the case because the creep is dependent upon shear
taking place on planes parallel to the Z- and F-directions and
the shear stress on the former is proportional to {X — Y) and
on the latter to ( X — Z ).! The first bracketed factor represents
the influence of elastic-shear strain energy4 and is introduced by
the author to represent the effect of the general system of shear
stress acting as a whole, it having been found experimentally
th a t the last bracketed term alone would not give correct creep
rates under all conditions.
Experimental Verification. To verify the validity of these
general creep expressions, the author performed several experi­
ments. One set gave the creep results on lead pipe subjected
to combined stress arising from a constant internal pressure and
a variable axial tension. The circumferential tension was kept
constant at 900 lb per sq in. The calculated curves, using
Equations [2] and [3], are shown in Fig. 1 and the experimental
points are plotted alongside. The agreement is rather good.
In plotting these curves, m was taken equal to 3‘A and n equal
to 11. A more general way of plotting is shown in Fig. 2 where
abscissas are the ratio of axial tensile stress to circumferential
stress (constant) and ordinates are relative creep rates obtained
by considering A Y n equal to unity. The axial stress Z is variable
and is expressed as a Y ; Y is the constant circumferential stress;
and X is zero.
3 Consult the chapter on combined stress in any strength-of-ma-
terials textbook. For a discussion of three-dimensional stress, see
“Plasticity,” by A. Nadai, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
N. Y., 1931, chapters 7 and 8.
4 “Plasticity,” by A. Nadai, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New
York, N. Y., 1931, chapter 13.
A-2 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
I t is of interest to note from Fig. 1 th a t the axial creep rate
becomes zero at 450 lb per sq in. which stress is exactly one-half
the circumferential stress and is the stress system set up by
internal fluid pressure in a cylinder. The existence of this zero
creep rate, together with lack of creep in the wall thickness of a
tube in simple torsion, forms the basis of the author’s important
Fio. 2 C r e e p U n d e r C o m b in e d S t r e s s e s
(R elative values of creep rateB of a thin-w alled pipe u n d er in te rn a l preBSure
w ith an axially applied ex tern al load. C alcu lated for values of m = 3.5
and n = 11 as found for lead pipes.)
conclusion that creep is due to shear uninfluenced by the stress
acting perpendicularly on a plane of shear.6 As a corollary of
this conclusion, a hydrostatic tensile or compressive stress may
5 “Creep of Steels Under Simple and Compound Stresses and the
Use of High Initial Temperatures in Steam Power Plant,” by R. W.
Bailey, Transactions World Power Conference, Tokio, sectional
meeting, vol. 3, 1929, p. 1089. Abridged in The Engineer, vol. 148,
1929, p. 528, and in Engineering, vol. 129, 1930, p. 266.
be added to a system of stress without altering the creep behavior.
The results of further corroborative tests are shown in Fig. 3.
Here a thin-walled tube was subjected to combined torsion and
tension while the maximum shearing stress was kept constant.
The creep rates in the directions of the principal stresses are
deduced from experimental results and check fairly well with the
calculated curves. The disagreements in the axial creep rates
shown by the lower curve are very likely due to a departure from
isotropy of the material. Another figure (not included in this
abstract) shows the results of further tests on isotropic material
and the agreement is almost perfect.
One additional test was made where torque was applied to a
lead tube under internal fluid pressure with results as shown in
Table 1. The fluid pressure developed a circumferential tensile
T A B L E 1 C R E E P R A T E W H E N D IA M E T R A L C R E E P R A T E F O R
F L U ID P R E S S U R E A L O N E IS R E P R E S E N T E D B Y U N IT Y
C ircum ferential
A xial (tw ist) D iam etral
R esults of te s ts .............................. 0 .4 2 8 5 .73 6.12
R esults of c alcu la tio n .................. 0.314 7 .6 5 6 .0 5
F ig . 3 C o m b in e d T o r s io n a n d T e n s io n T e s t s o n 0 .1 1 5 P e r C e n t
C a r b o n M. S . T u b e
[M axim um shear stress = 3.12 to n s per 8q in . (constant) a t 475 C.]
stress of 750 lb per sq in. and the torque produced by itself a
shear stress of 250 lb per sq in. The calculated6 and experi­
mental figures are in remarkable agreement and afford striking
testimony regarding the utility of the suggested form of expres­
sion for creep under any stress system.
Influence of Temperature on Creep Constants. The influence of
temperature on the constant A is discussed and it is suggested
th at it be replaced by aebe, where 8 is the temperature and a
TABLE 2
R ange of ten sile stress in to n s per sq in.
0 to I 1/* IV* to 5 O ver 5
Values of b fo r tem p eratu res, C . 0 .1 0 .1 5 0 .2
and 6 are empirical constants. Creep-test data obtained by
tensile tests show th at b increases with the stress. For carbon
• In Mr. Bailey’s original paper read before the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, the author derives expressions for linear and
angular creep rates in thin tubes. Similar expressions for strains
may be found in “Applied Mechanics,” vol. 2, on Strength of Mate­
rials, by C. E. Fuller and W. A. Johnston, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1919, article 42, Equations [6] and [11]; or in “Theory
of Elasticity,” by S. Timoshenko, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, N. Y., 1934, article 58, Equations [111] and [112].
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-3

and low-alloy steels in cases

of simple tension and of com­
plex stress producing the
same shear stress, it is sug­
gested as a guide th a t the
value 6 be taken as given in
Table 2.
A p p l ic a t io n s t o D e s ig n
P roblem s
Hollow Cylinders Subjected
to Internal Pressure. The
author now applies these gen­
eral creep expressions to some
particular p ro b le m s. The
first problem is th a t of thick
cylinders, piping and tubes
under internal pressure, with
or without heat flow through
the wall. For design pur­
poses, the mean hoop stress
f„ is expressed as a ratio to
the stress / which in simple
tension would produce a creep
rate equal to the diametral
creep rate at the bore. This
ratio p is derived by the
author in terms of n, the
internal radius of the cylin­
der; r2, the external radius;
m and n, indexes in general
expressions for Cx, Cy, and C,;
H, the heat flow across unit
length of cylinder in unit time
( + when toward axis of cyl­
inder); K, the coefficient of
thermal conductivity of the
metal; and 6, the coefficient
of temperature 6 in expres­
sion A = aebe. The equation F i g . 4 W o r k in g S t r e s s f o r C y l in d e r s U n d e r F l u id P r e s s u r e a n d W i t h H e a t F l o w
= h e a t flow p e r f t len g th of cylinder, B tu per h r, w here H is positive w hen th e flow is to w a rd th e axis and
for p is represented graphi­ n egative w hen th e flow is aw ay from th e axis.)
cally in Fig. 4.
In dealing with cylindrical parts, the diametral creep rate at p = 0.75 approxim ately and f m = 3 tons per sq in. Recalculated
the bore has been employed as a basic factor because it is the n / n = (0.892/3) + 1 = 1.3
maximum diametral creep rate for the cylinder. F u rth er approxim ation is unnecessary; the outside diam eter of the
As an illustration of the use of the curves of Fig. 4, the follow­ cylinder would be 2.6 ft or the wall thickness, say, would be about
ing example is considered. A 0.4 per cent carbon-steel cylinder 3>Ain.
of 2 ft inside diameter is required for a pressure of 2000 lb per The stress distribution for the wall of this cylinder is given
sq in. The temperature of the inside wall is 450 C (842 F) and by Fig. 5 which for comparison shows the stress distribution for
heat is transm itted from the outside to the inside at a rate of the case of no-heat transmission and also the stress distribution
5000 Btu per sq ft per hr.
produced under elastic conditions by fluid pressure alone. The
Hence, H — 5000 X 2t = 31,400 B tu per ft length per hr. influence of temperature variation in the wall upon stress dis­
From tensile creep tests, a stress / = 4 tons7 per sq in. could be tribution is evident.
taken for simple tension (this gives a diam etral creep strain of Steam Piping. The wall thickness of steam piping would
0.001 in. per in. in 100,000 hr a t 450 C which is considered permissible) rarely exceed 15 per cent of the bore and therefore generally the
and therefore the m iddle diagram of Fig. 4 would be used.
First Approximation. Assume p = 1, th a t is, / „ = /. From the ratio of outside to inside diameter, or r2/r lt would not be greater
hoop-tension formula, f m(n — n) = (2000/2240)n. Solving for the than 1.3. I t is seen from Fig. 4 for the case of no-heat trans­
ratio n / n mission (H = 0) th a t the ratio p or / „ / / for carbon steel would
n / n = (0.892//*) + 1 = (0.892/4) + 1 = 1.223 probably range between 1.15 and 1.0, and consequently as a
Second Approximation. From Fig. 4, assum ing n / n = 1.223 and general rule it would be on the safe side to take p = 1, th a t is,
H = 31,400, we find p = 0.8 approxim ately and hence f m = 3.2 f m = /. Thus, it is quite satisfactory in the case of steam piping
tons per sq in. Recalculated
for high pressures and temperatures, where creep is a dominating
n / n “ (0.892/3.2) + 1 = 1.28
factor, to employ a mean hoop stress equal to th a t which, under
Third Approximation. T aking n / n = 1.28 and, from Fig. 4
simple tension, would give a tensile creep rate (strain), or an
7 Reference to tons in this paper m eans the English ton, equivalent amount of creep, equal to the diametral creep rate (strain)
to 2240 lb. permissible at the pipe bore.
A-4 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
A question th a t arises is: How should bending and twisting
moments arising from loading due to therm al expansion be taken
into account? The effect of bending and twisting moments
upon a cylinder under fluid pressure and creep has been studied
in the original paper on the basis of the general Equations
[1], [2], and [3], In the case of torsion, it has already been seen
th a t the predicted behavior for a lead pipe under hydraulic
pressure and torsion was confirmed by experiment. I t is con­
sidered th a t the results obtained by analysis in the case of carbon
steel are no less reliable. Briefly, analysis shows th a t the
presence of stress due to the fluid pressure serves to increase
greatly creep caused by bending or twisting with the result th at
any appreciable stress due to bending or twisting at the operating
temperature would be quickly reduced by creep to negligible
F ig . 5 S t r e s s , C r e e p R a t e , a n d T e m p e r a t u r e D i s t r ib u t io n in
C y l in d e r s U n d e r I n t e r n a l P r e s s u r e
magnitude with a corresponding reappearance of the stress
reversed when the system is cold. There appears to be very
good reason, therefore, why a steam piping system should be
stressed initially by loading to the extent of the full load expected
to result from thermal expansion, but in the opposite sense, so
th a t at operating temperature the thermal stress is initially zero.
If this is done, the design of piping for high temperatures is a
simple m atter from the stress point of view. At atmospheric
temperature, the existence of the full thermal stress would usually
be of no consequence.
Rotating Disks. The complicated m atter of stress distribution
in rotating disks under creep conditions is also treated. In an
appendix of the original paper the author derives a differential
equation applying to this case. An exact solution of this equa­
tion does not appear possible but a satisfactory solution can be
obtained by successive approximations in a manner there out­
lined. The results of such an analysis are shown in Figs. 6 and 7
for a 20-in. diameter disk with hub, turning a t 3000 rpm. In
Fig. 6 the stress distributions are shown and in Fig. 7, the dis­
tribution of the creep rate in terms of the circumferential creep
rate at the bore as unity. The heavy lines are for creep con­
ditions and the light lines represent elastic conditions. The
effect of creep in reducing the maximum stresses th at would
occur with purely elastic action is plainly evident.
F ig . 7 R e l a t iv e C r e e p R a t e s i n a T u r b in e W h e e l W it h a B o ss
D e t e r m in a t io n o p C r e e p P r o p e r t ie s f o r D e s ig n
The second part of the paper deals with the determination of
creep properties for design and with allied topics. The author
feels th a t the total permissible creep in service is, as a rule,
much smaller than the creep th a t usually occurs in tensile tests
made to determine data and, in this respect, most data are
unsatisfactory in design. For some time, therefore, the author
has made permissible creep the basis of tests intended to furnish
data for design.
Permissible Stresses. Tensile creep tests were carried out to
determine times to produce a total creep strain of 0.001 in. per
in., either directly measured or obtained by extrapolation. A
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-5

representative record for one of these tests a t 515 C is given by TABLE 3

Stress, to n s p e r sq i n — . 1 2 6 10 16
Fig. 8. In Fig. 9, this same test and one at 575 C are shown ~ .x. . A c tu al creep ra te a t a s tra in of 0.001
using a logarithmic scale for time. For each stress a series of C om position, per c en t R a tio — - r -------------------------------------------------t --------- 7----------- r — ;---------- 1 n ^
A verage creep ra te a t a s tra in of 0.001
corresponding values of temperature and time to produce a total 0.5 M o, 0.3 C ................................. .. 0 .4 0 0 .3 1 0 .2 5
0.5 M o, 1.0 C r, 0.48 C . . 0 .6 7 0 .5 6 0 .4 3 0 .2 6
0.4 C®.................................... 0 .5 1 0 .3 8 0 .3 3 0 .2 9
0.3 C i ................................................ ............0 .6 0 0 .3 2 0 .3 2
0 Forged and norm alized.
b C ast an d annealed.

creep strain of 0.001 is determined. The results obtained from

a family of such curves are plotted as shown in Fig. 10. From
such plots, the relation between stress and temperature shown in
Fig. 11 is obtained for a total creep of 0.001 strain in 100,000
hr based on tests involving only th a t amount of total creep.
Provided th a t no change occurs in the material during service
to affect seriously its behavior, the stress given by Fig. 11 may
be used as working stress. The curve for proportional limit
shown in Fig. 11 indicates the errors involved in using the pro-

portional limit for design purposes where the phenomenon of

creep prevails.
Relation Between Cree-p Rates. The creep rate a t the time
when the limiting creep of 0.001 was obtained has been expressed
by the author as a fraction of the average creep rate and is based
on investigations made by him. The results are shown in Table 3.
For example, it is seen from Fig. 11 th a t a stress of 6 tons per
sq in. at 490 C is expected to produce a creep strain of 0.001 in
100,000 hr and at the end of this period the creep rate according
to the above table would be 0.4 X 10-8 strain per hr.
Influence of Prolonged Heating Upon Creep Properties. Heating
a steel over the period of service is a prolonged thermal treatm ent
which may have im portant effects upon creep properties. I t is
essential, therefore, to investigate the influence of heating in order
to judge whether such a stress-temperature relation as th a t shown
by Fig. 11 would be valid in practice. Fig. 12 shows the results
of investigations in this direction. If there were no preliminary
heating, the time for a total creep strain of 0.001 at 560 C would
be 40 hr. With a preliminary heating of 50 hr, for example, we
A-6 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS

see the time for limiting creep to occur is 27 hr. This curve
shows th at any preliminary heating of less than 20-hr duration
gives an improvement in creep resistance or a stiffening.
Upon the basis of changes in microstructure due to prolonged
TABLE 4
100,000 hours a t
450 C
T im e of h eatin g a t 650 C, h r ................... 4 .9
F ig . 12 E f f e c t U p o n C r e e p o f P r e l i m i n a r y H e a t i n g o f M o l y b ­
d e n u m S t e e l a t 650 C a t a S t r e s s o f 6 T o n s p e r S q I n .
during the early part of the heating. Fig. 10 shows a ehain-dotted
line A B representing a constant heating effect upon microstruc­
ture equivalent to 20 hr a t 650 C. Consequently, assuming that
the creep behavior is in accord with microstructure as was
found in the case of carbon steels examined, the curve A B divides
the area of Fig. 10 into two regions, the area above A B being a
475 C 500 C region where the creep resistance becomes less than the initial value,
2 2 .9 9 4 .1
and the area below a region where superior resistance prevails.
Failure of Low-Alloy High-Creep-Resistant Steels. The author
discusses finally the failure of low-alloy high-creep-resistant
steels. It is concluded th a t “when an alloying element is used
to increase creep resistance, th a t is, resistance of the grains to
deformation, if it does not improve the endurance of the grain
boundaries to a like extent, and the time for the full deformation
of the grains to occur becomes greater than th at for intercrystal­
line separation to take place, failure by the latter mode ensues.”
Fig. 13 shows the development of intergranular failure of a
molybdenum steel under creep as revealed in a photomicrograph.
C o n c l u s io n
An attem pt has been made to deal briefly with some of the
more important factors concerned in the development of a
rational treatm ent of creep for the purpose of engineering design.
In spite of the complicated nature of the phenomenon of creep,
there is no reason why its treatm ent for design should not be
made as satisfactory and reliable as is the treatm ent used for
materials under elastic conditions. The author hopes th at the
paper may be useful as a contribution to this object and th at it
may lead to much needed investigation directed to the under­
standing of creep under a general system of stress.
A cknow ledgm ents

heating, the author has also formulated Table 4 showing the Acknowledgment is due to the directors of the Metropolitan­
time of heating at 650 C to produce an effect equivalent to Vickers Electrical Co., Ltd., for their permission to publish the
100,000 hr at temperatures of 450, 475, and 500 C. This table is m atter contained in the paper,
based on the relation t =
0 0 0 /D ^ w jje r e i = time in
hours; T = absolute tempera­
ture, deg C; e = base of Nape-
rian logarithms; A = a constant
the magnitude of which depends
upon the character of the steel
and its history.
These values have been spotted
on the curve of Fig. 12. The
“450 C” point, for example,
shows that a preliminary heat­
ing at 450 C for 100,000 hr pro­
duces the same resistance to
creep as would heating for 4.9 hr
at 650 C, 4.9 representing the
abscissa of the point. From the
curve we see th a t any prelimi­
nary heating for 100,000 hr below
a temperature of 475 C produces
the same stiffening as a prelimi­
nary heating of 20 hr or less at 650
C. From this it may be in­
ferred th a t the influence of oper­
ating temperatures up to 475
C is to improve the creep resist­
ance of the material. The author
shows further th a t this range
may be extended to 500 C by
making an allowance for the
improved resistance occurring F i g . 13 D e v e l o p m e n t o f I n t e r g r a n u l a r F a il u r e o f a M o l y b d e n u m S t e e l U n d e r C r e e p 1 0 0 X
 T h e C reep of M etals— I I 1
By A. NADAI* and E. A. DAVIS,3 EAST PITTSBU RG H, PA.

In th e follow ing a few sim pler cases o f th e slow flow of

solids w ith particular reference to the creep o f m etals in
the strain-hardening range are treated. These m eans
should perm it considering th e effect o f strain hardening The elastic portion e' = a / E is assumed proportional to stress a
when discussing observations on creep. Creep tests w ith (jE is the modulus of elasticity of the material) while according
soft and strain-hardened copper at room tem perature are
included.

I
F a ductile metal is deformed permanently at low temperature,
the stress a must be increased to produce further plastic
strain e. The stress under which it yields is not changed
much by increasing the speed of stretching, so that in first
approximation the stress a can be expressed by a monotonously
increasing function of the plastic strain e

When temperatures, on the contrary, are sufficiently high, close

to the law of flow of viscous liquids the permanent portion <"
to or above the softening range, the strains e increase with time
increases with stress a according to
t under a constant stress. Even though this stress may be small,
creep shows up after a sufficiently long time. Yielding progresses
more rapidly as the stress becomes larger. The stress a is a
monotonous function of the velocity with which the plastic
deformations change or of the plastic rates of strain u = dt/dt, where <j>is a constant (the coefficient of viscosity of the material
so that for the given state of strain). Differentiating Equation [4]
with respect to time t we have

Equation [1] expresses what is known as strain hardening and

Equation [2] brings out the influence of the speed of deformation
on the yield stress or what is known as viscosity or creep. These quotients may be designated by u, u' and u", respectively,
A few special cases of /(«) and of g(u) which are of general and called the total-, the elastic-, and the plastic-strain rates, so
interest have received attention, such as: th at
(a) The Perfectly Plastic Material: /(e) = Const. In a
general state of stress given by the principal stresses < t\, <r2, a3,
the shearing stress r„ acting in the planes the direction cosines
of which are ± 1 / y/ 3 (the octahedral planes with reference to a
The elastic-strain rate is u ' = 1 /E (da/dt), while the plastic-
cube oriented according to the principal stress planes) has a
strain rate is u" = a/</>. Combining Equations [5] and [6a J, Max­
constant value, where yielding occurs in the body, which can be
well’s equation for the elastico-viscous material is obtained
expressed as

In many applications it is necessary to separate the elastic For ductile metals with a high melting point, such as steel and
(recoverable) portion of a strain from its plastic or permanent copper, Equation [7] cannot be a true expression of the facts at
portion. This is the case, for example, for an elastico-viscous lower temperatures because Equation [7] does not take account
material. of strain hardening and because the plastic speeds of deformation
(b) The Elastico-Viscous Material. Of the total strain e (see it" increase much more rapidly with increasing yield stresses a
Fig. 1) than would follow from the proportional relation given in Equa­
tion [5]. At sufficiently high temperatures where softening
1 For p a rt I see “ The Creep of M etals,” T rans. A .S.M .E ., vol. starts, such a relation as Equation [5] may become quite useful,
55, 1933, paper APM-55-10, p. 61. particularly for amorphous materials such as glass or materials
2 3 Research Laboratories, W estinghouse E lectric and M anufac­ having one im portant constituent which may behave like an
turing Com pany, E ast Pittsburgh, Pa.
Presented a t the Annual M eeting of T h e A m e r i c a n S o c i e t y o f amorphous mass.
M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s , held in New York, N. Y., Decem ber 2 to 6, Experiments on the effect of the speed of deformation4 of the
1935. polycrystalline ductile metals at comparatively low temperatures
Discussion of this paper should be addressed to the Secretary, seem to favor more nearly the logarithmical law of velocity of
A .S.M .E., 29 W est 39th Street, New Y ork, N. Y., and will be accepted
until M ay 10, 1936, for publication a t a later date. plastic yielding.
N o t e : Statem ents and opinions advanced in papers are to be
understood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those 4 See reference in p a rt I of this paper, T rans. A .S.M .E., vol. 55,
of the Society. 1933, APM-55-10.
A-7
A -8 JOURNAL OP A PPL IE D MECHANICS

(c) The Logarithmical Law of Velocity of Plastic Yielding. thought that tests on creep of copper would be of considerable
This may be assumed as
where a0 and u0 are two material constants dependent on the
temperature and on the amount the metal has been strain-
hardened by previous plastic deformation. For very small
velocities, [8] must be replaced by
when —Wo < u < u0.
(d) Power-Function Law. Some observers have suggested
for the velocity law a power function, which may here be written
in the form
interest also in connection with the industrial applications of
this metal. As copper does not age-harden (at least not appre­
ciably in the qualities used ordinarily) it was thought that this
metal would be suitable for the investigation of creep under
somewhat simpler conditions than those which would probably
be encountered in steels or other alloys.
S im u l t a n e o u s S t r a in H a r d e n in g a n d C r e e p
A close examination indicates that copper and mild steel show
the effect of the speed of deformation even at room temperature,
and at the same time they strain-harden. In a working theory
of creep which should cover the range of temperatures beginning
with those under which strain hardening is pronounced, the yield
stress a should appear as a function dependent on the funda­
mental variables, plastic strain e" and strain rate u ’ = d t’/dt.
As yet, it is uncertain whether a function

* = /( « ', V) .............................................. [10 ]

<ro, ut, n are constants, again dependent on the amount of strain which is characteristic for a metal at a given temperature 8
hardening, temperature, etc. Widely differing values of n under a given type of stress, exists which will cover the range
ranging from Vi to 1/n have been mentioned in publications. of permissible stresses. If it should exist, the plastic behavior
Observation has gradually brought out a number of important of a metal could be studied by following the path of curves
factors which influence the slow deformation of stressed metals situated on one and the same characteristic stress surface by
at elevated temperatures.6 The phenomena are known to be of means of which the yield stresses a of Equation [10] could be
a complex nature, because, apart from strain hardening and interpreted geometrically and represented in space, assuming
from the effect of the speed of deformation, creep is influenced t" and u" as the coordinates.
by other circumstances. Metallurgical (structural) changes, All that can be said is that if the state of strain is known and
heat-treatment, age hardening, softening, spheroidization of e" and u" are changed by small increments, the yield stress a
carbide in steels, previous mechanical treatment, and elastic will be changed by a small amount, namely
hysteresis are only a few of these.
Notwithstanding the conceded high complexity of the phe­
nomena with which we are here concerned, attempts have been
made from time to time to interpret the vast amount of existing
where d<r/de', measuring the rate of increase of stress with plastic
experimental results on the creep of metals at elevated tempera­
strain t" keeping the strain rate u' unchanged, can be called the
ture and on related phenomena by mechanical treatment. R. W.
coefficient (or modulus) of strain hardening of the metal
Bailey has on various occasions, and quite recently in an extended
investigation,* worked out the details in a number of important
cases of creep from this general point of view. To these must
be added the cases of relaxation, of bending, and other cases
treated by C. R. Soderberg,7 by G. H. MacCullough* and H.
Hencky.9 In consideration of these hopeful attempts, analysis
of the creep phenomena of the metals based on a minimum of
assumptions appears to be of special interest. It seems desirable
to develop further means which will be similar to those already
extensively used by engineers in designing machine parts stressed
in the elastic range of strains and which will provide for a better
utilization of creep data. In the following discussion the phe­
Using Equations [12] and [13], Equation [11] can be rewritten
nomena of age hardening and softening will be excluded.
as
Although copper is one of the most used metals in the electrical
industry, information with regard to its creep and related plastic
properties even at room temperature is very scarce. It was
As already stated, the total strain t is the sum of the elastic
1 “Working Stresses for High-Temperature Service,” by P. G. strain e' and the plastic strain e*. Thus
MoVetty, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 56, 1934, p. 149. Also
"Factors Affecting Choice of Working Stress for High-Temperature
Service,” Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 55, 1933, paper APM-55-13, p. 99.
• “The Utilization of Creep Test Data in Engineering Design,”
by R. W. Bailey, preprinted paper, Institution of Mechanical Engi­
neers, London, read at meeting November 22, 1935.
7 “Working Stresses,” by C. R. Soderberg, Trans. A.S.M.E.,
vol. 55, 1933, paper APM-55-16, p. 131. Also “Zulassige Bean-
spruchungen im Maschinenbau, ” by C. R. Soderberg, Schweizerische
Bauzeitung, vol. 104, 1934, p. 127.
• “Applications of Creep Tests,” by G. H. MaoCullough, Trans. where u, u', and u" are the corresponding strain rates.
A.S.M.E., vol. 55, 1933, paper APM-55-12, p. 87. If strains in a tensile test become finite and comparable with
• “The New Theory of Plasticity, Strain Hardening, and Creep,
and the Testing of the Inelastic Behavior of Metals,” by H. Hencky, unity, the true stress a has to be distinguished from the load
Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 55, 1933, paper APM-55-18, p. 151. stress s. The latter is the load P divided by the original area
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
At, while true stress is a = P /A , where A is the area of the bar
when it carries the stress a. We have
<7 = (1 + e ' ) s .................................. [17]
Differentiating Equation [17] partially with respect to t '
d<r/be' = = s + (1 + t’)d s/d t’ .............. [17a]
At the maximum load s = s„, where sm is the ultimate strength,
d s/de" = 0. If f" — is the corresponding strain, we have
Therefore, when t ’ < tm", > sm. The strain-hardening
coefficient is larger than the ultimate strength sm of the metal.
Equations [14], [15], and [17] serve as the equations for the
computation of the changes in stress or strain with time t, etc.,
in special cases.
F io . 2 C o n d it io n o f S t r e s s -S t r a i n C u r v e s a t C o n b t a n t -S t r a in
R a t e s W h e n a S t r e s s S u r f a c e D o e s N o t E x is t
The condition for the existence of a stress surface a — /(«", u")
can now be stated. It is that Equation [14] must be a complete
differential or that
If this is the case, a unique stress surface a = /(« ’, u') exists
characteristic of the metal at the given temperature and under
the given state of stress.
Fig. 2 shows what may occur with the stress-strain curves
observed in tensile tests when keeping the speed of stretching
constant, when a stress surface does not exist. Suppose that
two bars of the same metal have been prestretched in the same
way. The initial conditions of both bars being the same and
given by point Pi in Fig. 2 or the values « /, Hi', ah suppose
that the first bar is now stretched further under the initial
strain rate u ’ = Ui" = const. A curve P\A will be obtained.
Beginning at point A when stress a = a2, the stress shall be kept
constant. The bar will creep similarly as in an ordinary long­
time creep test made under the condition a = <rj = const, with
gradually decreasing strain rates until finally a point Pj is reached,
where «' = «»' and u ’ = Uj'. With the second bar, the same
two types of tests shall be made, however, in reversed order:
First, the creep-test holding stress a = at = const, is made
until the strain rate becomes u" — itt", then the bar is stretched
under this constant strain rate tta' to a final stress a = a, (point
Pi). When the two final points Pi and P» are reached, the
plastic strains are the same (e /), also the strain rates are the
same (u»'); however, the yield stresses are not the same a, =)= <ri.
It becomes apparent that two separate stress-strain curves
corresponding to the same constant strain rate u ’ = Ui' = const.,
have been obtained since such curves must pass through both
A-9
of the final points P% and P». Their orientation and shape in
the a-e" plane therefore depend on the preceding operations.
Dividing Equation [14] by dt furnishes the rate of change of
stress with time
For this rate we have two additional expressions. From Equa­
tion [16] we see that
and after differentiating Equation [17] with respect to t we also
obtain
In case strains remain small after equating formulas [19] and
[19a], the differential equation for
is obtained, which serves for solving various problems of this
kind related to small creep. A few special cases and applications
of Equation [20] will now be treated.
S p e c ia l C a s e s
(a) Creep Under Constant Stress. Assuming that strains are
quite small and that a = const., from Equation [14] with da — 0
it follows that
From this, the creep curve t ' = /(<) under a constant stress as
usually observed in long-time tests can be derived. Assume
for example that
are known functions of «' and u “, respectively. Then Equation
[21] can be integrated by separation of the variables. This is
an example for the existence of a stress function or stress surface
having the general form
•r = F , ( 0 + F ,( u ' ) .............................. [23]
A conclusion following from Equation [21] is that for a metal
that does not strain-harden (4* — 0)
The creep rates being u ’ = const., the creep-time curves «' = f(t)
observed in long-time tests under constant stress must consist
of a family of straight lines when the metal does not strain-
harden. For metals still in the strain-hardening range, when due
to long-time exposure to elevated temperature, the strain-
hardening coefficient gradually starts to decrease with time t,
the curvature of the creep-time curve will later tend to de­
crease. In the following two examples, strain hardening shall
be excluded.
1 For an elastico-viscous material with constant viscosity,
excluding strain hardening, we have \fr = 0 and <j> — const, and
A-10 JOURNAL OP A PPLIED MECHANICS

the total strain is
The constant <t>/E in formula [6] has the dimension of a time
and may be designated as a “relaxation tim e” tr = <t>/E, so called
of the origin 0. The time t to reach a given permissible strain
ei under a given stress <r is shown by the dashed curve of Fig. 3
marked “permissible stress.” Writing E ti = a\, we see also
th at the permissible stress a is given by

The relaxation curve according to formula [c] is also indicated

in Fig. 3.
2 For an elastico-viscous material with a variable viscosity
excluding strain hardening and corresponding to a general speed
relation
u ” = }{<r) ..............................................[h]

the total strain would become

6 = | +ftft........................ {i\
Using as an example, the logarithmical-speed law according to
Equation [8] or
Z.----i
u " = / (< r ) = Mo e™ .................................. [ ; ]

(u" > Mo) a total strain would be obtained

a - —1
e = - + Unte™ ........................ [fc]
E
This family of straight creep lines is shown in Fig. 4.

F ig . 3 C r e e p a n d R e l a x a t io n C u r v e s f o r E l a s t ic o -V is c o u s
M a t e r ia l

because in the case of relaxation the decreasing stress a is given

by the following function of time

we see that the time required under a given stress a = const,

to produce in a bar of a viscous material a plastic strain e" just F ig . 4 C r e e p C u r v e s f o r C o n sta n t St r e s s and fo r t h e L aw of
equal to the elastic strain «' = <r/E is the relaxation time tr. L o g a r it h m ic S t r a in R a t e
The total strain expressed by formula [6 ] is also given by (ct = trą [1 4- l n ( u " / u o ) ] . N o s tr a i n h a rd e n in g .)

Formula [e] furnishes the time t in which a given total and per­
missible strain ti would be reached in a creep test made under a
constant stress
The straight lines, for values of a > <r0, have the envelope
t — — tre Those for values of a < o-0, below the line A B,
pass through the point C.
(6) Constant Load s = Const. Assuming strains not neces­
sarily small, from Equation [17] on account of ds = 0, we have
from Equation [196] da/dt = su” and Equation [14] becomes

For an elastico-viscous material the familiar creep curves e = f(t), (c) Constant Strain Rate u = de/dt = Const. The right side
obtained under constant stress, consist of a family of straight in Equation [20] has to be taken constant.
lines passing through a common point C in Fig. 3 situated at a (d) Relaxation of Stress Considering Strain Hardening. (The
distance OC = —tT equal to the relaxation time tr to the left Turbine-Bolt Problem.) C. R. Soderberg7 has emphasized the
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
importance of considering strain hardening in various problems
related to creep. One application to which he particularly called
attention is concerned with the turbine-bolt problem at high
temperatures, for which he developed the means. Suppose th at
the creep law of the bolt material is known at the temperature
to be considered. It is required to find the stress a at any time t
(service times of turbines to be considered) when the initial
stress <t\ after tightening the bolt is given. Creep occurs here
under the condition that the total strain e remains unchanged.
If £i" designates the value of the plastic strain c" at the time
t = 0 when relaxation of stress starts, we have the condition
The modulus E of the metal has to be reduced to an “apparent”
and smaller modulus in case the ends of the bar or bolt are con­
nected with other elastic machine parts.
The equivalent condition is also that
which is the same as to say that relaxation of stress is the special
case of yielding under a constant (total) strain rate, u = const.
= 0. Although when w = 0, there is still a plastic-strain rate,
u" 0, which according to Equation [26] is given by
in which plastic-strain rate is proportional to the stress rate.
From Equation [20], with u = 0, follows the equation for u"
This shall be used assuming first th a t the logarithmical law of
speed is valid according to Equation [8] or
from which it is seen that the viscosity coefficient for this law is
simply
From Equations [29] and [30a] it follows
Second, assume th at the strain-hardening coefficient ^ is a known
function of stress i/-(a). The variable u" in Equation [31] can
now be replaced by the variable stress a according to Equation
[30a], and Equation [31] can be integrated, furnishing the
relaxation curve a = V(() in the form
If we take ^ = 0, that is, for a material that does not strain-
harden, we obtain the relation between stress a and time t
A -ll
(e) I t may be noted th a t the cases a, b, and d previously
mentioned are all special cases of solving the same equation
C o n s t a n t S t r a in - H a r d e n in g C o e f f ic ie n t a n d I d e n t it y
of the C r e e p a n d R e l a x a t io n C u r v e
Another conclusion of interest for the application of the pre­
viously given Equations may be drawn. Assume th a t the metal
has been strain-hardened first by a previous deformation in
some known way, so th a t the initial state of strain in the metal
at time t = 0 is given by / = 0, ei", ui", <n. If, due to creep,
new additional but small permanent strains are produced the
strain-hardening coefficient tp = dcr/de" may be assumed as
lA = const........................................ [36]
In other words, the stress-strain curve
u " = const., shown as OPQ in Fig. 5,
is replaced in the neighborhood of point
P by its tangent P T when additional
but small strains are considered.
The factor \p + K appearing in
Equation [34] becomes a constant and
this can be integrated for any general
velocity law, expressed by
(a) Obtaining the Creep Curves for a Constant Strain-Hardening
Coefficient. Application shall be made assuming the logarithmical
speed law corresponding to a viscosity coefficient <j> = <r0/ u" as
given in Equation [30a].
Equations [34] and [35] give
Integrating with the initial condition t = 0 and u" = Ui", the
plastic-strain rate
and after a second integration, the equation of the creep curve is
found to be
where Ui" is the initial creep rate with which the creep starts.
If a new quantity
is introduced as a variable relaxation time tr, depending on the
stress <r, the creep curves assume the shape
A-12 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
hardening clearly appears in their curvature when Fig. 6 is com­
pared with Figs. 3 and 4.
(6) Relaxation for Constant Strain-Hardening Coefficient. Sup­ to relaxation. This is being investigated in tests on relaxation
pose again that \J/ = const, and <t> — a<,/u’, the corresponding under progress.
F iq . 6 C b eep C u b v es fo b C o n s ta n t S tre s s a n d fo b th e L aw o f
L o g a rith m ic S t r a i n R a th
(S train -h ard en in g coefficient it — const.)
F iq . 7 C r e e p C urve
F io . 8 R e l a x a t io n C u h v k
relaxation problem, e = const., is solved simply by replacing the
constant in Equation [38] by the constant ^ + E, so that the
value of a is now
To find the decrease of stress at — <r with time t we have to
remember that it is proportional to the increase of the plastic
strains e" — ti" according to Equation [26]. Thus, the decrease
of stress in a bolt is given by
Equation [38], from which Equations [40] and [45] were
deduced, has the same form as a special equation of the motion
of a material point moving along a straight line, the distance of
which from a fixed point at time t is x and which is slowed down
by a resistance proportional to the square of the velocity u =
dx/dt. The equation of the motion is given by
x = xt + - In (1 + Puit)
(3
where Xi and Ui are the initial values of x and u at time t = 0.
Creep and relaxation under the assumptions introduced as to
strain hardening and viscosity respond to the same type of time
functions as shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
It should be noted that elastic hysteresis and other circum­
stances may have a marked effect on the decrease of stress due
G e n t l e T e n s il e - I m pa c t T e s t s — C r e e p o p C o p p e r
at R oom T e m pe r a t u r e
Cylindrical bars were tested in tension at room temperature
by increasing the load in small equal steps using weights hanging
on a horizontal lever.10 Each load increment was suddenly
applied and the load kept constant for a certain time, during
which the increase in strain was carefully observed by means
of a Martens extensometer, the gage length of which was 50 mm.
The bars had a diameter of 0.505 in., a 3-in. cylindrical length,
and fillets at the screwed heads. They were annealed at 650 C
for l/j hour. The increment of load stress was As = 1250 lb
per sq in. Plotting load stress s against total strain «, diagrams
such as marked 2 and 3 in Fig. 9 were obtained. Curve 1 in
Fig. 9 for continuous loading was observed on a 10-ton Amsler
F iq . 9 S t r e s s -S t b a in R e l a t io n f o r V a r io u s T e n s i l e T e s t s o f
C opper
machine using an average testing speed of stretching u — 0.125
per cent per minute. Line 2 shows the steps of loading, using
time intervals (during which the load was not changed) of 24
hours; line 3 shows a similar test with time intervals of only 10
minutes. The observed creep-time t = fit) curves corresponding
to the 10-minute and the 24-hour intervals are shown in Figs. 10
and 11 on semilogarithmical plottings, the abscissas of which are
log-time and the ordinates are total creep strain. The new
strain was always measured from the time at which a new load
increment was added to the load.
The figures inscribed on Figs. 10 and 11 are the load stress
s = const., computed with the original area of the bar. Some
of these inclined lines do not appear to be distributed evenly
according to the values of the loads; in one or two cases even
intersections appear. This is due to the high initial velocity of
stretching with which each test starts after the sudden applica­
tion of a new load increment. The slopes of the straight lines
" Acknowledgments are expressed to P. G. McVetty for offering
facilities to make these tests in long-time creep machines.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-13

F io . 1 0 O b s e r v e d C re e p -T im e C u r v e s a t C o n s t a n t L o a d
D u r in g 1 0 -M in u te T e s t s o n S o f t C o p p e r a t N o r m a l T e m p e ra ­
tu re s

F ig . 11 O b s e rv e d C re e p -T im e C u r v e s a t C o n s t a n t L o a d F ig . 13 I n t e r p o l a t e d C re e p -T im e C u r v e s a t C o n s t a n t L o a d
D u rin g 2 4 -H o u r T e s ts o n S o f t C o p p e r a t N o rm a l T e m p e ra tu re s D u r in g 2 4 -H o u r T e s ts o n S o f t C o p p e r a t N o rm a l T e m p e ra tu re s .
A-14 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS

TABLE 2 R E S U L T S O F 1 0 -M IN U T E T E S T S
curves must be omitted here. However, these tests show similar
T e s t n o ......................................... 1 2 3 4 5 6 results, but at the higher stresses gave slightly lower values of
P la s tic s tr a i n eo", p e r c e n t . . 1 .5 2 2 .0 2 2 .6 6 3 .2 7 3 .9 3 4 .6 6
a o lb p e r s q i n .......................... 38 45 52 59 66 74 o-0 than were obtained in the 24-hour tests.

drawn as tangents to the curves at their right ends were corre­

lated in auxiliary diagrams (not reproduced here) with load
stress s. After correcting them also for the elastic strains, the
semilogarithmic plottings of portions of the creep curves e" =
/(<), shown in Figs. 12 and 13, were obtained. A relation of the
form of Equation [40] should furnish, for sufficiently large
values of time t in a semilogarithmical plot, curves approaching
inclined straight lines. The values of Mi" could not be deter­
mined accurately enough, on account of the extremely high
initial creep rates found by our observations and also predicted
by the theory based on a logarithmical-speed law. The inertia
of the lever system and other conditions would affect th at first
portion of the creep-time curve which is covered during the first
fractions of a second after the sudden application of a new load.
Neglecting inertia, it is well to consider what happens when a
small but finite increment of load As is suddenly applied. The
elastic strain e' increases instantaneously by the amount As/E;
the plastic strain, however, needs time for its production. After
a finite increase of load As is instantaneously created, a very
high plastic rate of strain u" = d t”/d t occurs. By using Equa­
tion [40], the difference in two observed creep values e2" — ei" F ig . 14 E f f e c t o f S t r a in H a r d e n in g o n V a l u e s o f iro O b t a in e d
F ro m C o n s t a n t - L oad T e s t s o n C o p p e r
for two large values of time t-i — t\ is found to be
Another check can be made by utilizing Equations [39] which
show th a t the plastic-creep rates u" should decrease according
to a hyperbola with time t. For sufficiently large values of time
and serves for the determination of the constant <r0. Choosing
i?/ti equal to 10 we obtain for the constant
u" = -
at

Two creep tests gave for the creep rates at times t the values
If the plastic-strain rate is increased ten times, according to
shown in Table 3.
Equation [8], this will produce an increase in the yield stress
which is equal to 2.303 <r0. The constant aa, therefore, is 0.434
times the increase in yield stress when the speed is increased
ten times.
Table 1 contains the observations with reference to the 24-hour
tests and shows in the last line the values for the constant <r0
computed from these creep tests.
Table 2 gives the corresponding values of <r0 derived from the
10-minute tests. Cold work (strain hardening) due to previous Sum mary
stretching of the test bars is indicated in both tables by the
Means are developed to include strain hardening when dis­
values of eo" or <r.
cussing observations on creep of metals. A number of cases of
Both tables show that the constant <r0 increases with the
creep under varying conditions were considered. Tests seem to
amount of previous cold work. These values of uo are indicated
support the logarithmical-speed law for copper at room tempera­
in Fig. 14. Those obtained in the much more rapid tests of
ture at the high speeds of deformation realized in these tests.
10-minute duration are higher than the values of <r0 derived from
the slower tests of 24-hour duration; an influence of the speed A cknow ledgm ents
on the values of cro therefore seems probable.
In Fig. 14 two further observation points are marked by two Acknowledgments are expressed to L. W. Chubb, director of
large circles. They were obtained from comparatively slow the Westinghouse Research Laboratories for having made these
tests at constant-strain rates. investigations possible and to Messrs. R. A. McCarty, B. A.
A number of additional creep tests were made on one copper Rose (East Pittsburgh, Pa.), N. L. Mochel, and R. C. Soderberg
bar keeping the loads constant in a hydraulic 30-ton Amsler (South Philadelphia, Pa.) for their interest in these and related
machine for several hours. On account of lack of space these questions.
T w o- a n d T h ree-D im ensional Cases of S tress
C o n cen tratio n , a n d C o m p ariso n W ith
F atig u e T ests
By R. E. PETERSO N 1 a n d A. M. WAHL,2 EAST PITTSBU RG H, PA.

This paper reports th e results o f a study o f som e two-
and three-dim ensional cases o f stress d istribution w ith
particular reference to sh afts having fillets or transverse
holes, these being o f considerable practical im portance.
To determ ine the stress-concentration factor kt in such
cases, strain m easurem ents were m ade, using a specially
developed extensom eter w ith a gage length o f 0.1 in. The
results o f these strain m easurem ents indicate th a t for
shaft fillets in bending (three-dim ensional case) th e stress-
concentration factor kt is little different from th e values
obtained photoelastically on flat specim ens having the
same r/d. ratio (a tw o-dim ensional case). A com parison
of these values o f k.t (both for shafts w ith fillets and w ith
transverse holes), w ith data from fatigue tests, leads to th e
following observations: (1) In som e cases fatigue results
are quite close to theoretical stress-concentration values.
(2) Fatigue results for alloy steels and quenched carbon
steels are usually closer to theoretical values th an are
th e corresponding fatigue results for carbon steels not
quenched. (3) With decrease in size o f specim en, the re­
duction in fatigue strength due to a fillet or hole becom es
som ew hat less; and for very sm all fillets or holes th e re­
duction in fatigue strength is com paratively sm all. (4)
Sensitivity factors determ ined for sm all specim ens should
not be applied to th e design o f m achine parts regardless of
size.
1— INTRODUCTION
elastic theory, i.e., mathematical analysis, photoelastic tests, or
strain measurements.
2—TWO- AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL CASES OF STRESS
DISTRIBUTION AND STRAIN MEASUREMENTS ON
LARGE STEEL SHAFTS
G eneral
For the purpose of establishing a correlation between theoreti­
cal stress-concentration values and those obtained by fatigue
tests, two cases are of special interest, particularly since consider­
able fatigue-test data involving such cases are available. These
are (1) the shaft with a fillet and (2) the shaft with a transverse
hole. Although no analytical solutions have been obtained for
either of these cases, it was felt th a t because of the similarity of
(1) to the case of a flat bar having a notch or fillet (which has been
solved photoelastically) a study of mathematical and photoelastic
solutions of such cases would be of considerable interest. In ad­
dition, it was decided to make actual strain measurements on
large steel shafts having fillets or transverse holes, in order to
obtain stress-concentration factors which would be directly com­
parable with the results of fatigue tests. Since the stress peaks
existing near such discontinuities (holes or fillets) are very
sharp, a special short-gage-length extensometer was developed
for this purpose.
C o m p a r is o n o f M a t h e m a t ic a l a n d P h o t o e l a s t ic S t r e s s -
CoNCENTRATlON FACTORS FOR N O TCHES AND F lL L E T S

H E results of studies of stress distribution in two-dimen­ Some interesting work on the stress distribution in notches of

T sional cases based on elastic theory (mathematical or

photoelastic methods) have been regarded skeptically, and
not without justification, when considering the design of machine
hyperbolic profile was carried out by Neuber.3 Among the cases
of stress distribution mathematically investigated were those of
the notch of hyperbolic form in a flat plate (plane notch) shown
parts, which are nearly always three-dimensional cases. Yet it in sketch a, Fig. 1; and the notch turned out of the solid to a hy­
has been known for some time that, in certain instances, fatigue perbolic shape (turned notch); the former being the two-dimen­
tests of specimens with fillets have given results close to the theo­ sional case and the latter the corresponding three-dimensional
retical values. It is proposed in this paper to examine this ques­ one. For mathematical convenience the branches of the hy­
tion in closer detail, as the implications are of considerable im­ perbola are assumed to extend to infinity. While these par­
portance. This examination will follow two lines: (1) A study ticular cases do not occur in practice, the stress distribution in the
of some theoretical cases of stress concentration, particularly neighborhood of the minimum cross section may not be much
with reference to a comparison of two-dimensional and three- different than would be the case in the deep circular form of
dimensional cases; and (2) an examination of fatigue-test data notch, shown in sketch b in Fig. 1, which is of practical impor­
and a comparison of these data with the theoretical results. The tance.
word “theoretical” will be used in this paper to denote stress- The results obtained mathematically by Neuber3 have been
concentration values obtained by any method based on the plotted in Fig. 1 in the form of curves, with stress-concentration
factors fc, as ordinates and r/d ratios as abscissas. In the ratio
1 Manager, Mechanics Division, Westinghouse Research Labora­
tories, East Pittsburgh, Pa. 3 “Elastische-strenge Lósungen zur Kerbwirkung bei Scheiben und
2 Research Engineer, Westinghouse Research Laboratories, East Umdrehungskorpern,” by H. P. Neuber, Zeitschrift fiir angewandte
Pittsburgh, Pa. Mathematik und Mechanik, vol. 13, 1933, p. 439. Also, “Der Raum-
Discussion of this paper should be addressed to the Secretary, lich Spannungszustand in Umdrehungskerben,” by H. P. Neuber,
A.S.M.E., 29 West 39th Street, New York, N. Y., and will be ac­ Ingenieur-Archiv., vol. 6, 1935, p. 133. Also, “Zur Theorie der Kerb­
cepted until May 10, 1936, for publication at a later date. Discus­ wirkung bei Biegung und Schub,” by H. P. Neuber, Ingenieur-
sion received after this date will be returned. Archiv., vol. 5, 1934, p. 238. Also, “Ein Neuer Ansatz zur Losung
N o t e : Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be Raumlich Probleme der Elastizitatstheorie,” by H. P. Neuber,
understood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, vol. 14, 1934, p.
of the Society. 203.
A-15
A -l 6 JOURNAL OF A PP L IE D MECHANICS
r/d, r is the minimum notch radius and d is the diameter or width
of the minimum section. Curves 1 and 2 in Fig. 1 represent
values obtained for plane and turned notches in tension, while
curves 3 and 4 show similar values for notches in pure bending.
F ig . 1 S t b e s s - C o n c e n t r a t io n F a c t o r s f o b N o t c h e s a n d F i l l e t s
In calculating these factors for the turned notches, a value of
Poisson’s ratio of 0.3 was taken, this value being commonly used
for steel. It may be seen from these curves that the plane notch
shows a somewhat higher stress-concentration value than the
corresponding turned notch, the difference being quite pro­
nounced in tension. In the case of pure bending, which is of
most practical importance, the difference between the two cases
is small, around 6 to 8 per cent for notches of practical dimensions.
Since the stress distribution in a fillet is similar to that in a notch
having the same r/d ratio, it would also be expected that the
factor k, for the turned fillet should not differ greatly from that for
the plane fillet.
The dashed curves 5 and 6 in Fig. 1 represent values of k, deter­
mined from photoelastic tests on deep notches of circular form by
Frocht.4 The experimental points on these curves were deter­
mined by extrapolating the curves of Figs. 3 and 4 of Frocht’s
paper4 to large values of the ratio h/r, which would correspond to
a relatively deep notch. In the ratio h/r, h is the depth of the
notch and r is the radius of the notch. It may be seen that
curves 5 and 6 (representing plane notches of circular profile)
agree fairly well with the corresponding curves 1 and 3 (represent­
ing the hyperbolic profile) for ratios r/d between 0.15 and 0.5.
This indicates that, for these ratios, the peak stress, in the case of
the deep circular notch, is little different from that in the corre­
sponding hyperbolic notch.
For comparison, a curve for plane fillets in bending as obtained
from Frocht’s tests4 for a ratio D /d = 2 is shown by curve 7 of
Fig. 1. It will be noted that this curve has a shape very similar
to those representing turned and plane notches of hyperbolic
' “Factors of Stress Concentration Photoelastically Determined,”
by M . M . Frocht, J o u b n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n i c s , Trans. A.S.M.E.,
vol. 57, June, 1935, p. A-67.
profile and yields values of k, slightly lower than for deep notches
having the same r/d ratio.
D e s c r ip t io n o p S h o r t -G a g e - L e n g t h E x t e n s o m e t e r
A sketch showing the principle of operation of the short-gage-
length extensometer used for the strain measurements is shown in
Fig. 2, while a view of the instrument clamped to a shaft fillet of
about V«-in. radius is shown in Fig. 3. Referring to Fig. 2a, the
extensometer consists essentially of two points B and B ' which
are pressed against the test specimen by the clamping load P.
These points are held together by the flexible strips S. If points
B and B ' move apart due to strain,‘the movable lever arm T will
pivot about the point O where the axes of the two strips intersect.
The lever arms T and T ' are formed of light hollow tubes. Re­
ferring now to Fig. 2b, any relative motion of the points B and B '
is thus communicated to the targets A after being magnified by
the lever ratio. A microscope M having a micrometer eye-piece
is focused on the targets A . In this manner the relative motion of
the ends of the extensometer may be accurately measured.
F ig . 2 S k etc h o f t h e Sh obt-G ag e-L e n o t h E x t en so m et eb
Referring to Fig. 3, the points B, the lever arms T, the targets
A , the microscope M, and the magnet N with attached clamping
arrangement may be clearly seen. The small size of the gage
length as compared with the fillet radius is readily apparent from
Fig. 3.
A sketch showing the principle of clamping the instrument is
shown in Fig. 4. An arm attached to the extensometer has a
flexible strip C a t its end, thus forming, with the two knife-edges
B, a tripod arrangement. The clamping load P is produced by
the spring S attached to the magnet. This clamping load was
held constant, by compressing the spring a definite amount, in
order th a t the calibration of the instrument would not be affected
by variations in this pressure. The flexible strips A and A ' allow
slight deformations of the specimen to take place without intro­
ducing on the extensometer lateral loads which would affect the
reading. Likewise, the flexible strip C allows deformations to
take place between the knife-edges B and the end of the arm with­
out causing slippage of these edges. The arrangement for tilting
the strips A and A ' at an angle so th at the instrument may be
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-17

clamped against a fillet (not shown on Fig. 4) may be clearly seen
in Fig. 3.
Load-strain curves obtained by means of this extensometer on
steel shafts were found practically to be straight lines within the
elastic limit of the material. I t was also found th a t the instru­
ment could be removed and reclamped to the test specimen and
the readings easily repeated within 1V 2 per cent.
S t r a in M e a s u r e m e n t s o n L a r g e S t e e l S h a f t s W it h F il l e t s
The constant of the instrument, in pounds per square inch per
millimeter reading of the microscope, was obtained by clamping
it to the middle part A of the tapered portion of the shafts as
shown in Fig. 5a and Fig. 56. The slope of this taper was so
determined as to give practically a constant stress near A . This
stress could be figured from the known load, shaft diameter, and

A sketch showing the dimensions and method of loading (for

making strain measurements) of a large steel shaft with a fillet is
shown in Fig. 5a. To insure definite points of application for the
loads and reactions, the shaft was supported on knife-edges at the
neutral axis as indicated and the load P was applied through a
knife-edge. In all cases the ratio D /d of the large diameter to the
small one was kept constant at 1.5, while the fillet radius r was
varied. Three series of strain measurements were made with r —
2 in., 1.125 in., and 0.67 in., giving ratios r/d = 0.5, 0.281, and F ig . 4 M e t h o d o f C l a m p in g t h e E x t e n s o m e t e r o n t h e S u r f a c h
o f t h e S p e c im e n
0.167, respectively. As may be seen, the shaft was made rela­
tively long so that disturbances due to the proximity of the reac­
tions would be negligible.
The peak stress in the fillet was determined by making strain
measurements at several points, both in the lateral and longitu-

dinal directions. From the strains, the stress could be computed

using the known formula6 for two-dimensional stress, i.e.,
where <rx is the stress in the z-direction; ex and e„ are the unit
strains in the x- and ^/-directions; E is the modulus of elasticity of
the material; and m is Poisson’s ratio. Care was taken not to
stress the material above the yield point in the most highly
stressed portions.
6 “ S trength of M aterials,” by S. Tim oshenko, D. Van N ostrand
Com pany, New York, N. Y., 1934, vol. 1, p. 58.
lever arms. This made it possible to include the magnification
constant of the extensometer and the modulus of elasticity of the
material in one factor, determined by a calibration curve with
the extensometer clamped at A . Poisson’s ratio was determined
by measuring the lateral strains on the tapered part of the shaft
and was found to be 0.292 for the medium-carbon steel which was
used.
To determine the stress-concentration factor k, at any given
r/d ratio, the peak stress <rmax was first determined by strain
measurements. The moment M A (determined by the method
illustrated in Fig. 6) acting at the plane of the peak stress, di-
A-18 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS

vided by the section modulus Z = wd3/ 32 of the shaft gave the The method of clamping the extensometer to the edge of the
nominal computed stress a. The stress-concentration factor6 is hole is indicated in Fig. 8. To avoid sidewise slippage of the
then points, the clamping load was applied obliquely as indicated;
thus the knife-edges press directly on the edge of the hole at the
location of the peak stress.
In this case the stress-concentration factor was taken as
The experimental points in Fig. 7 indicate values of k, which were
determined in this manner for the three fillet tests on the fillets
shown in Fig. 5a with values of r/d = 0.5, 0.281, and 0.167,
respectively. where ffma* is the peak stress as obtained by strain measurements
Curves obtained photoelastically by Frocht4 on flat specimens and a the nominal bending stress figured from the known bending
(case b in Fig. 7), are shown for comparison the dotted curve repre­ moment M divided by the section modulus Z, calculated on the
senting values for ratios of D /d = 1.5 and the full lines similar basis of the net section through the hole.
ones for D/d = 2. I t will be noted th a t the points obtained by
strain measurements on the large steel shafts having ratios of D/d
= 1.5 (three-dimensional case) agree well with the photoelastic
curve7 obtained on flat specimens (two-dimensional case), both

F ig . 8 M e t h o d o f C l a m p in g E x t e n s o m e t e r a t t h e E d g e o f a
H o l e in a S h a ft

for D /d = 1.5 and D /d — 2. I t is of interest th a t for the latter

two cases there is little difference in the stress-concentration
values. The fact th a t the factors k, for the two- and three-
dimensional fillet cases agree well would also be expected on the
basis of Neuber’s3 results.
S t r a in M e a s u r e m e n t s o n L a r g e S h a f t s W it h T r a n s v e r s e
H oles

For comparison with fatigue-test results, obtained by bending

tests on round specimens with transverse holes, stress-concentra­
tion factors k, were determined by strain measurements on large
7V4-in. diameter steel shafts having transverse holes of the differ­
ent diameters shown in Fig. 56. Shafts having values of a/d =
0.138, 0.207, and 0.276, corresponding to hole diameters of 1,
l l/ 2, and 2 in., respectively, were tested using the short-gage-
length extensometer described previously. Again a taper was
machined on the shaft to determine the modulus of elasticity of
the material. In the ratio a/d, a is the hole diameter and d is the
F ig . 9 S t r e s s - C o n c e n t r a t io n F a c t o r s f o r S h a f t s W it h T r a n s ­
shaft diameter.
verse H o l e s a s D e t e r m i n e d b y S t r a in M e a s u r e m e n t s
6 If the m om ent M b (Fig. 6) acting a t the sta rt of the fillet were
used, the value of kt would be increased slightly (from 1 to 2l/ t per A curve of the stress-concentration factors obtained by these
cent in the present instance, depending on r/d). I t is believed th a t strain measurements for the previously mentioned values of a/d
the use of the m om ent M a gives a more representative value.
7 Sim ilar strain m easurem ents, m ade using Huggenberger ex- is shown in Fig. 9 where the circles represent the experimental re­
tensom eters on a large shaft w ith r / d = 0.3, yielded a value kt = sults. Since for a very small hole (a/d near 0) this curve may be
1.38. Because of the short gage length used (0.3 in.) and the small expected to approach 3 (the value for a small hole in a tension
deflection of the pointer of the extensom eter, the possible error in this
te st is believed to be larger th an th a t involved in using the short-
field), it has been extended to this value as indicated by the
gage-length extensom eter described in this paper, although the result dashed line. However, the dashed portion of the curve should be
agrees well w ith the photoelastic curve shown in Fig. 7. considered as giving only a rough approximation.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-19

3—COMPARISON OF FATIGUE-TEST DATA WITH

THEORETICAL STRESS-CONCENTRATION FACTORS
In addition to making use of fatigue data as found in the litera­
ture, it was thought worth while in this connection to run several
new series of fatigue specimens having a fillet or a transverse hole,
covering a wide variation in size. The materials used are given
in Table 1.
Specimens varied in diameter from 0.1 in. to 3 in. The smaller
specimens were taken at a radius in the bar corresponding to the
surface of the large specimens; all were checked to be of approxi­
mately the same hardness. Special precautions were taken in
preparing the specimens, i.e., light finishing cuts were taken,
fillets were very carefully polished, and holes were reamed. All
small fillets were measured on a Zeiss comparator and the radius
controlled accurately in this manner; this was found to be quite
important. The principal dimensions of the large specimens are
given in Fig. 10. The large fatigue-testing machines have been
described elsewhere.8
The fatigue data obtained in connection with the previously men-
A-20 JOURNAL OF A PPL IE D MECHANICS

mens were not available.11 A plot of the kf values is shown in

Fig. 15 in relation to size of specimen. Corresponding values of
stress-concentration factor k, from Figs. 7 and 9 are also shown.
Some of the interesting features of these curves will be discussed
later.
It is possible to derive from Fig. 15 another type of representa­
tion which shows the extent to which theoretical values are
reached, by obtaining values of

This term may be called a “sensitivity index,” which implies a

measure of the degree to which a given material responds to the
effect of stress concentration. The values are measured on a

Fio. 15 F a t i g u e - T e s t R e s u l t s f o b S e v e r a l S e r i e s o f V a r i a b l e
S iz e b u t G e o m e t r i c a l l y S i m i l a r S p e c im e n s H a v i n g a T r a n s ­
v e r s e H o le (U p p e r C h a r t) o r a F i l l e t (L o w e r C h a r t)

tioned program are given in Figs. 11, 12, 13, and 14. Supplemen­
tary data on tests of specimens with transverse holes have been
previously reported9 for the 0.45 per cent carbon steel and for
0.57 per cent carbon steel (quenched and drawn). Fio. 16 D a t a o n S e n s itiv ity o f S e v e r a l S t e e l s t o S tr e s s -C o n -
In comparing fatigue results with theoretical stress-concentra­ c e n t r a t i o n E f f e c t i n F a t i g u e S p e c im e n s H a v i n g a T r a n s v e r s e
H o le (U p p e r C h a r t) o r a F i l l e t (L o w e r C h a r t)
tion factors, a kf term is used, defined as
scale from zero (no stress-concentration effect) to unity (full
Je. =
endurance limit for specimens without stress concentration
-------------------------------- ----------------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------
endurance limit for specimens with fillet or hole10 theoretical stress-concentration effect). Values of q as derived
from the data of Fig. 15 are given in Fig. 16.
No adequate short name exists for this term, which may be con­ I t is also of interest to plot the kf values for holes in terms of
sidered as an “effective stress-concentration factor in fatigue.” a/d, the ratio of the hole diameter to specimen diameter, as shown
The endurance limit for specimens without stress concentration in Fig. 17, and for fillets in terms of r/d, the ratio of the fillet
has been shown to either not vary greatly with size or to decrease radius to the small diameter of shaft, as shown in Fig. 18. In
somewhat with increase in diameter. In obtaining k, values from the latter case a considerable number of values from the litera-
the data of the present tests the endurance limit obtained with
0.469-in. diameter tapered cantilever specimens was used for the 11 I t has been the au th o rs’ experience th a t the 0.469-in. tapered
cantilever specimen usually gives a somewhat lower endurance lim it
numerator of the expression for kt when data from larger speci- th an the conventional 0.3-in. diam eter specimen having a 97/«-in.
contour radius, and a value closer to th a t of large specimens of 1 in.
♦ ‘‘Model T esting as Applied to Strength of M aterials,” by R . E. and 2 in. diam eter. I t is thought, therefore, th a t the kj values for
Peterson, T rans. A.S.M .E., vol. 55,1933, pap er APM-55-11, p. 79. large specimens are n o t greatly in error, although they m ay be slightly
10 Using n et section modulus. high.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
turę12'13'14'15'1®'17 are included. From a study of Figs. 15, 16, 17,
and 18, a number of observations can be made:
(a) In some cases fatigue results are quite close to theoretical stress-
concentration values. This is an im portant point, as a general idea
seems to exist, based on some of the early photoelastic results
which were considerably in error, that fatigue data for stress-con­
centration cases are always well below theoretical values, i.e., on
the safe side for design purposes. As a consequence of the present
data, one should be careful, when applying recent theoretical
data to design, not to do so with the same feeling of always having
an additional indefinite margin of safety as was formerly the case.
(b) Fatigue results for alloy steels and quenched carbon steels are
usually closer to theoretical values than are the corresponding fatigue
results for carbon steels not quenched. This is evident from Figs.
15, 16, 17, and 18. In order to visualize this tendency in Figs.
17 and 18, the carbon steels (not quenched) are indicated by
small crosses the alloy steels and the quenched carbon steels by
circles. I t will be noticed th a t in general the marks near the
theoretical curves of Figs. 17 and 18 are of the latter type.
McAdamts has suggested a connection between per cent de­
crease of endurance limit due to a fillet, notch, or other “stress
raiser” and an inverse measure of tensile work-hardening ca­
pacity of the material expressed as the ratio of tensile strength to
true breaking stress. The true breaking stress is defined as the
actual breaking load divided by the sectional area at fracture.
12 “ Beitrage zur Frage der Schwingungsfestigkeit,” by W. Schneider,
Stahl und Eisen, vol. 51, 1931, p. 288.
13 “ Einfluss von H ohlkehlen an abgesetzten W ellen auf die Biege-
wechselfestigkeit,” by E. Lehr and R. M ailander, Zeitschrift des
Vereines deutscher Ingenieur, vol. 79, no. 33, A ugust 17,1935, p. 1005.
14 P . Ludwik, F irst Com m unications of th e New International
Association for T esting of M aterials, Zurich, Switzerland, 1930.
11 “ Stress C oncentrations Produced by Fillets and H oles,” by S. authors to prove or disprove this idea. Small fillet specimens of a
Timoshenko, Proceedings of the Second International Congress for
Applied Mechanics, Zurich, Sw itzerland, 1926, p. 419. N ote: Several
corrections have been m ade in this paper.
16 “ A Study of F atigue C racks in C ar Axles," by H . F. Moore, S. W . annealed above the critical range and on testing showed results not
Lyon, and N. J. Alleman, Engineering E xperim ent S tation B ulletin
No. 197, p a rt 2, N ovem ber, 1929, p. 18, U niversity of Illinois,
U rbana, Ili.
17 “ Die D auerfestigkeit der W erkstoffe des Flugzeug- und Flug-
m otorenbaues,” by K . M atthaes, Zeitschrift fur Flugtechnik und Mo-
torluftschiffahrt, vol. 24, 1933, pp. 593 and 020.
18 “ Influence of Chem ically and M echanically Form ed N otches on
Fatigue of M etals,” by D. J. McAdam and R. W. Clyne, N ational
Bureau of Standards, Journal of Research, vol. 13, October, 1934,
pp. 527-572.
A-21
McAdam’s correlation data show striking agreement. If this
correlation has any real significance it should not be altered essen­
tially for various sizes of geometrically similar specimens. The
authors expected th a t theoretical values would be reached for all
steels provided specimens were made large enough, b ut Figs. 15
and 16 show th a t the fatigue-data curves for normalized 0.45 per
cent carbon steel are apparently asymptotic to values considerably
below the theoretical. In this respect, the authors’ results do not
seem to be essentially inconsistent with McAdam’s conclusions
F ig . 18 C o m p a r is o n o f R e s u l t s f o r F il l e t S p e c im e n s
based almost entirely on data obtained with relatively small
specimens.
The foregoing observation (b) should not be taken to indicate a
superiority of carbon steel, since the endurance-limit values as well
as other factors entering into the selection of materials may be
different.
(c) With decrease in size of specimen the reduction in fatigue
strength due to a fillet or hole becomes somewhat less; and for very
small fillets or holes the reduction in fatigue strength is compara­
tively small. This can be seen in Figs. 15 and 16, and has been
shown elsewhere in the literature.8' 1’
As to the reason for this variation with size, one would natu­
rally think of the cold-working effect of machining which would
presumably have a greater effect for specimens with small fillets
or holes because of the small volume of material subjected to the
stress peak in such a case. Several attem pts were made by the
type which had previously shown an unusually high endurance
strength, in spite of extremely careful machining, were bright
greatly different from the others. Other specimens were etched
to remove a layer of material of considerable depth, then very
carefully polished, and again showed results not greatly different
from the conventional specimens. I t might also be of interest to
mention th a t Dr. B arrett of the Metals Research Laboratory
at Carnegie Institute of Technology, made an X-ray study of a
conventional cantilever-type specimen of 0.42 per cent carbon
steel 0.47 in. in diameter and concluded th a t the effect of cold
A-22 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
work due to machining did not extend beyond a depth of 0.003
in. and probably not greater than 0.0015 in. While these few
results are by no means conclusive, they do indicate th a t the
answer may not be a simple one.
Some thought is being given to the number of grains in the
volume of material subjected to the stress peak in the case of
small fillets or holes and the probability of unfavorable orienta­
tions of individual grains.
But regardless of the reason for the relative increase in fatigue
strength of specimens with small fillets or holes, it is nevertheless
an effect which exists in small machine parts as produced con­
ventionally and one which, by means of the data of Figs. 15 and
16, can be estimated for design purposes.
(id) Sensitivity factors determined for small specimens should not
be applied to the design of machine parts regardless of size. Certain
design codes suggest the application of a sensitivity factor to the
theoretical stress-concentration factor and give values of sensi­
tivity factors obtained from fatigue tests of relatively small
specimens. Although not so stated, it can easily be assumed by a
designer th a t these values are fixed material constants. The
error which could arise from such a concept may be very large as
can be seen from Fig. 15, and furthermore is in the unsafe direc­
tion when applied to the design of large parts. I t appears th at
until a large amount of data become available, average sensitivity
factors such as shown in Fig. 16 can give some guidance for de­
signers in cases not considered here, such as shafts with grooves,
threads, and keyways. I t will be noticed that the two charts of
Fig. 16, representing widely different cases (holes and fillets) are
strikingly similar. For this previously mentioned guidance over
a variety of cases, the use of the lower chart is suggested. In each
chart, the lower curve represents average results for a medium
carbon steel (not quenched) and the upper curve represents aver­
age results for alloy steel and quenched carbon steels. A few
results at hand indicate th a t a low-carbon steel (not quenched),
such as ordinary structural steel for example, would have an
average curve below th at of the medium-carbon steel. The
sensitivity factor q may be applied in accordance with the follow­
ing formula, derived directly from the definitions of the terms
=
*• q(k, - 1) + 1
where oy = endurance strength with fillet, hole, groove, or other
discontinuity; a, = ordinary endurance limit without stress con­
centration (use value from largest diameter specimens available);
kt = theoretical stress-concentration factor (mathematical, pho­
toelastic or strain m ethod); q = sensitivity factor shown in the
lower chart of Fig. 16.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to express appreciation to Dr. S. Timoshenko
of the University of Michigan for advice and to Dr. L. W. Chubb,
Director of Westinghouse Research Laboratories for permission
to publish these results. They also wish to acknowledge the as­
sistance of F. Cassel in connection with both the strain measure­
ments and the fatigue tests.
 T h e R a te of G ro w th of F atig u e C rack s
B y A. V. DEFOREST,1 CAMBRIDGE, MASS.
The author discusses th e resistance o f m etal to th e
propagation of cracks, and points out th at in th e accepted
m ethod o f fatigue testin g th e results are n ot conclusive
because there is no d istinction between (1) th e load and the
num ber o f repeated stresses required to start cracks and
(2) th e load and th e num ber of reversals needed to propa­
gate th e cracks to failure. The investigation reported in
the paper was undertaken to determ ine (a) th e stress and
num ber o f reversals required to start a fatigue crack, and
(b ) the resistance o f the m aterial to th e effect o f a fatigue
crack once it had been form ed. The tests reported were
conducted on annealed cold-rolled low-carbon steel bars
with various finishes. The author presents data on th e
rate o f progress o f th e cracks and on th e size o f the cracks,
the latter o f w hich was determ ined by m agnetizing the
bars and inspecting them w ith finely divided iron oxide
in a bath o f kerosene.
H E normal process of fatigue testing is too well known to
T require discussion. Fatigue limits under standard condi­
tions are quoted for many varieties of steel under varying
conditions of heat-treatment. These figures represent the maxi­
mum load which a smooth specimen will endure without failure
after a large number of repetitions of the same load, and the
values arrived at are as nearly an accurate representation of a
particular mechanical property of the metal as is, for example, its
tensile strength, its hardness or its average elongation in a ten­
sile test.
Those who have been particularly concerned with fatigue
failures under working conditions, have found that the fatigue
strength shown by such a test was not the only factor in deter­
mining the relative merit of different steels. Fatigue cracks in
service are primarily located either by the various notches result­
ing from design, such as fillets, screw threads, oil holes, or result­
ing from defects of surface, such as grinding marks, grooves
coming from machining operations, decarburized surfaces, or the
accidental bruising received in handling. Occasionally more se­
rious notches are found, caused by defects in the metal itself,
such as seams (particularly dangerous in helical springs), quench­
ing cracks, grinding cracks, and forging bursts. The special
difficulties encountered in welding are not considered here. The
sharpness of the notch under a grinding crack or quenching crack
is probably of the same order of magnitude as in the fatigue
crack itself.
In other words, the useful fatigue strength of a material is
largely limited by its resistance to various forms of “stress-
raisers” rather than by its endurance limit under standard test
conditions. Among the most potent of such “stress-raisers”
appear to be the surfaces produced by corrosion. The present dis­
cussion, however, does not include the complicated relationship
involved in repeated stress while the metal is under a corroding
influence.
1 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Presented at the Annual Meeting of T h e A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f
M e c h a n ic a l E n g in e e r s held in New York, N. Y., December 2 to 6,
1935.
Discussion of this paper should be addressed to the Secretary,
A.S.M.E., 29 West 39th Street, New York, N. Y. and will be ac­
cepted until May 10, 1936, for publication at a later date.
N o t e : Statements and opinions advanced in papers are to be un­
derstood as individual expressions of their authors, and not those
of the Society.
Therefore, it appears th a t for engineering use a further fatigue
figure of merit must be taken into consideration, namely, the re­
sistance of the metal to the propagation of a crack due to a stress-
raising condition. This property has come to be called notch
sensitivity. Quite evidently the moment a true fatigue crack
has started at the bottom of a notch, the crack itself constitutes
the greatest stress-raiser and the sharpest of all possible notches.
We then have three figures bearing on the fatigue strength of
metals. First, the strength of the unnotched material, a figure
now well known. Second, the strength under a finite mechani­
cal notch. This figure is both a measure of the sharpness of the
notch and of the true notch sensitivity of the metal. Third, the
strength of the steel by virtue of which it resists the progress of
the natural fatigue crack, once this latter has started. I t is
natural to suppose but so far unproved th a t the sharpness of
a crack once formed, is itself a function of the material, and
therefore no distinction need be made between the notch sensi­
tivity at this “natural” notch and the sharpness of the notch.
I t is altogether probable th at the sharpness of the notch is in­
fluenced by the temperature at which the test is run, but there
appears to be no way to separate the effect of this sharpness from
the effect of temperature on the strength of the material.
Two values bearing on sensitivity may require determination:
(1) The maximum stress at which a fatigue crack will not pro­
pagate, and (2) the rate at which a given crack will propagate.
It is probable, but not proved, th a t a fixed relation exists be­
tween these two values.
The accepted method of fatigue testing, whereby there is no
distinction made between (1) the load and the number of re­
peated stresses required to start the crack and (2) the load and
number of reversals needed to propagate the crack to failure
after it has been formed, leads to confusion and to an unneces­
sarily arduous testing procedure. This has been well recognized
by Professor Bacon,2 who remarks:
“W hat appeals to some as the major mystery of fatigue is not
so much why cracks form at unsafe limits, but why they take so
long about it. This will never be cleared up so long as the total
of cycles to rupture is all th a t is observed. Indeed, it is not going
too far to describe the standard method of fatigue test of plain
polished specimens as ‘how to discover a minimum of information
with a maximum expenditure of time, labour, and expense.’ ”
The information we desire is twofold. First, the stress and
number of reversals required to start a fatigue crack under vari­
ous notch conditions, from the plain polished specimen to the
sharpest notch met with under engineering conditions. This
figure is largely determined by surface rather than material.
And second, the resistance of the material to the effect of a fa­
tigue crack once it has been formed, a figure purely dependent on
the metallurgical constitution of the metal and totally independ­
ent of the pre-existing surface. No novelty is claimed for this
point of view. Bacon has long emphasized the spread of fatigue
cracks in his investigations. French3 developed the “damage-
line” method of determining the start of fatigue, and Moore,4
2 “ The Relation of Fatigue to Modern Engine Design,” by R. A.
MacGregor, W. S. Burn, and F. Bacon, Transactions of the N. E.
Coast Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, vol. 51, 1935, pp.
161-228.
3 “Fatigue and Hardening of Steel,” by H. J. French, Trans.
A.S.S.T., vol. 21, 1933, p. 899.
4 “An Overnight Test for Determining Endurance Limit,” Trans.
A.S.T.M., vol. 33, 1933, part 2.
A-23
A-24 JOURNAL OP A PPLIED MECHANICS

in the “overnight” test approaches the same principle. Many sequently high values of stress were used. The specimens were
other thoughtful workers have the same distinction in mind. in the form of 5/s-in. diameter bars, 4 ft long, with a loaded
The method here described is simply a somewhat more elabo- length of 12 in. At intervals during the test the bars were mag-

rate manner of studying the problem. Use has been made here
of the magnetic method for locating minute cracks by mag-
netizing steel specimens and applying finely divided iron parti-
cles, these particles usually suspended in a liquid medium. This
netized and inspected with finely divided iron oxide in a bath of
kerosene.
At the higher loading figures a certain amount of heat was de-
veloped but this was not considered sufficiently serious to require
control. The figures in Table 1 were derived from tests on an-

F ig . 3 C eacks in H ig h -C a b b o n St e e l W it h M a g n a f l u x on
C b a c k s 15 X

F ig . 2 P e o p a g a t i o n o f F a t i g u e C b a c k s F b o m 0 .0 5 I n . t o F e a c -
tu b e f o e A l l S u b f a c e C o n d itio n s
(A n n e a le d c o ld -ro lle d b a rs of S .A .E . 1020 Bteel, 5/a in . i n d ia m e te r .)

method for locating the incipient fatigue crack has been markedly
successful even for cracks of the order of a few thousandths of an
inch in length. Test runs were made on 6/ s-in. diameter rotating-
beam specimens and the rate of progress of the crack, but not
the stress at which the crack would not propagate, was deter­
mined. The following results are from a thesis by F. W. Mag-
nuson:6 The questions at issue were to determine whether, as
seemed probable, the rate of growth of a fatigue crack was con­
stant in a given m aterial and independent of the number of cycles
required to start a crack, and whether a different metallurgical
condition of the same material would markedly change the rate F ig . 4 C backs in L o w -C a b b o n S t e e l W it h M a gnaflux on
C b a c k s 15 X
of progress of a previously formed crack. To answer these ques­
tions a set of low-carbon cold-drawn specimens was tested. No nealed cold-rolled low-carbon steel bars with three different types
attem pt was made to determine absolute fatigue limits and con- of surface finish. One, a finish with coarse circumferential
‘ Thesis of F. W. M agnuson, M assachusetts In stitu te of Tech­ scratches from a bastard file; another, with fine circumferen­
nology, 1935. tial scratches produced by polishing with number 0 emery paper;
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
and a third, with coarse longitudinal scratches produced by axial
rubbing with No. 73 coarse emery cloth. The bars were an­
nealed in a 2-in. pipe and the finish removed all trace of scale.
Conditions did not favor the formation of decarburized surfaces.
A series of runs was also made on the cold-drawn bar without an­
nealing. In this case, values were measured at 45, 50, 55, 65
kips per sq in. In the case of the annealed bars 40, 45, 50 kips
per sq in. were used. In this particular set of tests no attem pt
was made to locate the very earliest fatigue crack. The bars
were rim a length of time estimated to produce a crack of the
order of 0.05-0.10 in. of circumferential length. This length was
measured with an eye-piece micrometer and low-power binocular
microscope. The rate of progress of the crack was measured in
the same manner. In Fig. 1 is shown a characteristic curve of
the rate of progress of the crack plotted against number of
revolutions for the loads of 45, 50, 55, and 65 kips per sq in.
In this plot the measurements are started at 0.15 in. of length.
In Table 1 is tabulated the number of cycles at which the
crack reached a length of 0.10 in. I t is here very evident th at
in each case the expected relation between surface condition
and start of the crack was found. Under the heading “Rate of
growth” is given the number of cycles under different loads re-
F ig . 5 F a t ig u e C racks at F racture
quircd to cause the growth of the crack from a length of 0.08 in.
to a length of 0.10 in. Fig. 2, indicates th a t the rate of growth
of cracks in bars with different surfaces is dependent only on
stress, and the average rate-of-growth figure for the different bars
may be averaged. I t is quite evident from Table 1, th a t the
rate of growth in the cold-rolled bar is from one half to one
quarter as rapid as in the annealed condition. I t is to be ex­
pected, but has not been proved, th a t the load required to cause a
crack to grow in the cold-rolled material is higher than in the
case of the annealed metal.
Other specimens were prepared to indicate the possibilities of
A-25
the magnetic inspection method. In this ease, bars of annealed
cold-drawn low-carbon steel and of centerless ground high-carbon
drill rod were subjected to overload conditions. Fatigue cracks
started in great numbers. Illustrations of these are shown in
Figs. 3 and 4. I t was found characteristic of the cold-drawn
material th a t the cracks were not sharply located by the surface
finish b u t appeared to follow irregularities closely related to
grain boundaries. In the high-carbon bars the cracks are lo­
cated absolutely accurately by the very fine circumferential
grinding marks. I t was found th a t the iron powder could locate
cracks of a length just visible under one hundred magnifications;
th a t is, less than 1/1000 in. long. These fatigue-cracked bars
had been heated by the heavy application of load to a temper-
color temperature so th a t the section through a crack would in­
dicate clearly its extent by the color of the fracture; a method
described and used with great success by Professor Bacon. The
bars were then cooled by immersion in liquid air and broken in
small pieces under a hammer. Fig. 5, shows the appearance of
different size fatigue cracks under these conditions. I t was
found quite possible to pick out the most minute cracks th at
10 X could be seen at 50 magnifications. The shape of the fracture
appears to follow the lines described by Professor Bacon, whose
latest collected results for the successive shapes assumed by a
fatigue crack starting from a single surface origin on a plain
polished rotating-beam specimen are reproduced with his per­
mission in Fig. 6. This shape is extremely regular and enables
an estimate to be made of the depth of the crack from the length
intersecting the surface of the bar.
Work is now being continued on the measurement of notch
sensitivity in steel using natural notches of the fatigue crack and
measuring the rate of progress and the load required to propa­
gate the cracks. I t is hoped th a t this preliminary description
of the method in use will be of value to others.
 R ecen t R esearch in E lasticity
B y J. N. GOODIER,1 TORONTO, CANADA
B ooks
H E publication of Timoshenko’s “Theory of Elasticity” in
T 1934, in the Engineering Societies’ Monograph Series, was
an important event to every one interested in elasticity and
strength of materials. I t is especially noteworthy among exist­
ing books on the subject for its extensive content of well-defined
results of immediate value in engineering stress analysis.
The same year saw the publication of the “Statik und Dynamik
der Schalen,” by W. Fliigge, of Gottingen, which covers the mathe­
matical theory of the equilibrium, vibration, and stability of
thin curved shells.
This year a short work on photoelasticity has appeared, also in
Germany, “Festigkeitslehre mittels Spannungsoptik,” by H.
Neuber.
S t r e s s - A n a l y s is
M. A. Biot proved some remarkable properties of thermal and
gravitational stress in two-dimensional systems ( l).2 In another
paper he solved the problem of a beam supported by a semi­
infinite elastic solid (2), and contrasted the results with those of
the accepted theory of supported beams in which the foundation
is treated as a row of unconnected springs. W. Hovgaard (3)
applied the mathematical theory to the analysis of stresses in
welded joints. A. Wojtaszak (4) investigated the behavior of
thin cylindrical shells under internal load, and D. F. Gunder (5)
discussed the Saint Venant flexure problem for a beam with longi­
tudinal slits, in connection with researches on the strength of
checked wooden beams. At the National Meeting of the Ap­
plied Mechanics Division of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers held in Ann Arbor, Mich., June 18-19, 1935, J. P.
Den Hartog (6) and J. L. Maulbetsch (7) each presented a paper
on thermal stress distributions. C. W. MacGregor (8) gave a
paper on the bending of a strip of plate damped on one edge and
loaded by a concentrated force on the other, and J. E. Younger
(9) discussed some applications of the three-moment equation
to beam columns.
Some interesting papers have been published in Germany by
H. Neuber (10). He determines the influence, according to the
rigorous mathematical theory, of hyperbolic grooves and ellip­
soidal cavities in a solid under tension, shear, bending, and torsion.
These solutions have been compared with fatigue tests by Peterson
and Wahl (11). I t is appropriate to mention in a progress report
on elasticity th a t the results of the theory are now found to be in
good quantitative as well as qualitative agreement with fatigue
observations when the specimen is sufficiently large and of chosen
material.
The Saint Venant torsion problem for various polygonal sec­
tions was dealt with by B. R. Seth (12) in England, and H. Okubo
(13) in Japan. Seth has also given solutions of the flexure prob­
lem for the triangular section (14). In another paper (15), on
problems of finite strain, he obtains very precise formulas for ten­
sion in a rod, cylindrical bending of a plate, and torsion of a cir­
cular cylinder.
R. C. J. Howland (16) has constructed functions which have
enabled him to examine stress concentration due to a row of
holes in a stretched plate, and R. C. Knight (17) has made a
1 Research Fellow in Applied Mechanics, Ontario Research Founda­ lished Proceedings contain the general lectures in full, and the
tion.
! Numbers in parentheses refer to the bibliography at the end of sectional papers in abstract. The latter are being published in
the paper.
A-26
mathematical analysis of the stresses in a strip due to a rivet.
D. B. Smith and R. V. Southwell published an exact solution for
the flexure of a deep rectangular beam (18), and discussed the
paradox of the approximate theory, th at fibers are curved al­
though there is no radial stress to maintain the curvature. B. R.
Sen (19) determined the concentration of stress around cavities in
a twisted cylinder. Papers by B. R. Sen (20) and I. Malkin (21)
solved the rotating-disk problem for certain special profiles.
Other papers, presented at the Fourth International Congress,
are mentioned in the following paragraphs.
Experimental work included a demonstration by J. P. Den
Hartog and J. G. McGivern of the analogy to torsion provided
by the rotation of a perfect fluid in a cylinder (22). The deter­
mination of the sum of the principal stresses in a plate from the
deflections of a membrane, as proposed by Den Hartog, was
carried out for a plate with a hole by J. G. McGivern and H. L.
Supper (23).
Activities in photoelasticity included investigations of a strip
compressed between rollers, by C. W. MacGregor (24), a cracked
compression member, by S. C. Hollister (25), and a chart of stress-
concentration factors for use as design data, by M. M. Frocht (26).
J. H. A. Brahtz (27), A. Goetz (28), and R. D. Mindlin (29) each
gave accounts of modifications in apparatus. R. W. Vose (30)
described his application of the optical interference extensometer
in the measurement of lateral strain, and gave measurements of
the stress concentration near small holes, which show the inap­
plicability of the two-dimensional theory when the diameter of
the hole is of the same order as the thickness of the plate. A new
method for finding the sum of the principal stresses was proposed
by H. Neuber (31).
S t a b il it y
Several papers were published in the Transactions of the The
American Society of Mechanical Engineers and the new J o u r n a l
o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n i c s , which now takes the place of the Applied
Mechanics section of the Transactions. S. Timoshenko (32)
discussed the buckling of flat arches and slightly curved plates,
including bimetallic strips as used in therm ostat devices. L. H.
Donnell (33) gave a further account of his new analysis of the
buckling of thin tubes under thrust and bending. F. J . Bridget,
C. C. Jerome, and A . B. Vosseller (34) published the results of
tests on thin tubes under combined thrust and torsion. A re­
view of formulas and tests on the collapse of tubes due to external
pressure was presented at the A.S.M.E. Annual Meeting in 1934
by D. F. Windenburg and C. Trilling (35). At the 1935 National
Meeting of the Applied Mechanics Division, previously referred to,
A . J. Miles presented a paper on the stability of elastically sup­
ported plates (36).
A large number of papers on stability were published abroad.
A. Weinstein derived a lower limit for the critical thrust in a
clamped rectangular plate (37). Southwell’s method of deduc­
ing critical loads from load-deflection observations in stability
tests was further developed in a paper by H. R. Fisher (38).
F ourth I n t e r n a t io n a l C ongress fo r A p p l ie d M e c h a n ic s
At this congress, held in Cambridge, England, July, 1934, only
a small proportion of the papers dealt with elasticity. The pub­
full in the regular journals. S. Way presented his solution for
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-27

the large deflections of circular plates. S. Timoshenko and S. 15 B. R. Seth, Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of Lon­
Way discussed the suspension bridge with stiffening truss. E. O. don, 1935.
16 R. C. J. Howland, Proceedings, Royal Society of London, series
Waters gave a three-moment equation for flat plates, M. M. A, vol. 148, 1935, p. 471.
Frocht the results of a photoelastic study of the centrally loaded 17 R. C. Knight, Philosophical Magazine, series 7, vol. 19, 1935,
beam, H. M. Westergaard an account of stress functions for p . 517.

shells, W. L. Schwalbe a solution of a torsion problem by iteration, 18 D. B. Smith and R. V. Southwell, Proceedings, Royal Society
of London, series A, vol. 143, 1934, p. 271.
and J. N. Goodier an investigation of the distribution of load on 19 B. R. Sen, Zeitschrift fiir angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik,
the threads of screws, based on extensometer measurements. A vol. 13, 1933, p. 374.
photoelastic record of impact stresses by high-speed photography 20 B. R. Sen, Philosophical Magazine, June, 1935.
was presented by Z. Tuzi and M. Nisida, of Japan. 21 I. Malkin, Schweizerische Bauzeitung, vol. 103, 1934, p. 15.
22 J . P. Den Hartog and J . G. McGivern, J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d
B ib l io g r a p h y M e c h a n ic s , Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 2, no. 2, June, 1935.
23 J. G. McGivern and H. L. Supper, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 56,
1 M . A . B io t, J o u r n a l o r A p p l i e d M e c h a n i c s , T r a n s . A .S .M .E ., 1934, paper APM-56-9, p. 601.
v o l. 2, n o . 2, J u n e , 1935. 24 C. W. MacGregor, Physics, vol. 5, 1934, p. 140.
2 M. A. Biot, Annales, Sociśte scientifique de Bruxelles, vol. 53, 25 S. C. Hollister, Journal American Concrete Institute, vol. 5,
1933, p. 189. 1934, p . 361.
3 W. Hovgaard, Proceedings, National Academy of Science, vol. 26 M . M . Frocht, J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n ic s , Trans.
20, 1934, p. 17. A.S.M.E., vol 2, no. 2, June, 1935.
4 A. Wojtaszak, Philosophical Magazine, series 7, vol. 18, 1934, p. 27 J. H. A. Brahtz, Review of Scientific Instruments, vol. 5, 1934,
1099. p. 80.
5 D. F. Gunder, Physics, vol. 6, 1935, p. 38. 28 A. Goetz, ibid., p. 84.
6 J. P. Den Hartog, paper presented at the National Meeting of 29 R. D. Mindlin, ibid., p. 224.
the Applied Mechanics Division of the A.S.M.E., Ann Arbor, Mich., 30 R. W. Vose, J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n ic s , Trans. A.S.M.E.,
June 18-19, 1935. vol. 2, no. 3, September, 1935, p. 99.
7 J . L. Maulbetsch, J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n i c s , Transac­ 31 H. Neuber, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 56, 1934, paper APM-56-17,
tions A.S.M.E., vol. 2, no. 4, December, 1935. p. 733.
8 C. W. MacGregor, Mechanical Engineering, vol. 57, April, 1935, 32 S. Timoshenko, J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n ic s , Trans.
p . 225. A .S .M .E ., vol. 2, no. 1, March, 1935.
9 J. E. Younger, paper presented at the National Meeting of the 33 L. H. Donnell, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 56, 1934, paper AER-56-
Applied Mechanics Division of the A.S.M E., Ann Arbor, Mich., 12, p. 795.
June 18-19, 1935. 34 F. J. Bridget, C. C. Jerome, and A. B. Vosseller, Trans. A.S.
10 H. Neuber, Ingenieur-Archiv, 1934, p. 238; 1935, pp. 133 and 325. M.E., vol. 56, 1934, paper APM-56-6, p. 569.
11 R. E . Peterson and A . M . Wahl, J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e ­ 35 D. F. Windenberg and C. Trilling, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 56,
c h a n ic s , Trans. A .S .M .E ., vol. 3, no. 1, 1936. (This issue.) 1934, paper APM-56-20, p. 819.
12 B. R. Seth, Proceedings, Cambridge Philosophical Society, 36 A. J. Miles, paper presented at the National Meeting of the
vol. 30, 1934, pp. 139 and 392. Applied Mechanics Division of the A.S.M.E., Ann Arbor, Mich.,
13 H. Okubo, Proceedings, Physieo-Mathematical Society of June 18-19, 1935.
Japan, vol. 16, no. 3,1934, p. 430. 37 A. Weinstein, Comptes Rendus, January, 1935.
14 B. R. Seth, Proceedings, London Mathematical Society, vol. 38 H. R. Fisher, Proceedings, Royal Society of London, series A,
37, 1934, p. 502. vol. 144, 1934, p. 609.
 D esign D a ta
It is im portant th a t th e data contained in technical
papers be m ade readily available to designing engineers.
In order to satisfy these needs o f industry, th is section o f
th e Journal will include a concise presentation o f data and
inform ation drawn chiefly from papers previously pub­
Stress and Deflection of Circular Plates
B y A. M. WAHL1 a n d STEWART WAY,2 EAST PITTSBURGH, PA.
I n tro d u ctio n
H E formulas given in this paper apply to the calculation
T of engineering structures having the shape of flat circular
plates of uniform thickness with various loading and edge
conditions.3 Such structures include diaphragms, piston heads,
flanges, disk springs, Kingsbury thrust-bearing plates, etc. It
is assumed that, in all cases, the plate thickness is small, say less
than Vs the diameter, and th a t the material is not stressed
beyond the yield point. In all cases Poisson’s ratio was taken
as 0.3, a value generally used for steel. It should be noted that
a considerable change in the value of this ratio will result in but
little change in stress and deflection.
In p art 1 various cases of circular plates with holes under
different loading and edge conditions are considered, small
deflections being assumed. In parts 2 and 3, the case of a
uniformly loaded circular plate without a hole is treated for
both small and large deflections, respectively.
S ymbols
The following symbols, Fig. 1, are used:
R = outsid e ra d iu s of p la te , inches
r = inside ra d iu s of p la te , inches
P = to ta l lo ad on p la te , unifo rm ly
d istrib u te d along a n edge (for
p late s w ith holes), lb
p = load p e r sq in. of p la te su r- F ig . 1
face (in case a u n ifo rm ly d is­
trib u te d pressu re is a c tin g o n th e plate)
h = th ic k n e ss of p la te (assum ed c o n sta n t), in.
E *= modulus of elasticity of the plate material, lb per sq in.
a = maximum stress in the plate, lb per sq in.
J = deflection of one edge of the plate with respect to the
other, in.
P a rt 1 C ir c u la r P l a te s W it h H o les — S m all D efl e c t io n s
Schematic representations of eight different cases of loading
and edge support commonly met with in practice4 are shown in
1 W estinghouse Research Laboratories, W estinghouse E lectric &
M anufacturing Co. Mem. A .S.M .E.
* W estinghouse Research Laboratories, W estinghouse Electric &
M anufacturing Co.
• F or a derivation of the differential equations on which the for­
m ulas are based see, for example, “ S trength of M aterials,” by S.
Timoshenko, p a rt 2, D. Van N ostrand Co., New York, N . Y .; or
“ Elastische P la tte n ,” by A. N adai, Julius Springer, Berlin.
4 T he form ulas for these cases were derived in a paper on “ Stresses
and Deflections in F la t Circular P lates w ith C entral H oles,” by A. M.
W ahl and G. Lobo, Jr. T rans. A.S.M .E., vol. 52, 1930, paper
A-28
lished by th e Applied M echanics Division o f The American
Society o f M echanical Engineers.
The data are prepared by a su bcom m ittee o f th e Applied
M echanics D ivision on strength o f m aterials (R. E. Peter­
son, chairm an), under th e guidance o f S. Tim oshenko.
Fig. 2. For example, case 1 of this figure represents a plate
loaded by a load P uniformly distributed along the inner edge,
the plate being simply supported along the outer edge; case 3
represents a plate uniformly loaded on the surface, the inner edge
built in, the outer free. The formulas for calculating stresses
and deflections, which are of similar form for the different cases,
are shown opposite each figure. The factors K u K 2, K s, etc.,
occurring in the stress formulas <r = K ( P /h J) or a = K (p R 2/ h 2)
depend on the ratio R /r between outer and inner radius and may
be taken from the curve of Fig. 3. Likewise the constants
Ci, Ci, Ct, etc., occurring in the deflection formula S = C{PR2/E h 3)
or S — C(pR*/Eh3) can be found from Fig. 4.
I t should be noted th a t the formulas of Fig. 2 apply with
reasonable accuracy where the deflections are small, say less than
one half the thickness. The case where larger deflections are
considered is treated in part 3.
E x a m ple
The following example will illustrate the application of the
formulas of Fig. 2: A diaphragm having a clamped inner edge
is loaded with a total load P = 5.8 lb uniformly distributed along
the outer edge. These are the edge and loading conditions of
case 8. The dimensions and material constants are
From Fig. 3 for R /r = 2.25 a value K t = 0.9 is found, Like-
wise from Fig. 4, C» = 0.12.
Hence the maximum stress is
P art 2
C i r c u l a r P l a t e s W ith o u t H o le s — S m a ll D e f le c tio n s
Case (a) Simply supported edge and uniform load, Fig. Ba
APM-52-3, p. 29. B y using the principle of superposition in con­
junction w ith additional form ulas, as described in this paper, m any
other caseB of loading and edge conditions m ay be solved w ith little
labor.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED M ECHANICS A-29

F ig . 3 C u r v e s f o b O b ta in in g t h e K F a o to b s F ig . 4 C u rv e s fo b O b ta in in g t h e C F a c to rs
A-30 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS

(a)

F ig . 5 C i r c u l a r P l a t e s W it h o u t H o l e s

P art 3 L a r g e D e f l e c t io n s o f C ir c u l a r P l a t e s W it h o u t
H o l e s — U n if o r m L o ad

For this case the deflection is no longer a linear function of

the load. Values of S/h for various values of ■pRi/Eh* are shown
by the curve5in Fig. 6, for the case of a plate clamped at the edge,
Fig. 56. It is assumed th a t the plate is so tightly clamped th at
no radial displacement at the edge is possible. The maximum
stress, <r, is at the edge and is made up of a radial bending stress
plus a radial membrane stress. The radial membrane stress at
the edge is due to the tensile forces which must be applied
6 “ Bending of Circular Plates W ith Large Deflection,” by S. W ay,
T rans. A .S.M .E., vol. 56, 1934, paper APM-56-12, for m ethod of
calculation of these curves.
radially to prevent edge displacement. The maximum stress, a,
may be expressed by the relation
a = B pR^/h2
Values of B for various values of pR i/E h i are given in Fig. 6.
The deflection of a plate with a clamped edge as given by the
linear theory for small deflections, part 2, case (6) is also in­
dicated by the straight line in Fig. 6.

O n th e H y d ro d y n a m ic A n alo g y
of T o rs io n 1
A r s h a g G. S o l a k ia n . 2 The application of Kelvin’s hydrody­
namic analogy to the determination of stress lines in shafts and
“pictures” of warped surfaces as presented by the authors is of
academic nature, as is evident from many statements in the paper.
The practical value of the paper to engineers for the accurate
determination of stresses, both as to intensity and distribution,
is very doubtful, especially when considering the fact that many
Fig. 1
F ig . 1 I n t e r f e r e n c e F r i n g e s S h o w i n g S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n
O v e r t h e C r o s s S e c t i o n op a S t r a i g h t C i r c u l a r S h a f t in T o r ­
s io n
F ig . 2 I s o c lin ic s and S t r e s s T r a j e c t o r i e s o f a C i r c u l a r S h a f t
in T o r s i o n
stress problems can be solved by the well-known technique of
photoelasticity. A photoelastic method for investigating tor­
sional stresses has been developed by the writer at the photo­
elastic laboratory of Columbia University and is the first of its
kind in so far as the process used and the material adopted for
the model are concerned.
The method consists of heating uniformly a specimen to its
semiplastic temperature and then applying a torque at one end
of the bar, the other end being rigidly fixed. Both plastic and
elastic shear strains are thereby introduced throughout the
whole length of the specimen. After cooling the twisted bar
to room temperature, a thin transverse section is cut from a region
near the middle of the bar and machined to parallel surfaces,
after which it is properly polished. When such a section is
examined in polarized light, the internal stresses will be visible
in the form of interference fringes.
Fig. 1 of this discussion shows a stress pattern for a straight
cylindrical bar of circular cross section obtained by the method
described in the preceding paragraph. A new transparent iso­
tropic material known as marblette was adopted for the model
because it possesses high optical sensitivity and great plasticity
at low temperatures. It should be observed that in Fig. 1 of
this discussion the fringes are of zero order at the center and have
a uniform spacing with an increasing order toward the circum­
ference of the disk as predicted by the theory. The irregularities
1 By J. P. Den Hartog and J. G. McGivern. Published in the
June, 1935, issue of the J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n ic s (A.S.M.E.
Transactions).
2 Lecturer in Civil Engineering, Columbia University.
D iscussion
close to the outer region are due to “edge effect” produced during
cooling and to the slight pressure applied by the holding frame.
From well-known principles of photoelasticity, the interfer­
ence fringes are contours of constant (a-i-a2) stresses (of inten­
sities proportional to their order), <n and <r2 being the values of the
principal stresses at a point in the plane of the specimen. In this
particular problem, ai represents the tangential stress and a2
the radial shear stress, and since the latter is zero throughout
the cross section, the fringe pattern gives the distribution of the
shear stress r due to torsion.
The directions of the shear stress are found to be tangential at
all points over the surface of the cross section inasmuch as the
isoclinics shown in Fig. 2 of this discussion, obtained with plane
polarized light, appear to be diametrical bands for all orienta­
tions of the model with respect to the plane of polarization of the
light.
The method outlined in this discussion gives a complete solu­
tion of the problem since it determines both the direction and
magnitude of the stress. A circular specimen was selected for
illustrating the method because a theoretical solution exists
for such a section and therefore can be used as a check on the
experimental results. More complicated sections of practical
interest to engineers are now being investigated.
Fig. 2
F ilm L u b ric a tio n in Sleeve B e a rin g s1
H. A. S. H o w a r t h . 2 Mr. Stone has given the theoretical
basis for the interpretation of test data obtained from experi­
ments th a t were briefly mentioned by G. B. Karelitz in 1929,3
relating to the running position of a journal at different speeds.
Fig. 8 of the paper is an interesting record of the running posi­
tions of the author’s journal at speeds varying from 100 to 900
rpm. I t is presumed th a t the data used in plotting this figure
are consecutive and consistent for one series of tests, and there­
fore may be used for plotting an unfaired curve of running posi­
tions th at can be used for a comparison with theoretical studies.
I t is therefore opportune to point out what has been done in
regard to journal running positions and to note how well the test
running positions follow theoretically predictable paths. In
making this comparison, the writer has prepared Figs. 1 to 10,
inclusive, of this discussion, which are plotted from the investiga­
tions of Sommerfeld, Boswall, Karelitz, Needs, and the writer.
The data, for which the writer’s curves are drawn, are taken from
the paper under discussion, supplemented by an earlier paper by
Karelitz.3 From these it appears th at the journal diameter
was 9 in. and its length 18 in. and th at the mean viscosity of the
oil in the film may fairly be taken as 16 centipoises (2.32 X 10~*
Reyns). As side leakage influences the running position, cor­
rections for it have been made in accordance with plate X in a
paper by Dr. A. Kingsbury.4
Stone’s bearing had an arc of 90 deg on the loaded side and
a similar arc on the unloaded side. The edges of the bearings
1 By M . S to n e . P u b lis h e d in th e J u n e , 1935, is s u e o f th e J o u r n a l
of A p p l ie d M e c h a n ic s , T r a n s . A .S .M .E .
2Vice-President and General Manager, Kingsbury Machine Works,
Inc., Philadelphia, Pa. Mem. A.S.M.E.
3 “Performance of Oil-Ring Bearings,” by G. B. Karelitz, Trans
A.S.M.E., vol. 52, 1934, paper APM-52-5, p. 57.
4 “Optimum Conditions in Journal Bearings,” by A. Kingsbury,
Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 54, 1932, paper RP-54-7, p. 123.
A-31
A-32 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS

operating speed is reached.

These figures show, as in
Fig. 10 of this discussion
reproduced from Fig. 9 of
the reference,* th a t when
starting from rest if we assume
the journal to be in contact
with the bearings a t D, the
lowest point, the journal will
roll first to the left to some
point E and then, as soon as
the moment produced by this
change of position overcomes
the starting friction, the
journal will slide over to the
right and begin to ride on
Fio. 8 T h e o r e t i c a l R u n n i n g P o s i t i o n s o f 120-
D eg P a r tia l- C le a r a n c e B e a rin g s the oil film. As the speed
increases, the film will be­
were beveled slightly from the oil spaces at the come more perfect and some
side, about as shown in Fig. 6 of this discussion. oscillation of the journal will
The bearings studied by other investigators and take place before it reaches
illustrated in figures in this discussion are: (a) F ig . 9 T h e o r e t ic a l R u n n i n g P o s it io n s o f 9 0 -D e g the path which it will follow
180-deg central bearings by Sommerfeld, shown P a r t ia l -C l e a r a n c e B e a r in g s with small increments of
in Fig. 1; (6) 120-deg bearings for various speed until it reaches a
values of a /p by the writer, shown in Fig. 4; (c) 90-deg bear­ normal operating position D. The character of this curve should
ings for various values of a /0 by Boswall, shown in Fig. 5; (d) be kept in mind when discussing the plot of Stone’s tests shown
120-deg central bearings interpreted from studies by Needs, shown in Fig. 6 of this discussion. No further mention of this shift
in Fig. 2; and (e) 90-deg central bearings interpreted from from D to E in the writer’s Fig. 10 need be made in connection
studies by the writer, shown in Fig. 3. For experimental data with the following theoretical analysis, but it may be taken
the writer has replotted Stone’s Fig. 8 as Fig. 6 of this dis­ up again in the discussion of Stone’s test results.
cussion, and has reproduced Boswall’s tests as Fig. 7. Sommerfeld* was the first to give data on the running position
The writer published in the A.S.M.E. Transactions,5 several of the journal and he did this for a 180-deg bearing without a
figures which show the path of the journal center in the clearance cap, which would have introduced theoretical complications.
circle of the bearing for various conditions from rest until normal
• “Zur Hydrodynamischen Theorie de Sohmiermittelreibung,” by
1 “Journal Running Positions,” by H. A. S. Howarth, Trans. A. Sommerfeld, Zeitschrift fUr Mathematik und Physik, vol. 50, 1904,
A.S.M.E., vol. 61, part 1,1929, paper APM-51-3, p. 21. pp. 97-155.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-33

Sommerfeld found th a t the journal assuming perfect lubrication curves for a /0 — 0.5 and for a /0 = 0.583. On these curves,
and neglecting side leakage, would run at a very low speed in a shown in Fig. 7 of this discussion, the writer has marked the run­
position almost horizontally opposite the center of the bearing, ning positions for 600 rpm. I t is interesting to note th at Bos-
as indicated by Fig. 1 of this discussion. As the speed increased, wall’s test curves follow his theoretical curves rather closely but
the running position would move downward until a low point differ slightly in th a t they lie more to the right as the speed is
would be reached. Then with a still further increase in speed, increased. I t is necessary to call attention at this point to the
the running position would rise and move to the left, reaching fact pointed out by Kingsbury11 and others, th a t the impact of
concentricity with the center of the bearing at infinite speed. the oil against the leading edge of a bearing builds up a pressure
In Fig. 1 of this discussion, the writer has marked for 200, 600, th a t makes the bearing operate as if it had a longer leading angle
and 900 rpm the probable running positions of a journal with the than th a t with which it is actually constructed. Boswall states
dimensions and clearance of Stone’s test bearing, with side leakage th a t the faces of his test bearing at the leading and trailing edges
taken account of in accordance with Kingsbury’s plate X 4. The were radial. By comparing Fig. 7 with Fig. 5 of this discussion,
viscosity of the oil is assumed to be the same as in Stone’s tests noticing the locus for 600 rpm, it will be seen th a t the impact may
for all these comparisons where the running position is marked readily explain deviations of the test curves from the theoretical
for a given speed. curves. Having noted this fact, Stone’s test results can now be
In his study of the 120-deg central bearing,7 Needs investigated examined.
the m atter so carefully as to be able to show that the position of As previously stated, Stone’s bearing had a cap symmetrically
the journal for zero speed would theoretically be at the leading located with respect to the bearing surface. In addition to this
edge of the bearing just as had been determined by Sommerfeld the leading edges of his bearing were not radial but were some­
for the 180-deg bearing. A study of the writer’s charts8 en­ what beveled, as indicated by the writer’s Fig. 6. The effect
ables one to plot a curve for the 90-deg central bearing, as shown of the bevel a t the leading edge would be to exaggerate the in­
in Fig. 3 of this discussion. The dotted extension of the lower fluence of impact. The effect of the bearing cap would be to in­
end of the curve toward the right is assumed, but agrees with troduce negative pressures which would be most pronounced
the theoretical determination of Sommerfeld and Needs. On this at the leading edge of the cap. There would also be an impact
curve, as well as in Fig. 2 of this discussion, the positions for 200, pressure at the leading edge of the cap which would introduce
600, and 900 rpm are marked. still another complication. I t is possible th a t impact a t the
The influence of the leading-angle ratio a /0 upon the path of leading edge of the cap and the negative pressure, which other­
the journal is indicated in the writer’s Fig. 4, which is adapted wise would act near th a t point, would neutralize each other.
from one of the writer’s papers.6 The running positions for 600 The impact at the leading edge of the working face of the bearing
and 900 rpm, are marked. I t should be noted th a t when a /0 = would bring about a more rapid rise of pressure within the film
0.6, the running position for 900 rpm is nearly horizontally op­ than would be the case with the radial face of Boswall’s bearing.
posite the center of the bearing, but th a t when a /0 = 0.5, the Hence, it is expected th a t the curve of Stone’s running positions
position for 900 rpm is much lower. The curves from which will be like th a t of a bearing whose a / 0 ratio is greater than 0.5.
these data were adapted are shown in Fig. 8 of this discussion On this assumption, the direction of his curve in the region of 400
in which running-position paths are shown for a 120-deg bearing to 700 rpm is readily explained; compare it with the curves in Fig.
without a cap, with the angle ratio a /0 varying from 0.48 to 5 of this discussion.
0.62. In the m atter of the running position with respect to the hori­
In Fig. 9 of this discussion is shown a similar set of curves zontal line through the bearing center, Stone’s points for 200 and
drawn from the data published by Boswall9 for a 90-deg bearing 600 rpm are not far from the theoretical values indicated by the
without a cap, with a /0 ratios also varying from 0.48 to 0.62. writer’s Fig. 5, but at 900 rpm the height is much greater than
The similarity between the curves for the 90-deg and the 120- would be expected from a theoretical consideration. I t is pos­
deg bearing is evident from a comparison of Figs. 9 and 8 of this sible th a t the influence of impact at the leading edges and the
discussion. vacuum of the cap would explain the high value.
From Fig. 9 of this discussion, the curves for a /0 — 0.5 and The queer turn the curve makes at 200 rpm indicates th at at
a /0 = 0.6 were chosen and reproduced in the writer’s Fig. 5 the low speeds there may be competition for first importance be­
and upon these the running positions have been entered for 600 tween slight metallic contact and perfect film lubrication. Some
and 900 rpm, as determined from Boswall’s data.*'10 D ata ob­ metallic contact may exist at 100 rpm and may disappear at 200
tained from the writer’s previous work are marked as X in Fig. 5. rpm. If it were not for metallic contact the point for 100 rpm
The first of these, for a /0 = 0.5, lies upon Boswall’s curve for might lie to the right of the point for 200 rpm. If this were the
th a t ratio and agrees almost exactly with the point determined case, the curve would conform more nearly with the theoretical
from Boswall’s data. The value for 900 rpm and a /0 = 0.575 one shown in the writer’s Fig. 3, except for the influence of im­
lies about where it would be expected. The same is true of the pact at the leading edge which is not considered in Fig. 3. The
point for 600 rpm and a /0 — 0.590 and th a t for 200 rpm and behavior of Stone’s bearing in the region of 800 to 900 rpm is
a /0 — 0.67. The theoretical work of Boswall and the writer not understood.
may therefore be said to be in practical agreement. Referring to the loops of running positions reported by Mr.
The writer next refers to Boswall’s tests for which he plotted Stone, it is suggested th a t possibly they were more apparent
than real, and th a t the magnetic properties of the device used
’ “Effects of Side Leakage in 120-Deg Centrally Supported Journal for determining the running position might vary enough to mis­
Bearings,” by S. J. Needs, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 56, 1934, paper lead the investigator into believing th a t instability was present,
APM-56-16, p. 721. where in reality there was perfect stability. This is suggested in
8 “Graphical Study of Journal Lubrication,” by H. A. S. Howarth,
Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 45, 1923, p. 421; vol. 46, 1924, p. 881; vol. 47, order th a t the point may be further investigated.
1925, p. 1120. There is one other m atter th a t should receive consideration
• “The Theory of Film Lubrication,” by R. O. Boswall, Longmans and th a t is the theoretical locus of running positions published by
Green and Company, London and New York, 1928, 280 pp.
10 “The Film Lubrication of the Journal Bearing,” by R. O. Bos­ 11 “On Problems in the Theory of Fluid-Film Lubrication, With an
wall and T. C. Brierly, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Experimental Method of Solution,” by A. Kingsbury, Trans. A.S.
Engineers, London, Eng., vol. 122, April, 1932, pp. 423—570. M.E., vol. 53, 1931, paper APM-53-5, p. 59.
A-34 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS

Karelitz,3 based on a system of investigation proposed by Giim-
bel. Those running positions do not agree nearly so well with
tests by Boswall and by Stone as does the curve drawn from investi­
gations by Sommerfeld, Boswall, Needs, and the writer. The
curves shown by the writer’s Figs. 1 to 5, inclusive, and Figs. 8
to 10, inclusive, were based upon the extension of the original
theory of journal bearings as proposed by Osborne Reynolds.12
These studies, taken in conjunction with test results, indicate
th a t Reynolds’ theory is very closely in accordance with the
facts, and that approximations such as proposed by Giimbel and
followed by Karelitz and Stone, are not so reliable as references
for interpretation of test results.
M a y o D. H e r s e y . 13 Would it be possible to coordinate the
author’s results with those of previous experimenters in so far
as similar bearings are concerned?14 In comparing the film-
thickness results given by the author with values calculated by
Karelitz, apparent agreement is shown in the author’s Fig. 9
with the Z N / P curve based on Karelitz’ work,3 although neither
the film temperature nor the L / D ratio is given by the author.
If the value of Z is taken from the measured temperature of the
bearing metal, has allowance been made for temperature varia­
tions over the cross section of the oil film?16 Differences of the
order of 10 F might be anticipated at 900 rpm on a bearing
9-in. in diameter.
Assuming L / D not far from unity, where L is the length or width
parallel with the axis, there is excellent agreement between the
values of film thickness as given by the author in his Fig. 3a and
those given by S. J. Needs7 for a 120-deg bearing. However, the
values for the coefficient of friction as given by the author in his
Fig. 36 are nearly twice those given by Needs7 for values of Z N / P
between 30 and 50.
Referring to page 64 of the paper by Mr. Stone, the units
given in the list of symbols are not applicable to Equations [1],
[2], and [3] which are valid in any consistent system of units but
not when centipoises, pounds per square inch, and feet per minute
are combined. The units given are evidently intended for use
with the Z N / P diagrams, rather than with the equations.
Mr. Stone’s Equation [14] is not restricted to the specific as­
sumptions made, but is equally valid for fitted bearings and those
undergoing side leakage, as may be shown by dimensional reason­
ing.18 The author’s condensed outline of the classical theory is
original, and should be of great help to all engineers and ad­
vanced students who are finding difficulty with the mathematical
literature of the hydrodynamic theory.
plotting the running positions, whereas the accurate plot for the
running positions is as shown in Fig. 9. This will make Fig. 6
of the discussion not exactly as Mr. Howarth shows it, but in
general his remarks are still applicable to the point in question.
Regarding the loops of the running positions, it can be definitely
stated th at these loops are not due to any particular properties of
the magnetic devices used in determining the positions, because
such instruments have been used extensively by the author and
others, and there can be no question as to their reliability in such
work. Similar loops have been found by others, notably by
Hummell in Switzerland. A discussion of the causes of these
loops, following the lines suggested in the author’s original paper
should well merit some investigator’s time.
In replying to Professor Hersey’s comments, the values of the
viscosity used in the Z N / P curves were based upon measured oil
temperatures corrected for thermal drops much as Professor
Hersey has suggested. The ratio L / D for these bearings was
somewhat under 1.5. As Professor Hersey states, the units used
in the paper refer to the Z N / P diagrams only and not to the
general equations. The values of the coefficient of friction which
Professor Hersey refers to in Fig. 36 of the paper were not in­
tended to be accurate but only to indicate general tendencies, as
the figure is labeled “characteristic curves.” The actual values
are somewhat lower, as mentioned by Professor Hersey.
A M e th o d of B alan cin g R e c ip ro c a t­
ing M a ch in e s1
M. W. D a v i d s o n . 2 The author states in the second paragraph
of his paper: “ Moreover, if the machine is self-contained, it is
theoretically possible to obtain a perfect balance both of the dy­
namic forces and couples, and of couples derived from gas forces.

A u t h o r ’s C l o s u r e

Mr. Howarth has given an interesting and thorough discussion

concerning the running positions of the journals at various speeds
and his explanation of why the shaft tends to run above the cen­
ter of the bearing shell is certainly the clarifying element in the
tests which were conducted. The author would like to add, how­
ever, th a t Mr. Howarth used Fig. 8 of the paper as a basis for
F ig . 1 D ia g r a m m a t ic S k e t c h o f I d e n t ic a l S in g l e - C y l in d e r
14 “On the Theory of Lubrication and Its Application to Mr. Beau­
E n g in e s F a s t e n e d H e a d t o H e a d
champ Tower’s Experiments, Including an Experimental Determina­
tion of the Viscosity of Olive Oil,” by O. Reynolds, Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 177, 1886, part 1, As a proof of this statement, consider a conventional gasoline
pp. 157-234. motor. If two identical motors were fastened head to head, the
13 Division of Engineering, Brown University. Mem. A.S.M.E. crankshafts being geared together properly to give correct timing,
lł For a recent list of experiments in this field, see “Notes on the
History of Lubrication,” by M. D. Hersey, Journal of the American and the corresponding cylinders being connected with gas pas­
Society of Naval Engineers, vol. 46, August, 1934, p. 369. sages to equalize the pressures, it is obvious th a t the resulting
15 “Heat Effects in Lubricating Films,” by A. Kingsbury, Me­
chanical Engineering, vol. 55, November, 1933, pp. 685-688. 1 By W. E. Johnson. Published in the September, 1935, issue of
16 “A Short Account of the Theory of Lubrication. III. Dimen­ the J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n ic s , Trans. A.S.M.E.
sional Theory With Applications,” by M. D. Hersey, Journal of 2 Professor of Mechanical Engineering, University of South
the Franklin Institute, vol. 220, no. 2, August, 1935, pp. 187—214. Dakota, Vermillion, S. Dak. Mem. A.S.M.E.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS A-35

composite machine would be perfectly balanced, provided it does balance is perfectly valid, regardless of Prof. M. W. Davidson’s
not have to transm it torque to an external machine.” objections to it. The only modifying restriction th at should be
The writer believes this statement to be too broad and some­ made is th at the various links must be perfectly rigid, which, of
what in error, which he attem pts to show in Fig. 1 of this discussion. course, is not obtained in practice.
The diagrams in this figure represent identical single-cylinder In answer to Professor Davidson’s specific argument, the force
engines fastened head to head. The upper figure shows the en­ vectors shown in his upper diagram, where the engines are rotating
gines running in opposite directions, and the lower figure shows in opposite directions, do not fully represent the tru th of the situa­
the engines running in the same direction, and both geared as the tion. I t is well known th a t a connecting rod may be replaced by
author suggests. The inertia effect upon the engine frame of the its dynamical equivalent, consisting of two masses, one concen­
reciprocating mass is represented by P; while H represents the trated at each end, and a massless moment of inertia. This
horizontal component of the inertia (linear) of the connecting system can be made to satisfy all the dynamical specifications of
rod; V represents the vertical component of the linear inertia of the connecting rod, namely:
the connecting rod; and Q represents the turning effect upon the
frame of the angular inertia of the connecting rod. (1) The center of gravity will be in the same location
The upper diagram shows th a t all couples and forces are bal­ (2) The total mass will be the same
anced except the vertical components of the linear inertia of the (3) The moment of inertia about the center of gravity will be
connecting rods. The lower diagrams show the linear-inertia the same.
effects of the engines to be in balance, while the couples resulting Having substituted such an equivalent system, one weight may
from the angular inertia “and linear inertia forces” of the connect­ be considered attached to the piston. Its inertia force is then
ing rods are additive. Neither of the arrangements is in theo­ balanced perfectly by th at of the corresponding weight in the
retical balance; only the addition of cylinders can make them so. other engine. The other weight is concentrated at the crank pin,
and consequently may be perfectly balanced by the counter­
J. P. D e n H a r t o g . 3 In Equation [28] the authors come to weight in each engine. Finally, the inertia couples caused by the
the conclusion that for the particular single-crank compressor massless moment of inertia will be equal in magnitude and oppo­
under consideration the necessary balance weight is “consider­ site in sign in the two engines, so th a t these are balanced. The
ably more than ‘all of the rotating plus half of the reciprocating result is a perfectly balanced machine. This result is granted to
mass.’ ” At first such a result seems strange, but a closer in­ be contingent upon the proper use of counterweights.
spection of the system shows th a t the balance weight is placed Now, it is quite possible th a t with certain machines un­
considerably lower on the vertical shaft than the unbalancing balanced force vectors at right angles to the center line through
piston and crank. shafts will remain. In such a case, a combination of four ma­
If the counterweight were made equal to the rotating plus half chines will secure perfect balance. I t is obvious that any vector
the reciprocating weight, the horizontal force would be balanced system of forces and couples can be balanced by combining the
and the center of gravity of the machine would not move. But proper number of identical systems, properly oriented in space.
the moments of the forces about the center of gravity would not The elementary method of balancing the compressor suggested
be balanced and hence the machine would vibrate rotationally by Prof. J. P. Den Hartog is quite all right for certain simple cases.
about its center of gravity, which results in a compression of the For more complicated systems, however, it usually cannot be
supporting springs and a transmission of the vibration to the applied without sacrificing precision in the results.
foundation. It is logical in this particular case to design for Incidentally, the author and his associates consider it more
balanced moments about the center of gravity and leave the hori­ correct to balance moments about the mean center of percussion
zontal forces unbalanced. This will result in a horizontal vibra­ with respect to the piston and counterweight forces. I t is in this
tion of the center of gravity (and in fact of the whole machine) region, with a very flexible mounting, th a t the least motion exists.
but no rotation about the center of gravity will follow. The Professor D enH artog’s statement th at when “the counter­
horizontal vibration can be taken by the supporting springs with­ weight is made equal to all the rotating plus half the reciprocating
out transmission to the foundation. The author comes to this mass. . .the center of gravity of the machine would not move” is
result correctly in Equation [28] because if each term of his ex­ obviously in error, for unbalanced forces remain which will oscil­
pression is multiplied by the proper ratio of moment terms, we late the center of gravity. There is, however, a region about the
find center of percussion with respect to the piston inertia force which
has, not zero, but minimum motion.
</> = 0.72 Fi - + 1.48 F 2 - + 1.378 F3 -
€\ e\ e\ Further, the statement claiming th at horizontal vibration can
= 0.495 Fi + 1.018 F2 + 1.015 Fs, be taken by the springs without transmission has no justification.
The degree of transmission depends on the location and stiffness
in which Fi is the reciprocating weight and F2 + F3is the rotating of the springs, and in some cases the horizontal transmission is
weight, so that the old faithful rule is seen to work well. This much more important than the couples produced by vertical dis­
method of balancing gives “no transmission to the foundation” placement of the springs. This is particularly true in refrigerator
and is the most logical one. If a minimum of kinetic energy of cabinets.
the swaying machine is desired, a compromise has to be made The author regards the close agreement of Professor Den Har-
between balanced moments and balanced forces. tog’s results as chiefly accidental, and depending upon the char­
acteristics of the particular system. By shifting the spring
A u t h o r ’s C l o s u r e
mounting and changing the mass distribution about the center of
The statement concerning the theoretical possibility of perfect gravity, widely different results can be obtained by the author’s
3 A ssistant Professor of Applied M echanics, H arv ard G raduate method, whereas the approximate method proposed will give the
School of Engineering, Cambridge, M ass. Mem. A.S.M .E. same result in each case.
A-36 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
W o rk in g S tre sse s1
W. P. R o o p . 2 In a recent attem pt by the writer to summarize
the “variables, outside of magnitude of stress, involved in the
problem of strength,” which naturally affect the choice of a value
for working stress, the list of key phrases given in Table 1 of this
discussion was used as an index to the pertinent considerations.
In view of these considerations, the writer is of the opinion th a t
the author’s “ Design D ata on Working Stresses” touches only one
fringe of a subject th a t deserves more careful study than it has
received up to this time.
Decisions made in the course of design are quantitative; hence,
the safety factor m ust have a specific value. Although a great
deal of effort may be devoted to estimating its actual value in a
given case, its permissible value appears to some extent to be
arbitrary. How may the permissible safety factor be fixed?
Questions of this sort can be approached by either negotiation
or calculation. Naturally there are opposing interests involved.
Conflicting technical requirements are represented by different
persons, and the adjustment of those conflicts may resemble a
business negotiation in which a powerful personality may exert a
greater influence than principles which, although in themselves
sound, are not adequately maintained.
To remove objections to a settlement of technical questions by
negotiation, a process of calculation should be used. Analysis
in mathematical terms encourages a more precise definition of the
questions at issue and a more exact and penetrating consideration
of the data pertinent to their solution.
But calculations with respect to permissible values of safety
factors would require a totally different line of mathematical
reasoning from th a t used in estimating actual values. The
safety factor usually has been regarded as the numerical measure
of a margin. However, we are still without a rational guide,
that is, a principle to follow in assigning an acceptable value.
Even service tests in themselves can yield only values of the actual
safety factor in existing structures, and this can only be accom­
plished by testing the structures to destruction. Any extension
of data obtained in service to untested structures is based un­
avoidably upon the idea of probability.
The need for margin is based on uncertainty. If conditions
with respect to every feature of practice could be defined with
precision in terms of stress, resulting requirements of strength
could also be defined, and the conditions under which failure
would occur could be predicted. Any weight of metal added to
provide against conditions not occurring would be redundant.
But such exact definitions do not exist, and therefore it is neces­
sary, when studying uncertainties actually existing, to resort to
the principles of actuarial science. Only by such methods will it
be possible to obtain a rational answer to the question: By how
much would the expected life of a mechanical structure be af­
fected by a proposed modification in working stress?
The application of actuarial principles to problems in design
is by no means novel, but it deserves greater extension. I t is the
rational embodiment of the method by which all mechanical de­
velopments are made, namely, by modification in the light of ex­
perience. I t also offers better correspondence with the facts of
the psychology of invention. Structures and mechanisms with
novel features do not spring from the mind of genius in a com­
pleted form, but achieve their form by a process of growth. In
this process, calculation undoubtedly plays a great part. B ut we
1 B y C. R ichard Soderberg. Published in the Septem ber, 1935,
issue of the J o u r n a l o f A p p l i e d M e c h a n i c s , T rans. A .S.M .E. which he can interpret his own practical experience in a rational
* L ieutenant Com m ander (CC) U.S.N ., A ssistant to Superintending
C onstructor for U. S. N avy, New York Shipbuilding Corp., Camden,
N. J.
are only practicing self-deception when we rely on calculations
involving a safety factor specified to a close tolerance. This
practice gives the appearance of analytical precision to a result
which is essentially statistical in nature.
The owner wants absolute security in his structure. The de­
signer knows th a t this is unobtainable, except at prohibitive cost
(unless he allows himself to be deceived by his own mathematics).
B ut the salesman thinks th at this cannot be adm itted to the owner.
Is it not better th a t risk, which is unavoidable, be brought into
the open, and its burden recognized from the beginning? The
writer believes th a t in this way the social effects of casualties can
be reduced and a t the same tim e the high cost of construction
which results from the use of excessive safety factors avoided.
The rational procedure is to balance one risk against another so
as to obtain the most favorable all-round result.
There is a powerful tendency, in considering separately such
circumstances as those listed in Table 1, to apply margins to all
TABLE 1 K E Y P H R A S E S U S E D AS A N IN D E X IN C O N S ID E R ­
IN G P R O B L E M S O F S T R E N G T H
P rocedure in design: 11 F a ilu re b y in s ta b ility
1 R ig id ity versus stre n g th 12 P a rtitio n of loads
2 Q u a lita tiv e com parisons
3 N om inal calculations M ate ria l:
4 F u tu r e alte ra tio n s 13 C rite rio n of failure
14 C orrosion
Load: 15 Local defects
5 Im p ro b ab le loads
6 D y n a m ic loads W orkm anship:
7 C yclic loads 16 F it
8 C om bined loads 17 In sp e cto rs’ discretion
18 A cceptance te sts
F orm : 19 Process control
9 Stress c oncentrations 20 Selective tests
10 Progressive failure 21 T h e h u m a n elem ent
of them which, when combined, reach an impossible total. Tests
and analysis of experience can be resorted to in order to coun­
teract this tendency. However, there are obvious limitations to
this procedure. In making such tests or analysis (1) the cost is
felt most at times when the opportunity for such work is otherwise
best and (2) their nature is artificial, thus preventing full ac­
counting for all the conditions of service. B ut even so, tests
and analysis do furnish positive clues to correct solutions. They
offer the only alternative to wholly arbitrary decisions based on
personal opinion.
Personal opinion naturally cannot be eliminated and the ra­
tional solution which will completely satisfy every one does not ex­
ist. But intuitions not founded on facts are dangerous. The
active promotion of experiment, research, and analysis is essen­
tial to progress in design.
A t jt h o h ’s C l o s u r e
The treatm ent of the subject of working stresses, as given in the
present paper, dees indeed “touch only one fringe of a subject that
deserves more careful study.” Its only object is to define with
as much precision as possible the terms involved. The precision
implied is actually beyond the state of our knowledge, not only of
the subject of strength as a whole, but also of the physical prop­
erties of our materials. I t is the author’s opinion, however, that
this precision serves a useful purpose. The treatm ent has, in
fact, grown out of the many occasions of the author’s practical
experience, where the lack of precise definitions was the principal
difficulty.
Mr. Roop’s comments are pertinent to the problem of deciding
upon the magnitude of the factor of safety. The paper empha­
sizes the fact th a t this must remain the prerogative of the re­
sponsible designer. All th a t the information presented in the
paper can do is to furnish the designer with information through
manner. Unfortunately, this is the only fringe of the subject
th a t so far has yielded precise results.
 B ook R eview s
A e ro d y n a m ic T h e o ry approximate solutions for cases where viscosity is either very
large or very small is then shown to consist of finding a solution
A e ro d y n a m ic T h e o r y . By W illiam Frederick D urand, editor- at a small Reynolds number where viscosity effects are im portant
in-chief. Vol. 3. Divisions F-I. Julius Springer, Berlin, and inertia unimportant, or a solution at a large Reynolds
1935. C loth, 6 X 9 in., xiv plus 354 pp., 167 figs. and 6 plates.
Special price only until the publication of the last volume, 20 rm. number where inertia effects are im portant and viscosity rela­
tively unimportant. Many such solutions are available but
R e v i e w e d b y J. C. H c in s a k e r 1 they leave the entire middle range of Reynolds’ number un­
r I ''HIS is the third volume of the series of six monographs touched.
presenting a comprehensive review of modern aerodynamics Here Prandtl introduces his intuitive physical conception of
and consists of four quite independent divisions. If it were not the boundary layer in the neighborhood of the fixed surface of
for the first section dealing with the theory of “single burbling” a body. In this thin layer, the fluid may be in rotation due to
the title might well have been the “Mechanics of Real Fluids,” viscosity b ut beyond it the fluid flows in accordance with a po­
for this subject is the main content of the volume. tential as in the theory of ideal fluids. In other words, viscosity
As the second volume may be considered a monograph on the is only of importance near the body where the velocity gradient
applied mathematics resulting in the aerodynamics of a perfect is steep. The Navier-Stokes equations are simplified on the
fluid, so this third volume is, with the exception noted, a survey basis of this conception so th a t a “boundary-layer equation”
of the applied physics of real fluids resulting in the aerody­ results, the solutions of which are shown to hold up to the point
namics of a real fluid. This consideration of real fluids is di­ of separation. A mathematical-physical discussion of separation
vided into 173 pages on viscous fluids, 40 pages on compressible leads to consideration of means for prevention of separation
through suction, slots, etc.
fluids, and 98 pages on methods of experimental investigation.
The initial essay on the Witoszynski theory of “single burbling,” Separation leads to a discussion of turbulence; the older
by C. Witoszynski of Warsaw and his former pupil, M. J. Thomp­ theory, Prandtl’s newer theory introducing the “mixing length,”
son, of Ann Arbor, is essentially an extension of the theory of and von Kdrm&n’s extension of it by the idea of similarity of cir­
perfect fluids developed in volume 2. The classical method of cumstances at all points in the turbulent flow. The theoretical
conformal transformation of a complex function is modified by analysis of experimental data is applied to cases of frictional
the addition of a discontinuous term to the complex potential. turbulent flow over surfaces, through pipes and around bodies,
This has the effect of altering the theoretical flow pattern to give and the spread of turbulence in the wake of moving bodies. The
a discontinuous layer spreading behind the trailing edge of a drag of bodies in motion is largely due to energy lost in turbulence,
wing. This layer is bounded by two surfaces intersecting at a and with the extension of our knowledge of turbulence comes
single line, the trailing edge, hence the name “single burbling.” hope for improvement in the efficiency and economy of aircraft.
The concept of “single burbling” is a mathematical device and, The broad survey of the turbulence problem here given should
as such, the name seems to be somewhat unfortunate, as it con­ be of great help to students and research workers in aerodynamics
and hydraulics.
flicts with the general acceptance of the word “burbling” to
name a physical phenomenon of complicated but quite definite The section on the “Mechanics of Compressible Fluids,” by
nature. The Witoszynski theory is interesting but not an Prof. G. I. Taylor of Cambridge and J. W. Maccoll of Woolwich
adequate explanation of lift and drag, nor should its artificial Arsenal gives in concise and direct manner the acoustical theory
nature be confused with reality. I t seems out of place in this controlling the propagation of plane disturbances in an elastic
volume dealing with real fluids. No doubt, consideration of medium, shock waves, and discontinuities. The theory is ap­
space forced its omission from volume 2. plied to the problem of steady flow through a channel of vary­
The section by Prof. L. Prandtl of Gottingen on the “ Me­ ing cross section, to nozzles, and to the design of high-speed wind
chanics of Viscous Fluids” is the largest and most important tunnels. Two-dimensional flow around an airfoil at speeds above
part of the book. Here we find a scholarly development from and below the velocity of sound is discussed.
elementary principles of the fundamental laws of real fluids by The concluding section by Prof. A. Toussaint of Saint-Cyr-
one who has done more than any other living man to advance 1’Ecole and Eastman Jacobs of Langley Field gives an account of
our knowledge in this field. the development of the experimental technique of aerodynamic
The treatment is complete in itself and may be read by me­ research. This includes descriptive material regarding the
chanical engineers, without reference to vol. 1 or vol. 2, as a principal modern wind tunnels, together with a critical discus­
comprehensive presentation of modem fluid mechanics. I t is sion of the influence of tunnel walls and scale effects. This sec­
applicable to the general run of problems of mechanical engineer­ tion is somewhat too brief as reference material and no considera­
ing dealing with the flow of fluids. tion is given to balances and instrumentation. Space was
The reasoning begins with the definition of viscosity, builds evidently not available but it seems unnecessary, under the dis­
up a theory of stress, equilibrium, and deformation, and deduces cussion of scale effect, to review the róle of the Reynolds number
the classical Navier-Stokes equations of motion for a viscous but and the conditions for flow similarity, separation, etc., already
incompressible fluid. W ithout solving these intractible equa­ adequately treated by Prandtl in the same volume. Also, the
tions, Reynolds’ condition of similitude is neatly deduced. The inclusion of several pages of detailed description of obsolete data
few known special solutions are given. The problem of obtaining on natural wind characteristics, gusts, soarability, kites, etc.,
seems out of place.
1 Professor of M echanical Engineering, M assachusetts In stitu te There is a somewhat brief index and a good bibliography, in
of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. Mem. A.S.M .E. addition to footnote references scattered throughout the text.
A-37
A-38 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
V o rle su n g e n U b e r E le m e n ta re
M e ch an ik
B y Jakob Nielsen,
V o r l e s u n g e n T ib e r e l e m e n t A b e M e c h a n i k .
Professor of T heoretical M echanics, Technical U niversity, Co­
penhagen. T ranslated in to G erm an by W erner Fenchel,
Copenhagen. Julius Springer, Berlin, 1935. Paper, 6 ‘/ i X 9‘/ j in.
500 plus x pp., 164 figs. 38 rm .; gebunden 39.60 rm.
R e v ie w e d b y J. P. D e n H artog8
n p H IS book is one of a series of mathematical treatises pub-
lished under the general editorship of Professor Courant,
which, clothed in a bright yellow binding, vies with th e well-
known blue-bound products of the Cambridge University Press
in confining a maximum amount of information to a minimum of
space. The author of this volume is professor of theoretical
mechanics a t the University of Copenhagen and the book is a
German translation of the original Danish version of his
lectures. The table of contents corresponds to what one would
expect in a text in elementary mechanics; the various chapters
carry innocent titles such as: “Equilibrium of Particles; Graphi­
cal Statics; Velocity and Acceleration; Im pact.” Beginning with
the first page of the text itself, however, it becomes immediately
apparent th a t the appellation “elementary” is a relative one, and
in this instance must be understood in the German rather than
in the American sense. I t seems th a t the treatm ent is ele­
mentary only because no use is made of Hamilton’s principle
or Jacobi’s equations in the exposition of the subject. Employ­
ing vector and tensor analysis and Lagrange’s equations with
great profusion, the book treats the usual subject m atter of
elementary mechanics with what seems to be the greatest possible
completeness and rigor. From this point of view it should be
of considerable interest to professional mathematicians, while
the engineer—even the highly educated engineer—will find it
very*difficult reading.
A part from the many theorems and methods of a mathematical
nature, especially in the field of vector and tensor calculus, the
subject m atter of the book is approximately th a t which is usually
covered in the larger works on genuinely elementary mechanics,
i.e., statics, analytical and graphical, some theory of statically
determined structures, kinematics, relative motion, dynamics
of a particle and of solid bodies, including a short exposition of
the gyroscope, and finally a brief chapter on impact.
T h e o ry o f A rc h es
T h e o rie u n d B e e e c h n u n g V o llw a n d ig e r B o g e n tr a g e r b ei
B e r u c k s ic h tig u n g d e s E i n f lu s s e s d e r S y s te m v e rfo rm u n g ,
B y D r.-Ing. B ernhard F ritz. Julius Springer, Berlin, 1934. Paper,
63A X lO 'A in., 142 pp., 75 figs., 12 rm .
R e v ie w e d b y L a w r e n c e C. M augh3
' I ’’H E method of analysis of hinged and fixed-end arches th at is
presented in this book is most unusual in th a t it considers the
effect of the displacement of the arch axis upon the reactions,
bending moments, and thrusts acting upon the arch. In all cases
an equation or set of equations is obtained for the displacement
of any point on the arch axis in terms of various load systems
and the unknown horizontal thrust H a t the abutment. Then to
determine the value of H, an equation is w ritten in which the
work done by the external forces acting through the displacements
of the arch axis is equated to the internal work of deformation.
2 A ssistant Professor of Applied M echanics, H a rv ard U niversity,
Cambridge, M ass. Mem. A .S.M .E.
3 A ssistant Professor of Civil Engineering, U niversity of M ichi­
gan, Ann Arbor, M ichigan.
Although this equation has H as the only unknown, it is necessary
to solve for H by trial because of the complicated expressions.
A number of numerical examples are given to illustrate the use
of the derived equations and to compare the results with those
th a t are obtained by the usual methods when the displacement
of the arch axis is neglected. As would be expected, the great­
est difference is obtained for large-span three-hinged arches and
decreases successively for two-hinged, one-hinged, and fixed-
end arches. Thus for a three-hinged arch of 212-meter span with
21.25-meter rise, the stress at the quarter point is 61.7 per cent
greater when the displacement is considered than by the usual
method. Most of the increase is due to the change in the bending
moment as there is not much change in the thrust. For the
two-hinged arch of the same span, the increase was 26.9 per cent,
while for a fixed-end arch it was only 8.3 per cent.
Some experimental work was also performed so as to compare
the results as obtained by the equations with the measurements
th a t were made on small models. The results were in close agree­
ment in practically all cases.
After showing the magnitude of the stress increase th at is
caused by displacement of the arch axis, the author then provides
a method of removing p art of this increase by cambering the
arch axis. The required amount of camber is given, but since
this pertains to only one position of the load it cannot entirely
prevent an increase of stress due to the deflection of the arch axis.
In the conclusions, the author states th a t hinged arches should
be given preference for small- or medium-span arch bridges unless
the soil conditions are very good. For large spans, however, the
fixed-end arches are most desirable with the position of the arch
axis altered so as to allow for the effects of deflection.
The contents of the book are of particular importance to engi­
neers who are interested in long-span arch bridges.
Bessel F u n c tio n s fo r E n g in ee rs
By N. W. M cLachlan, D.So.
B e s s e l F u n c tio n s f o r E n g in e e rs .
(Eng.), London. Oxford Engineering Science Series. Oxford
U niversity Press, New Y ork, 1934. 202 pp., 24 figs, $5.
R e v ie w e d b y S . T im o s h e n k o 4
'T 'H E R E are many problems in engineering in which the use
of Bessel functions is necessary. In acoustics we en­
counter such problems when dealing with vibrations of circular
membranes or plates and in designing loud speakers. In the
theory of elasticity Bessel functions are used in investigating
bending of circular plates and in studying deformations having
an axis of symmetry. The problems of elastic stability of com­
pressed bars of variable cross section, of compressed circular
plates and of beams of a narrow rectangular cross section bent in
the plane of maximum rigidity require also the use of Bessel func­
tions. In electrical engineering we encounter again many im­
p ortant problems in discussing which a knowledge of Bessel func­
tions is necessary.
There are several books on Bessel functions published in
English, b ut they are written principally for mathematicians
and are not always suitable for engineers whose principal inter­
est is in the application of the theory to the solution of practical
problems. Engineers would prefer to have a book on Bessel
functions which gives special consideration to practical applica­
tions, and simple enough so th a t its reading will not require a
mathematical knowledge beyond th a t which is usually given in
engineering schools. McLachlan’s book is written with the in­
tention of satisfying these requirements.
McLachlan introduces Bessel functions of the first and second
4 Professor of Engineering M echanics, U niversity of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Mich. Mem. A .S.M .E.
 JOURNAL OF A PPLIED MECHANICS
kinds as the two independent solutions of Bessel’s equation.
He begins with the functions of order zero, gives graphical repre­
sentation of these functions and applies them in the study of
symmetrical vibrations of a stretched circular membrane. In the
second chapter McLachlan discusses Bessel functions of higher
orders and shows how these functions can be used in considering
nonsymmetrical vibrations of circular membranes in which a
membrane has not only a system of nodal circles but also a
system of nodal radii. Cylinder functions and surface spherical
harmonics are also briefly discussed in this chapter.
Chapter three discusses expansions in terms of Bessel functions,
by using which the representation of Bessel functions of the first
kind in the form of a definite integral is derived. The evalua­
tions of various integrals associated with Bessel functions are
also given in this chapter. In chapter four a brief discussion of
hypergeometric functions, gamma functions, and Struve func­
tions is given. The asymptotic expansions of Bessel functions
are derived and are used in discussion of the theory of Bessel loud­
speaker horns.
In the two following chapters the integrals for products of two-
Bessel functions are discussed. The author prefers a purely
mathematical derivation of these integrals. For engineers it
would be very instructive to have also a derivation based on a
consideration of principal modes of vibration of a stretched mem­
brane as done by Lord Rayleigh in his “Theory of Sound.”
In the last chapters of the book the modified Bessel functions
and the Ber, Bei, Ker, and Kei functions are discussed and their
applications are shown in the solution of a transmission-line prob­
lem and a problem on the resistance of conductors to alternating
current.
From this brief review it is seen th a t the book covers all por­
tions of the theory which are of practical importance. I t con­
tains a large number of formulas and also several numerical
tables which will be useful in application to practical prob­
lems. I t is clearly written so th a t its reading will not be
difficult for research engineers working in acoustics or in electrical
engineering. The only criticism which we have to make is th at
the book does not contain a sufficient number of illustrative prob­
lems with complete derivations of equations and with a detailed
solution of these equations. Only in working through all the
steps in the solution of such problems can a beginner familiarize
himself with the use of Bessel functions. The numerous prob­
lems given at the end of each chapter are, in most cases, of a
purely mathematical character and cannot be of much interest
to an engineer. The few technical examples which are considered
in the book contain only a very brief derivation of the equations,
and there is not sufficient space given for explanation of the
physical meaning which is behind the mathematical operations.
Perhaps the conditions can be improved if this book is read to­
gether with the book on loud speakers by the same author, in
which, we understand, Bessel functions are extensively used in
the solution of technical problems.
E x p lo rin g in P h y sics
By Reginald J. Stephenson, R yerson Physi­
E x p l o r i n g i n P h y s io s .
cal L aboratory, The U niversity of Chicago. T he U niversity of
Chicago Press, 1935. Cardboard, 6‘/s X 9'/< in., 205 pp., 2
photographs, 225 line drawings, $1.50.
R e v ie w e d b y J. O rm o n d ro y d 6
XPLORING in Physics” is designed to be a companion vol­
ume to Professor Lemon’s introductory treatise on physics
“From Galileo to Cosmic Rays,” Professor Stephenson supplying
11 E xperim ental Division, W estinghouse E lectric and M anu­ • E xperim ental Division, W estinghouse Electric & M anufacturing
facturing Com pany, South Philadelphia, Pa. Mem. A.S.M .E. Com pany, South Philadelphia, Pa. Mem. A .S.M .E.
A-39
the exercise problems which were omitted entirely from the earlier
and larger volume. This work follows exactly in form, spirit,
and arrangement of subject m atter the lively work of Professor
Lemon; Chichi Lasley again supplying the numerous, instructive,
and often humorous, line drawings.
About half the printed text consists of worked examples and
problems. As far as possible the problem m atter is related to
situations familiar to the student. The answers to all the prob­
lems are printed on the last five pages of the book. The other
half of the text contains an abbreviated reminder of the general
basic principles of classical physics. However, the essentially
classical picture of the Rutherford-Bohr atom-structure is given
and where electromagnetic radiation is described quanta and wave
mechanics are touched upon lightly.
“From Galileo to Cosmic Rays” and its subordinate companion
“Exploring in Physics” are both attem pts a t humanizing the
study of physics which appear to have achieved this end very
successfully.
A risto tle , G alileo, a n d th e
T o w e r o f P isa
B y Lane Cooper,
A r i s t o t l e , G a l i l e o , a n d t h e T o w e r o f P is a .
Professor of the English Language and L iterature a t Cornell
U niversity. Cornell U niversity Press, Ith ac a, N . Y., 1935. H um ­
phrey M ilford, London. C loth, 5 3/« X 8*/i in., 102 pp., 4 line
drawings, $1.50.
R e v ie w e d b y J. O rm o n d ro y d 6
T )R O FESSO R Cooper’s scholarly little booklet is based on
-*■ two major theses. First, th a t Aristotle never said th a t two
bodies of unequal weight would fall to the earth with unequal
velocities and, second, th a t Galileo never dropped two unequal
bodies from the Leaning Tower of Pisa to prove th a t Aristotle
was wrong if he had said it. Minor theses are, first, th a t even
if Galileo did make the discovery th a t bodies of unequal weight
fall in identical fashions in vacuo, others had discovered this fact
before him and, second, th a t Aristotle and Archimedes were intel­
lectual giants compared with the “amateurish” Galileo. These
theses are backed up by quotations from the works of Lucretius,
Aristotle, Philoponus, Leonardo da Vinci, Cardan, Stevin, Gali­
leo, Renieri, Viviani, Whewell, and Dingier given both in the
original languages of publication and in English translation.
By implication, Professor Cooper gives able expression in this
book to the antagonism which the humanistic outlook has long
felt toward quantitative philosophy. But as an interpretation
of a phase in the history of science one feels th a t the author has
missed the point.
Let it be adm itted th a t Aristotle and Archimedes stand
higher than Galileo in some absolute scale of genius, if such a
scale can be devised. B ut suppose th a t Galileo never dropped
two weights from the Leaning Tower—th a t Newton always
avoided apple orchards—th a t Archimedes never took a bath.
One might be tempted to u tter even greater heresies and deny
th a t Washington ever handled a hatchet or state boldly th a t there
is no Santa Claus. None of these legends is essentially part
of the history of what really happened—b u t all are symbols, in the
popular mind, indicating th a t something important to mankind
did happen.
Professor Cooper is badly misled when he equates the isolated
statements of Galileo’s predecessor and contemporaries to the
complete intellectual process contained in the dynamical sections
of “The Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences.” Even when
compared with such innovators as Copernicus, Gilbert, Kepler,
A-40 JOURNAL OP A PPL IE D MECHANICS

Bacon, and DesCartes, Galileo is still the first completely modern tical man” who concerned himself with the very practical problem
man. His process of observation, definition, hypothesis, deduc­ of determining w hat temperature would result from mixing hot
tion from hypothesis, experimentation, and further deduction water with cold. His formula was the expression of no theory
completely outlined in his dialogues has given the pattern to all regarding the nature of heat, but merely an expression of common
scientific thought in the last three centuries. This is what is sense applied to simple experiment. Richmann (1711-1753),
important. If Galileo took p art in any circus tricks at the on the contrary, attem pted to rationalize Krafft’s formula and
Tower he passes them over in silence in his written work, describ­ argued for the superiority of his own th a t it gave results con­
ing, instead, the less spectacular, but more exact process of roll­ sistently higher than experiment by amounts attributable to the
ing bronze balls down grooved boards. vessel for which no correction could be contained in a formula
Exact observation, measurement, description and compari­ comprehending only masses and temperatures. In Richmann’s
son, and the meaning of exactness and its limitations are the deductions there appear suggestions th at he actually distinguished
new ideas which the modem world has contributed to the intel­ heat and temperature, yet these suggestions are all too vague
lectual history of mankind. If Galileo’s share in creating this to adm it of definite interpretation.
new outlook is swallowed up by the legend of the Leaning Tower Wilcke (1732-1796) undertook his experiments on latent heat
this reviewer agrees with Professor Cooper th a t the legend must in an effort to understand why hot water poured on snow did not,
be suppressed. as he expected, convert many times its weight of snow a t a tem­
perature slightly lower than 0 C into water a t a temperature
slightly above 0 C. Again with Wilcke, however, inability to
T h e D isc o v ery o f Specific a n d separate the ideas of heat and temperature led to difficulties
and forced him to conclude, paradoxical as it seemed, “th a t just
L a te n t H e a ts as snow in melting takes up 72 degrees of heat without becoming
T h e D is c o v e r y o f S p e c ific a n d L a t e n t H e a ts . B y Douglas warmer, so water in freezing must give up 72 degrees of heat
McKie, P h.D ., B.Sc., L ecturer in th e H istory and M ethods of which if imparted to another equal mass of water would produce
Science, and Niels H . de V. H eathcote, B.Sc., U niversity College, in the latter 72 degrees of heat without its being possible to
London. W ith a Foreword b y E. N . da C. A ndrade, D.Sc., Ph.D ., detect the loss of heat in the ice th at was produced by the freez­
F.R .S., Quain Professor of Physics in the U n iv ersity of London.
E dw ard Arnold & Co., London, 1935. Cloth, 4 3/< X 7V< in., 155 ing of the original mass of water.” The authors conclude this,
pp., 5 plates, 6s. chapter by calling attention to the superiority of Black’s re­
searches and emphasizing the fact th a t they antedated those of
R e v i e w e d b y J o h n A. G o f f 7
Wilcke by more than ten years.
'T 'H IS little book contains an interesting and important contri- In the last chapter, under the heading of “Some Immediate
bution to the history of science. In it are reviewed in careful Consequences,” the authors trace the rise and progress of calo­
and objective manner the early investigations into the nature rimetry, the attem pts to determine the absolute zero of tempera­
of heat which may be said to have laid the foundations of the ture, and the early investigations into the “weight of heat.”
modern dynamical theory. The reader will be impressed with the Thus they conclude their study with the classical experiments of
clearness with which the early confused and confusing ideas have Rumford which began the systematic attack on the material
been interpreted and will agree with a statement in the foreword theory of heat and paved the way for the modern dynamical
by Professor Andrade, Quain Professor of Physics in the Univer­ theory.
sity of London, th a t “the book owes much of its excellence to One of the most interesting paragraphs in the book is th at deal­
the fact th a t throughout it is based on a study of the work of the ing with the work o£ Jean Morin, editor, after Kepler, of the
original writers, in the original language.” The reader will also Rudolphine Tables. Morin’s work (1661), which appears to be
gain new appreciation of the difficulties with which early experi­ the very earliest attem pt to deal mathematically with a quantita­
menters were faced owing to their inability to separate the ideas tive problem in heat, is especially interesting for its bearing on
of heat and temperature and new surprise th a t in these days of thermometry. To Morin, each of the eight divisions on the
scientific thinking this inability still persists, not only in the mind thermometer of his period, below the highest point represented a
of the layman, but of physicist and engineer as well. “degree of cold,” while each division above the lowest point
The work of Joseph Black (1728-1799) is discussed a t length represented a “degree of heat.” A temperature corresponding to
in chapter 1 and, in chapter 2, all doubt as to the date and prior­ the mid-point of the thermometer would therefore be one of
ity of Black’s experiments and his claims to the discovery of “four degrees of heat and four degrees of cold.” In reasoning as
specific and latent heats is resolved. These chapters are of to the result of mixing equal masses of water, the one having
present interest for the references they contain to James W att, “four degrees of heat and four degrees of cold,” the other having
the famous pupil of Black and great improver of the steam engine, “two degrees of heat and six degrees of cold,” he rejected the
whose Bicentenary engineers all over the world have lately correct result because to him it represented six degrees of cold
celebrated. as having proportionately less effect on four degrees of heat than
In chapter 3 are discussed the achievements of the Baltic the four degrees of heat would have on six degrees of cold. One
workers: Krafft and Richmann in St. Petersburg, Wilcke and wonders what expression could be given the Second Law of
Gadolin in Sweden. Krafft (1701-1754) was essentially a “prac­ Thermodynamics in terms of Morin’s ideas of temperature and
is the more willing to accept the researches of Black as a real
7 Professor of Therm odynam ics, U niversity of Illinois, U rbana, 111. discovery of specific and latent heats.
Mem. A .S.M .E. I t is superfluous to add th a t the book is highly recommended.