FACULTY MECHANICAL, MARITIME AND

MATERIALS ENGINEERING
Delft University of Technology Department Marine and Transport Technology

Mekelweg 2
2628 CD Delft
the Netherlands
Phone +31 (0)15-2782889
Fax +31 (0)15-2781397
www.mtt.tudelft.nl

Specialization: Transport Engineering and Logistics

Report number: 2017.TEL.1608

Title: Models of calculating flexure

resistance of conveyor belt and
solid material

Author: H.C. Kalff

4087518

Title (in Dutch) Modellen voor het berekenen van buigingsweerstand van een transportband
en zijn bulk materiaal

Assignment: literature

Confidential: no

Initiator (university): Dr.ir. Y Pang

Initiator (company): -

Supervisor: Dr.ir. Y Pang

Date: October 31, 2017

This report consists of 44 pages and 0 appendices. It may only be reproduced literally and as a whole. For
commercial purposes only with written authorization of Delft University of Technology. Requests for consult are
only taken into consideration under the condition that the applicant denies all legal rights on liabilities concerning
the contents of the advice.
 TUDelft
Delft University of Technology
FACULTY OF M E C H A N I C A L , M A R I T I M E AND
MATERIALS ENGINEERING
Department of Marine and Transport Technology

Mekelweg 2
2628 CD Delft
the Netherlands
Phone + 3 1 (0)15-2782889
Fax + 3 1 (0)15-2781397
www.mtt.tudelft.nl

Student: H.C. Kalff Assignment type: Literature

Supervisor; Dr. ir. Y. Pang Report number: 2017.TEL.1608
Specialization: TEL Confidential: No
Creditpoints (EC): 10

Subject: Models of calculating flexure r e s i s t a n c e of conveyor belt and solid material

Belt conveyors are extensively applied in bulk solid handling systems and as implied by the standard D I N 2 2 1 0 1 ,

the main resistances contribute more than 80% o f the total motional resistances o f long horizontal belt

conveyors. The main resistances consist o f the indentation resistances o f belt on idlers, the flexure resistances o f

belt and solid material, and the rotating resistances o f idlers. In the past decades, different models have been built

to calculate the flexure resistances. Hence i n this assignment, the calculation models are expected to be reviewed

and compared. The main tasks f o r this literature assignment include:

o to overview o f the motional resistances o f belt conveyors, especially the main resistances

• to interpret the flexure resistances o f the belt and the carried solid material

o to review the existing models o f calculating flexure resistances o f the belt and the solid material,

respectively

9 to compare the models and indicate their the pros and cons

This report should be ananged in such a way that all data is structurally presented i n graphs, tables, and lists w i t h

belonging descriptions and explanations i n text.

The report should comply w i t h the guidelines o f the section. Details can be found on the website.

The mentor.
 Abstract

Belt conveyors are a frequently used form of transportation for bulk material. To
make more efficient belt conveyors and decrease the costs and energy consumption,
the influence of all the motional resistances working on the belt need to be
researched. The second contributor to the main resistance, the flexure resistance,
is not widely studied, but the body of work concerning the flexure resistance can
not be neglected.
Motional resistances
DIN22101 describes the total motional resistance as the sum of the primary,
secondary, gradient and special resistances. Zooming in to the primary resistance
to determine the friction coefficient, the following resistances can be distinguished:
idler rotational resistance, sliding resistance, indentation resistance, flexure re-
sistance of a belt and flexure resistance of bulk material. These all contribute
differently to the total resistance under different circumstances. However, it can
be concluded that the indentation resistance has the biggest share when running
an average belt conveyor. The flexure resistances can also be of great influence
depending on the circumstances such as the type of bulk material or the belt
tension.
Flexure resistance
Focusing on the two types of flexure resistance, a few main researches are surveyed.
The different mathematical models are based on the energy balance and the
equilibrium of forces on the belt. It is also important to calculate the active
and passive pressure factors the bulk material experiences due to the opening in
closing of the belt, in order to calculate the transition zone of the stress states.
The mathematical models, verified by laboratory set-ups and simulations, show
that the flexure resistances of the belt and bulk material are influenced by the
belt sag, the mass and height of the bulk material, the type of bulk material, the
tensile force of the belt and the type of belt.
Implementation
When the different parameters of the flexure resistances are known, the design
tools can be improved. Better simulations can be made to predict the behaviour
of the belt conveyor and the bulk material even more accurately. This will lead
to more efficient designs of belt conveyors and thereby saving capital costs and
energy consumption.
Conclusion
The information gained of the flexure resistance can be used when large belt
conveyor systems in the future will have intelligent control systems that will
keep track of all the dynamic parameters using sensors. This results in belt
conveyors with an increased overall system safety and reliability. However, still
some research needs to be done on the dynamic effect of the flexure resistances and
the other motional resistances. This can result in improved simulation techniques
and more efficient belt conveyor designs

i
 List of symbols

a Idler spacing
C Factor for secondary resistance
d Thickness of layer bulk material
Enb Energy dissipation
Enf Energy dissipation
EI Flexural rigidity of the belt
EJ Flexural rigidity of the belt
f Coefficient of friction
fb Coefficient of the flexure resistance of a belt
fd Dynamic factor
fi Coefficient of the indentation resistance
fs Coefficient of the flexure resistance of bulk material
F Motional resistance
Fb Flexure resistance of a belt
FH Primary resistance
Flong_f lex Longitudinal flexure resistance force
FN Secondary resistance
Fs Flexure resistance of bulk material
Fs Special resistance
Fsn Normal force per unit length
Fst Gradient resistance
Ftr Resistance due to the troughing shape
Ftrans_f lex Transverse flexure resistance force
Fv Vertical force due to the weight of the belt and bulk solid
Fvs Normal force due to the weight of the bulk material
g Acceleration of gravity
h Height of bulk solid
hbs Height of bulk solid above the centre idler roll
h0bs Height of bulk solid bounded by the failure plane
H Material lifting height
Ka Active pressure factor
Kla Longitudinal active pressure factor
Klp Longitudinal passive pressure factor
Kp Passive pressure factor
Kta Transverse active pressure factor
Kta Transverse active pressure factor
Ktp Transverse passive pressure factor
Ktp Transverse passive pressure factor

ii
 iii

lg Spacing between consecutive idlers

lz Contact length
L Length of the belt conveyor
Lss Length of bulk solid in contact with the inclined side of the conveyor belt
0
mB Mass of the belt
0
mL Mass of the load
0
mr Mass of the idler rolls
∆M Loss of moment
M Moment
Pz_bs Pressure distribution due to bulk solid
q Homogeneous load distribution belt and material
s Indentation depth
T Belt tension
w Belt deflection
Wb Flexure resistance of a belt
Wf Flexure resistance of bulk material
y(x) Bending lines of a belt
β Troughing angle
β Conveyor surcharge angle of bulk material
δ Inclination angle of the belt conveyor
∆1 , ∆2 ,
Angles in Mohr circle
∆3 , ∆4 ,
η Angular deflection
Rotations of the major principal stresses in active and passive stress
θa , θp
states
λ Conveyor surcharge angle
λa Active stress coefficient
λav Active stress coefficient in a vertical plane
λpv Passive stress coefficient in a vertical plane
λp Passive stress coefficient
ρ Radius of curvature of the belt
ρ Bulk density
φ Angle
φi Bulk solid internal friction angle
φw Angle of friction between belt and bulk
Ψb Damping factor of energy loss due to bending
Ψf Damping factor of material
 Contents

Abstract i
List of symbols ii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 General introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 Motional resistances 2
2.1 Introduction to belt conveyors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Motional resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Idler rotational resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Sliding resistance of a belt on idlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 Indentation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.6 Flexure resistance of the belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.7 Flexure resistance of the bulk material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.8 Total motional resistances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3 Flexure resistance 11
3.1 Flexure resistance of a belt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 Spaans . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.2 Gladysiewicz .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2 Flexure resistance of bulk material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.1 Spaans . . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2 Wheeler . . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.3 Gladysiewicz .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3 Laboratory tests. . . .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4 Implementation 34
5 Conclusion 39
Bibliography 40

iv
 1
Introduction

1.1. General introduction

Belt conveyors are economical, efficient and are extensively applied in bulk solid
handling systems. As implied by the standard DIN22101 the main resistances
contribute more than 80% of the total motional resistances of long horizontal
belt conveyors. The material on the belt is an important issue which directly and
indirectly affects the load on idlers, belt tension, belt life and overall performance
of the conveyor [1]. While the indentation resistance is the main contributor to the
motional resistances and therefore widely researched, the flexure resistance is the
next in line. Unfortunately the flexure resistance is therefore a lot less researched.
However it is important to also consider the body of work concerning the other
resistances besides the indentation resistance, because they all contribute to
the main resistance. With more knowledge of all the contributors of the main
resistance, designers can design better and more efficient belt conveyors, which
benefits the costs and energy consumption.
In this report the results of a literature survey are presented, giving insight in
the theoretical analysis of the physical behaviour of the running conveyor belt to
identify the impact of all the important parameters on the flexure resistance. The
report is split into three main chapters. In chapter 2 the different contributors
to the main motion resistance are explored. Chapter 3 zooms in to the flexure
resistance of the belt and its bulk material. It focuses on advanced calculation
methods by multiple reseachers which are tested and verified by laboratory tests
and in-situ measurements. The last chapter, chapter 4, will describe the possible
implementations of the knowledge gained in the previous chapters.

1
 2
Motional resistances

2.1. Introduction to belt conveyors

In order to understand the resistances of motion working on a belt conveyor, one
must first understand the composition of a belt conveyor. The basic concept of a
standard belt conveyor is displayed in figure 2.1. The conveyor shown is a simple
design shown in longitudinal sections. It consists of a frame, idlers, the head and
tail pulleys, the take-up system, loading chutes and, of course, the belt. Idlers
(figure 2.2) are used to carry the belt. They consist of a frame an rolls and can
be used to create a trough that increases the load carrying capacity of the belt in
case of belt conveyors that transport bulk solid materials [2]. At the tail end bulk
solids are charged via a loading chute on the belt continuously and accelerated
by the conveyor belt to belt speed. Over the conveyor length the bulk solids are
transported on the upper strand of the conveyor to the discharge point at the
head of the conveyor.
Belt conveyors are in operation throughout the world for the transport of large
amounts of bulk solids over great distances. Capacities of up to 40,000 t/h
are achieved. The average conveyor length is about 1,000 m, but head to tail
distances of greater than 3,000 m are no exception [3]. Besides the troughed
belt conveyor, there are also special belt conveyors to transport bulk under
extraordinary circumstances, e.g. inclination or declination. In that case the
material needs to be transported by a force or form to prevent an uneven load
due to gravity. The four typical belt conveyors to use in this case are: pouch
conveyors, pipe conveyors, high angle conveyors and pocket conveyors. These are
however exceptional conveyors for unusual circumstances, so are not considered
in this report. The belt conveyor with a conventional troughed conveyor belt is of

Figure 2.1: A typical belt conveyor [2].

2
2.2. Motional resistances 3

Figure 2.2: Idlers of different angles in a transition zone to get a troughed belt [2].

considerable importance for the handling of bulk materials and is therefore taken
as standard in this report.

2.2. Motional resistances

As the length of belt conveying systems increases it becomes even more important
to accurately calculate the motional resistances at the design stage, with the view
of minimizing these resistances to improve the efficiency of the installation.
When a belt is in motion the conveyor has to deal with a lot of resistances. These
resistances have a physical effect on the running belt conveyor and therefore it
is vital to take them into account when designing a conveyor. Many authors
have provided primary motional resistance models. However, only the primary
motional resistance model delivered by DIN22101 is complete and of analytical
nature [4]. This design norm is used for determining all the specifications of
belt conveyors e.g. dimensioning and selecting components. In the DIN22101
standard the total motion resistance is defined as:

F = FH + FN + FSt + FS (2.1)

With:
F Motional resistance
FH Primary resistance
FN Secondary resistance
Fst Gradient resistance
Fs Special resistance

As can be seen in equation 2.1 the motional resistance is the sum of all the
individual resistances. These resistances according to DIN22101 are described
below.
2.2. Motional resistances 4

Primary resistance FH
The primary resistance is the sum of all friction-related resistances along the
belt. This is the running resistance of the idlers (idler rotational resistance and
the sliding resistance of a belt on idlers) and the running resistance of the belt
(indentation resistance, flexure resistance of a belt and the flexure resistance
of bulk material). In this resistance, the material load on the belt is of major
influence.
Secondary resistance FN
The secondary resistances are caused by friction and inertia. These are the feed
resistance of transported bulk material, friction between the bulk material and
the loading chute, friction of the belt cleaners and the deflection resistance of
the belt at the pulleys. Because these resistances only occur at certain parts of
the belt conveyors, the magnitude of these resistances is independent of the belt
conveyor length. Therefore the significance of the secondary resistance decreases
for longer belt conveyors. The secondary resistance is usually taken into account
as a percentage of the primary resistance. Under normal circumstances it is about
78% of the primary resistance for belt conveyors of 100 m, and drops to only 9%
for belt conveyors longer than 1000 m [4].
Gradient resistance FSt
The gradient resistance is the force the belt conveyor needs to overcome the
difference in altitude between the loading and unloading section of the belt
conveyor. It is dependent only on the actual material flow and the material lifting
height.
Special resistance FS
The special resistance describes resistances that do not occur for all belt conveyors,
for example the tilt resistance of idlers and the resistances of equipment used
for feeding the belt conveyor alongside the conveying track. These resistances
generally have a relatively small influence on the total motional resistance (1%)
[4].
When looking at those four resistances, the primary resistance is the most impor-
tant resistance. For long belt conveyors the primary resistance is even larger due
to the decreasing influence of the secondary resistance. Therefore, we are going
to focus on this resistance in the following text. Many authors have provided
primary motional resistance models. A full complete model for the calculation of
the main resistance on the basis of the physical properties of the belt and bulk
material and the geometry of the belt conveyor was first published by Spaans
in 1978 , but soon other researches followed. However, only the model delivered
by DIN22101 is complete and of analytical nature [4]. DIN22101 defines the
motional resistance as in equation 2.2.

0 0 0 0
F = Cf Lg[mR + (2mB + mL ) cos δ] + mL gH (2.2)
2.3. Idler rotational resistance 5

With:
C Factor for secondary resistance
f Coefficient of friction
L Length of the belt conveyor
g Acceleration of gravity
0
mr Mass of the idler rolls
0
mB Mass of the belt
0
mL Mass of the load
δ Inclination angle of the belt conveyor
H Material lifting height

As can be seen, the motional resistance depends of the sum of the moving masses,
the length, and a fixed friction coefficient. This coefficient is the most important
of this research. The inclination angle and the material lifting height can be
neglected, because we are only looking at a long horizontal conveyor belt without
the secondary, gradient and special resistances. The value of f is based on
the experience of the belt conveyor engineer or on measurements on a real belt
conveyor. It depends on the belt conveyor and the operating conditions and
therefore it is not entirely generic. It is generally between 0.016 and 0.027 [4].
In order to determine the friction coefficient, we have to look further into the
main primary resistances. Those are:
• Idler rotational resistance
• Sliding resistance of a belt on idlers
• Indentation resistance
• Flexure resistance of a belt
• Flexure resistance of bulk material
In this chapter all the different contributors to the main motional resistances as
listed above are briefly reviewed.

2.3. Idler rotational resistance

As Gladysiewicz [5] stated, the idler rotational resistance is a sum of values of
a rotational resistance of each roller. However, it is difficult to verify this due
to a great variety in results in the laboratory tests. Therefore, the resistance is
only calculated for single rollers and used as a approximation of the rotational
resistance. The rotating resistance occurs due tot the friction of the rolling
elements in the bearings, the viscous drag of the lubricant and the friction of the
contact lip seals, as stated by Lodewijks [6].
2.4. Sliding resistance of a belt on idlers 6

2.4. Sliding resistance of a belt on idlers

Gladysiewicz [5] also stated, the sliding resistance of a belt on idlers consists
of two components. The first is caused by forward tilt of side rollers while the
second is a result of belt misalignment and its transverse movements on idlers.
The sliding resistance of a belt on idlers can be combined from friction forces on
rollers which are calculated from their radial reactions and kinetic friction factor
between rollers and the belt. The assessment of the impact of belt misalignment
is more difficult as it depends on the random operating conditions of a conveyor
like lateral and vertical tilt, lateral offset and horizontal skew of idlers or poor
belt or bulk stream tracking. However, these parameters cannot be measured or
predicted precisely so the belt misalignment can only be assessed.
The sliding resistance of a belt on a given idler caused by belt misalignment can
be calculated with the use of actual exact numbers (values that are individually
generated from fuzzy numbers with regard to their membership functions).

2.5. Indentation resistance

The indentation rolling resistance occurs due to the viscoelastic nature of the
bottom cover of the belt [6]. When moving over a roll a belt will be indented by
the roll in the contact area, and as this deformation is not free of hysteresis, it
will cause resistance [7]. The indentation is of very short duration and occurs
periodically.
The indentation resistance depends on different parameters, namely the belt
parameters (damping factor and elementary flexural rigidity of a belt), roller
diameter and radial force on a roller [5].
The indentation resistance of the whole idler set is a sum of values of an indentation
resistance of each roller. Just like the idler rotational resistance, the indentation
resistance is constant, while the other three resistances - the flexure resistance of
a belt and bulk material and the sliding resistance of a belt - depend on the belt
tension. [5].
This resistance is thought to be the main contributor to the motional resistances,
so the most research is done to the indentation resistance.

2.6. Flexure resistance of the belt

While the indentation resistance is extensively researched, due to the fact that
it is the highest contributor to the total motional resistance, there is a lot less
known about the flexure resistance. Only in recent years researchers started truly
exploring the physical effects of the flexure resistances. The first to publish about
the flexure resistance was Spaans in 1979 [8]. He divided the flexure resistance in
two parts, the flexure resistance of bulk material and the flexure resistance of a
2.7. Flexure resistance of the bulk material 7

belt. Gladysiewicz [5] caught up the physical model of the flexure resistance and
since then a lot of researches on the matter have been done.
When a belt moves from one idler to another, the belt bends a little bit. This
results in the flexure resistance of the belt. While it is further explored in chapter
3.1 the flexure resistance of the belt depends of a damping factor, the distance
between two idler sets and the energy dissipation [5].

2.7. Flexure resistance of the bulk material

The bulk material also has an effect on the belt and therefore the flexure resistance.
The volume flow of bulk material experiences a cyclical deformation between
two idler sets, both lengthwise and clockwise, due to the sag of the belt and its
limited flexural rigidity. The relative movement results in energy losses due to the
internal friction of the bulk solid [9]. The belt and bulk solid properties influence
the bulk solid flexure resistance to varying degrees, as does the belt speed, belt
sag and idler spacing, thereby offering potential reduction with informed design.
The flexure resistance of the bulk material is further explored in chapter 3.2.

2.8. Total motional resistances

All the motional resistances together have a big influence on the conveyor belt. In
order to achieve optimal usage of the belt conveyor we need to get more insight in
the contribution of all the individual motional resistances to the total resistance.
The original method of calculation of belt conveyor motional resistance has been
developed on the basis of theoretical analysis of the energy dissipation processes
in a conveyor belt and in the material load stream, as well as the analysis of
the interaction between the belt and idlers. With multiple laboratory tests and
in situ-measurements supported by verified theoretical calculation methods all
the different resistances can be identified from the total resistance. The main
resistance force is prevailing for conveyors longer than 80 m. Therefore the
accuracy of calculations of the main resistance force components is vital for the
proper choice of a belt conveyor design. Taking into account the energy dissipation
processes in a conveyor belt and in the material load stream the components of
the main resistance forces are considered as described in this chapter.

Length
At first the length of the conveyor belt heavily influences the contribution of the
secondary resistances. As is clearly apparent, these resistances are independent
of the length of the conveyor, are constant in decrease in importance with the
primary resistances, which are distributed throughout the length of the conveyor,
and grow as head-to-tail distances increase [3]. The pie charts of figure 2.3 show
the distribution of the individual resistance fractions for three different conveyor
2.8. Total motional resistances 8

Figure 2.3: Percental distribution of the individual motion resistances of bulk conveyors [3].

types. The large chart shows the distribution for long heavy horizontal conveyors.
The first notable value is the 61% share of the indentation rolling resistance.
While both the flexure resistance are relatively small (5% and 18%), they can be
influenced by the belt characteristics. They are, just as the secondary resistances
and the extraordinary (special) resistances, not negligible as to amount, but
represent minor factors with respect to their effect on total energy requirement.
The other two pie charts also show a large influence of the indentation rolling
resistance with respect tot the total resistance. Those two charts however have a
big secondary resistance resp. gradient resistance due to their special condition
as described (a short conveyor and an ascending conveyor). The improvement in
conveyor belts with respect to their indentation resistance will also have positive
effects on the flexure resistance of the belt.

Belt tension
The impact of belt tension on the value of the main resistance to motion becomes
more important for longer conveyors where the belt tension changes within a
wide range. As can be seen in figure 2.4 the idler rotational resistance and the
indentation resistance are constant, while the flexure resistance of a belt and bulk
material and the sliding resistance of a belt on idlers depend on the belt tension.
The result from Gladysiewicz match the measurement figures within satisfactory
accuracy especially for bigger actual capacity where the standard DIN22101
method has given poorer required drivepower.
2.8. Total motional resistances 9

Figure 2.4: Main resistances to motion along the top belt of a typical belt conveyor from a
lignite open pit [5].

Table 2.1: Specifications for figure 2.4

Transported material Overburden

Type belt Steel cord belt
Idler type Garland, well maintained
Density ρ 1600 kg/m3
Strength 3150 kN/m
Length L 1100 m
Lift H 10 m
Belt width B 2.25 m
Speed vt 5.24 m/s
Spacing on carrying side lg 1.0 m
Troughing angle λ 45◦
Ambient temperatue Tc 0◦ C
Drive pulleys at the head station 2
Drive units 4
Power per drive unit P 1000 kW
2.8. Total motional resistances 10

Figure 2.5: Main resistances versus belt speed Figure 2.6: Main resistances versus belt
for gravel [10]. speed for bauxite.[10]

Table 2.2: Specifications for figures 2.5 and 2.6

Transported material Gravel (fig. 2.5) and bauxite (fig. 2.6)

Length L 60 m
Belt width B 600 mm
Idler spacing 1250 mm
Density gravel ρg 1400 kg/m3
Density bauxite ρb 1400 kg/m3
Internal friction angle gravel φig 45◦
Internal friction angle bauxite φib 34◦
Friction angle between belt and gravel φwg 28◦
Friction angle between belt and bauxite φwb 25◦

Bulk material
Figures 2.5 and 2.6 show the contributions of each of the components of the main
resistance for gravel and bauxite respectively. As can be seen, there is a huge
difference between those two materials. The idler rotational resistance and the
indentation rolling resistance are approximately the same for both bulk solids,
but the bulk solid flexure resistance differs a lot. This is primarily due to the
higher internal friction of the gravel. These two figures show that the bulk solid
flexure resistance can indeed be a significant factor in the calculation of the
total motional resistance, depending on the internal friction angle φi of the bulk
material.
 3
Flexure resistance

In the previous chapters the different motional resistances are discussed. Knowing
what influences those resistances is important to a high degree, because it can
affect the working of the conveyor belt. As already said, the indentation resistance
is the main contributor to the total motion resistance. This is also the reason
there is a lot of research done on this particular resistance. The flexure resistance
of the belt and its bulk material is the next resistance in line, but the diversity
of the researches of this resistance is limited in comparison with the indentation
resistance. In this chapter the main researches about flexure resistances are
analyzed. The flexure resistance is divided in two parts, the flexure resistance of
the belt and the flexure resistance of the bulk material, therefore those two are
also separately discussed in the following chapter. Furthermore, of each resistance
the mathematical model is first examined and at the end, some laboratory tests
are looked into.

3.1. Flexure resistance of a belt

When a belt moves from one idler to another, the belt bends a little bit. This
results in a flexure resistance of the belt. Main researchers of the flexure resistance
of the belt are Spaans and Gladysiewicz.

3.1.1. Spaans
According to Spaans [7], [8] there are two different situations in which a flexure
resistance of the belt can be calculated. At first we consider the mathematical
model made by Spaans of the flexure resistance a flat belt and after that we
consider that of a curved belt.

Flat belt
If we consider a flat belt moving over flat rolls and no flexure resistance occurs,
then the belt should deform symmetrically. However, this happens hardly ever
and therefore most belts adhere asymmetrically to the roll. This is due to the
difference in flexural rigidity when moving over the rolls, even when the belt has
been loaded evenly.
In figure 3.1 the forces on the roll and the curved belt are showed. The belt
has to be in equilibrium, otherwise it will slide of the idler rolls. This results in

11
3.1. Flexure resistance of a belt 12

Figure 3.1: Part of belt between the "area of contact of roll and belt" and the "vertical
symmetry line of the belt" [7].

a relationship between the difference in the different moments and the flexure
resistance. This follows in the formula Fv ∗ ρ ∗ y 0 = ∆M . Also, the forces have
to be in balance, so therefore Fb /Fv = y 0 . From these two formulas, equation 3.1
can be derived.

Fb = ∆M/ρ (3.1)

With:
Fb Flexure resistance of a belt
∆M Loss of moment
ρ Radius of curvature of the belt

Curved belt
When a belt is curved, it is supported by two rolls with a spacing between them.
Spaans [8] made a mathematical model of the curved belt based on the fact
that the belt again has to be balanced, see figure 3.2. Taken into account that
the moment in the belt causes resistance, although very small compared to the
moment above the roll, and the radius of curvature is very large at the lowermost
point, equation 3.2 is derived.
3.1. Flexure resistance of a belt 13

Figure 3.2: Mathematical model of a belt [7].

( 2 )
Fv q h q i2
Fb = Ψb · EI − + − (3.2)
2ωEI T T

With:
Ψb Damping factor of energy loss due to bending
EI Flexural rigidity of the belt
Fv Vertical force due to the weight of the belt and bulk solid
q Homogeneous load distribution belt and material
T Belt tension

In this equation it is assumed that the belt consists of isotropic and homogeneous
material and that the flat cross-section does not deform. With belts with rub-
ber covers and fabric carcass this is certainly not the case, but more detailed
calculations are very time consuming and hardly contribute to the improvement
of the qualitative insight. q/T can be neglected because naturally the degree of
curvature of the belt between two trough idlers is negligible with respect to the
curvature above the rolls. The formula can thus be deduced to:

Ψb · Fv2
Fb = (3.3)
4T
When the main resistance is calculated, it is important to know the share of the
flexure resistance. This is expressed in the coefficient of the flexure resistance.
This coefficient will be:
3.1. Flexure resistance of a belt 14

Fb Ψb · Fv
fb = = (3.4)
Fv 4T

With:
fb Coefficient of the flexure resistance of a belt

It is also important to know the belt sag. Usually the sag s will not become greater
than 1% of the idler spacing. As Fv /T is equal to eight times the relative sag of
the belt, and this sag usually does not amount more than 0.01, the coefficient for
the flexure resistance will normally not be grater than 0.012. In that case the
damping factor of energy loss due to the bending of the belt sag stands at 0.6. The
sag of a throughed belt is calculated by equation 3.5 according to DIN21101 and
therefore it appears that the flexure resistance of the belt contributes relatively
little to the main resistance.
s Fv
= (3.5)
a 8T

With:
s Indentation depth
a Idler spacing

3.1.2. Gladysiewicz
While Spaans approaches the model with an equilibrium of forces, Gladysiewicz
[5] derives an equation from the energy balance. The force of flexure resistance of
a belt performs a work of deformation of a belt on the spacing between consecutive
idlers which balanced the energy dissipation.

Wb · lg = Ψb · Enb (3.6)

With:
Wb Flexure resistance of a belt
lg Spacing between consecutive idlers
Ψb Damping factor of energy loss due to bending
Enb Energy dissipation

The strain energy of bending of a belt is treated as a linear elastic beam supported
by idlers with a constant flexural rigidity over its length is calculated from the
integral: Z lg
q · lg
Enb = · M 2 (x) · dx (3.7)
2 · EJ 0
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 15

Figure 3.3: Scheme of bending of a belt between two consecutive supporting idlers [5].

With:
q Homogeneous load distribution belt and material
EJ Flexural rigidity of the belt
M Moment

The strain energy of bending is calculated with regard to transverse flexural

rigidity of a belt resulting from idler troughing angle. If any misalignment of
a belt occurs then the cross section of a belt on idlers is unsymmetrical which
influences on the flexure resistance of a belt.
The damping factor has to be calculated with the use of supplementary empirical
formulas developed for textile and steel-cord belts.
The equation for the flexure resistance of a belt from Gladysiewicz is therefore:
Z lg
q · Ψb
Wb = · M 2 (x) · dx (3.8)
2 · EJ 0

3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material

The volume flow of bulk material experiences a cyclical deformation, both length-
wise and clockwise, due to the sag of the belt and its limited flexural rigidity.
This results in a flexure resistance of the bulk material.
Limited research has been conducted in the area of bulk solid flexure resistance
primarily due to the perception that this resistance contributes little to the total
resistance. Additionally, the bulk solid properties are generally considered a
constraint rather than a variable parameter by the conveyor designer. While
the conveyor designer has little control over the properties of the bulk solid
being conveyed, the influence of these properties on the main resistances in some
instances are significant and should not be overlooked. The bulk solid flexure
resistance is consistently the second largest of the main resistances, as noted by
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 16

Hager and Hintz [3], and may even exceed the indentation rolling resistance in the
case of wide conveyor belts, as discussed by Spaans [7]. The belt and bulk solid
properties influence the bulk solid flexure resistance to varying degrees, as does
the belt speed, belt sag and idler spacing, thereby offering potential reduction
with informed design.
Bulk solid flexure resistance occurs between successive idler sets as the bulk solid
undergoes transverse and longitudinal displacement due to belt sag. As the belt
progresses from one idler set to the next the bulk solid undergoes cyclic expansion
and contraction in the transverse direction, in addition to variation in height in
the longitudinal direction, as shown in figure 3.7. The relative movement results
in energy losses due to the internal friction of the bulk solid. [9].
The flexure resistance of bulk material results from cyclic deformations of material
stream. These deformations are strictly connected with the bending line of a
belt between idlers and therefore in previous methods of calculations of the main
resistances of motion both the flexure resistances (bulk and belt) used to be
identified as single components from an approximated formula. Assuming that
transported bulk material is a kind of grainy medium, two zones of movement of
a belt with material can be identified:
• active zone, where the material stream causes deformations of a belt (bending
and an increase of an actual throughing angle).
• passive zone, where deformations of belt cause deformations of a material
stream.
The length of each zone equals half of the distance between idlers.

3.2.1. Spaans
Spaans [7] was the first to provide an analytical model to calculate the flex-
ure resistance of the bulk solid due to the cyclic transverse and longitudinal
deformation.
In the research of Spaans [8] he neglects the resistance due to the opening and
closing of the belt, because the other components of the resistance, the volume
flow and the internal friction of the bulk material, are dominant. In the case
of very wide belts with very thick layers of bulk material the flexure resistance
contributes considerably to the main resistance.
Just like the calculation of the flexure resistance of the belt, Spaans considered a
flat belt and a curved belt apart from each other.

Flat belt
As a result of its own weight and the weight of the bulk material, the belt is
always a little bit curved and is thus cyclically deformed when the belt moves
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 17

Figure 3.4: Deformation pattern of volume flow [7].

the bulk material. From figures 3.4 and 3.5 Spaans made an mathematical model
which resulted in the formula of the flexure resistance Fs over spacing a:

Fvs · Fv d2
Fs = √ · (λpv − λav ) · (3.9)
T · EI 12 ∗ a

in which:
1 + sin φ 1 − sin φ 4 · sin φ
(λpv − λav ) = − = (3.10)
1 − sin φ 1 + sin φ cos φ2

With:
Fs Flexure resistance of bulk material
Fvs Normal force due to the weight of the bulk material
Fv Vertical force due to the weight of the belt and bulk solid
T Belt tension
EI Flexural rigidity of the belt
λpv Passive stress coefficient in a vertical plane
λav Active stress coefficient in a vertical plane
d Thickness of layer bulk material
a Idler spacing
φ Angle
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 18

Figure 3.5: Deformation of a volume part

a. the volume part; b. the pressure distribution on the normal plane [7].

According to Spaans, this equation is only valid if the deformations of the belt
are slight. Because the opening and closing of the belt’s section is neglected, the
equation is also only valid for a qualitative consideration.

Curved belt
When the neutral line of a curved belt and its bulk material lies on the same
place as in case of the flat belt, namely in the belts lowest point, equation 3.9 can
be used. However, this is not always the case. Because of the belt’s curvature
and troughed shape, due to the weight of the bulk material, the tensions will be
higher than with a flat belt. The following is assumed:
• At the place of the greatest sag the flexural rigidity of the troughed belt is
equal to the flexural rigidity of the flat belt.
• At the place of a trough idler the belt is forced to take on the troughed
shape.
The flexural rigidity of the troughed belt is very large there, as a consequence of
which the radius of curvature of the belt and the bulk material is highpas well.
The flexure resistance therefore needs a correction of e−ωx , with ω is T /EI,
which results in equation 3.11.

Fvs · Fv d2
Fs = √ · (λpv − λav ) · · e−ωx (3.11)
T · EI 12 ∗ a

The troughed shape opens and closes when going from the first idler roll to the
second. Due to this deformation of the troughed shape the flexure resistance Ftr
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 19

Figure 3.6: Model of the opening and closing of the troughed shape [7].

is calculated by Spaans as follows, with lz referring to the section of bulk material

and not to the length of the side-roll as shown in figure 3.6.

1
Ftr = ∆β · ρ · g · lz3 · (λp − λa ) · cos φw (3.12)
6

With:
Ftr Resistance due to the troughing shape
β Troughing angle
ρ Bulk density
g Acceleration of gravity
lz Contact length
λp Passive stress coefficient
λa Active stress coefficient
φw Angle of friction between belt and bulk material

Just like the flexure resistance of the belt, the flexure resistance of the bulk
material also has a coefficient fs to make is easier to calculate with all the other
main resistances.

Fvs d2
fs = √ · (λpv − λav ) · · e−ωx (3.13)
T · EI 12 ∗ a

With:
fs Coefficient of the flexure resistance of bulk material

3.2.2. Wheeler
Wheeler only looks at the flexure resistances of bulk solids. In his papers [9]
and [10] he clarifies his vision on the flexure resistance of bulk solid material. In
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 20

Figure 3.7: Induced active and passive stress states for a loaded conveyor belt [9].

his analysis he considers that the flexure resistance consists of both transverse
an longitudinal components. Figure 3.7 shows the expansion and contraction of
the bulk solid as the belt progresses from one idler set (position A) to the other
(position E). When leaving the idler set and moving to position B, the troughed
belt opens up under the action of gravity. This results in an active stress state
in the transverse direction due to the bulk solid that can relax. Longitudinally,
however, the bulk solid is undergoing compressive stresses due to the contraction
of the bulk solid arising from the longitudinal sag of the belt. When the bulk
reaches roughly half the idler spacing (position C) the stress states theoretically
reverse. Here the conveyor has to close again and therefore a passive stress state
is induced in the transverse direction resulting from the compressive stresses due
to the narrowing profile of the belt. Meanwhile the bulk solid in the longitudinal
direction widens generating an active stress state as it moves away from the point
of maximum sag. This repeats between each idler set creating an cyclic transverse
and longitudinal flexure of the bulk solid which results in flexure losses due to
internal friction and friction at the belt and bulk solid interface.
Wheeler [10] adopts a similar approach to that of Spaans [7] by calculating
the transverse and longitudinal components of the bulk solid flexure resistance
individually. He uses in his analysis orthotropic plate mechanics to calculate the
belt deflection to provide a means of predicting the flexure resistance due to the
relative movement of the bulk solid. Rather than calculating the resulting normal
force acting on the conveyor belt due to the induced stress states, the analysis
calculates the pressure distribution over the surface area of the conveyor belt,
using also the pressure factors given by equations 3.19 and 3.20. The basis for
the transverse model is pictured in figure 3.8, while figure 3.9 shows the model of
the longitudinal flexural component. The total bulk solid flexure resistance for
the idler spacing is calculated from the sum of the two equations.
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 21

Figure 3.8: Transverse active and passive stress states that are formed within the bulk solid as
the belt opens and closes between successive idler sets [9].

Figure 3.9: Longitudinal active and passive stress states that are formed within the bulk solid
as the belt deflects longitudinally between successive idler sets [9].
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 22

nmax
2 X
Ftrans_f lex = ×
s n=njunct+1
 Pmmax 2

 m=mtrans 12 ∆xy.ρ(a)m.n [sin β(h)n (n − njunct)] Ktp cos φw (w)m,n 
Pmtrans−1
− 1
∆xy.ρ(a)m.n [sin β(h)n (n − njunct)]2 Kta cos φw (w)m,n
 
m1 2
(3.14)

njunct
2 X
Flong_f lex = ×
s n=1
 P 
(h0bs )2n
h i
mmax 0 2 1 (3.15)
 m=mtrans (Pz_bs )m,n Klp ∆xy(η)m,n (hbs )n 2 −
 
 3(hbs )n 


(h0bs )2n
h i 
 − Pmtrans−1 (Pz_bs )m,n Kla ∆xy(η)m,n (h0 )2 1 −

 

m=1 bs n 2 3(hbs )n

With:
Ftrans_f lex Transverse flexure resistance force
Flong_f lex Longitudinal flexure resistance force
ρ Bulk density
β Troughing angle
h Height of bulk solid
hbs Height of bulk solid above the centre idler roll
h0bs Height of bulk solid bounded by the failure plane
Ktp Transverse passive pressure factor
Kta Transverse active pressure factor
Klp Longitudinal passive pressure factor
Kla Longitudinal active pressure factor
φw Angle of friction between belt and bulk
w Belt deflection
Pz_bs Pressure distribution due to bulk solid
η Angular deflection

Both transverse (equation 3.14) and longitudinal (equation 3.15) flexure resis-
tances are calculated from the difference between the work done in deflecting the
bulk solid during the active and passive stress states. A significant benefit of
the finite difference model described by Wheeler [10] is the ability to accurately
predict the transition between the opening and closing belt, which is calculated
from the point of maximum sag along the inclined side of the conveyor belt.
However, in a later study with Ilic and Ausling [11] Wheeler preferred the theory
with the normal force acting on the side idler roll as described next.
The transverse flexure is modeled by calculating the difference between the work
done during the opening and closing of the belt, as the belt moves between
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 23

Figure 3.10: Force analysis for active stress case [10].

consecutive idler sets. The normal forces acting on the side idler rolls are
calculated using a method developed by Krause and Hettler [12], who provide
an analysis of the total force acting on the idler rolls due to the formation of
active and passive stress states within the cross-section of bulk solid, as shown in
figure 3.10 and 3.11. They applied a modified version of Coulomb’s earth pressure
theory to calculate the normal forces acting on the side idler rolls of a three-roll
idler set. The normal force per unit length Fsn , acting on the side idler roll due
to the bulk solid is then approximated as
1 Kta + Ktp
Fsn = ρgL2ss cos φw (3.16)
2 2

With:
Fsn Normal force per unit length
ρ Bulk density
g Acceleration of gravity
Lss Length of bulk solid in contact with the inclined side of the conveyor belt

The most difficult part in calculating the flexure resistance of bulk material is
determining the place of transition between the passive and active stress zone.
After further researching and testing the theory of the stress states in the transition
zone ([11], [13]) it is stated that the transition zone is at 2 /3 of the idler spacing.

Pressure factors
The formulas described in equations 3.14, 3.15 and 3.16 all use pressure factors.
As already explained, when moving from one idler to the other, active and passive
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 24

Figure 3.11: Pressure distribution acting on inclined side of conveyor belt [10].

stress states are induced in the bulk solid due to the constant opening and closing
of the belt. This leads to a transit zone where the bulk material experiences a
lot of stresses. These stresses need to be predicted accurately in order to make a
satisfying assumption of the pressure factors. There are multiple researches done
in order to calculate these pressure factors.
As stated by Ilic, Wheeler and Ausling [11], Krause and Hettler provided an
analysis on the total force acting on the idler rolls as a result of the formation of
active and passive stress states within the cross-section of the bulk solid material.
The longitudinal passive and active pressure factors are approximated by:

1 + sin φi
Klp = (3.17)
1 − sin φi

1 − sin φi
Kla = (3.18)
1 + sin φi

The transverse active pressure factor for the opening conveyor belt was derived
in terms of the troughing angle, bulk solid internal friction angle, belt and bulk
solid friction angle and the conveyor surcharge angle, and is given by
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 25

 2
sin (β + φi )/ sin β
Kta =  p q  (3.19)
sin (φi +φw ) sin (φi −λ)
sin (β − φi ) + sin (β+λ)

Similarly, the transverse passive pressure factor, for the closing conveyor belt is
 2
sin (β − φi )/ sin β
Ktp =  p q  (3.20)
sin (φi +φw ) sin (φi +λ)
sin (β + φi ) − sin (β+λ)

With:
Klp Longitudinal passive pressure factor
Kla Longitudinal active pressure factor
Ktp Transverse passive pressure factor
β Troughing angle
φi Bulk solid internal friction angle
φw Angle of friction between belt and bulk
λ Conveyor surcharge angle

This model is widely accepted though it is realized that it overestimates the

forces on the inclined sides of the conveyor belt compared to experimental results
[11]. Liu [14], [15] presented another analytical approach based on the stress
discontinuity method. This model incorporates a new hypothesis of bulk movement
on the belt and rigorous stress field analysis. These new calculations of the
coefficients are:

1 − sinφi cos∆2 + φw
Ka = fd · cos2 βe2θa tanφi (3.21)
1 + sinφi cos∆1 + β

1 + sinφi cos∆4 + φw
Kp = fd · cos2 βe2θp tanφi (3.22)
1 + sinφi cos∆3 + β

With:
Ka Active pressure factor
Kp Passive pressure factor
φi Bulk solid internal friction angle
φw Angle of friction between belt and bulk
β Conveyor surcharge angle of bulk material
∆1 , ∆2 ,
Angles in Mohr circle
∆3 , ∆4 ,
fd Dynamic factor
Rotations of the major principal stresses in active and passive stress
θa , θp
states
3.2. Flexure resistance of bulk material 26

Figure 3.12: Scheme of identification of the flexure resistance of bulk material [5].

These equations are used in an experimental model and are verified by some tests.
This model can predict the pressure distribution on the belt based on active and
passive stress states of the bulk material.

3.2.3. Gladysiewicz
Just like Wheeler, Gladysiewicz [5] considers the two different zones, the active
and the passive stress zone, where the bulk material behaves differently. As
with the flexure resistance of the belt, Gladysiewicz derives an equation from the
energy balance.
Elementary forces that cause the deformations of a belt together with transported
material stream are linear loads, q, uniformly distributed over a single distance
between idlers. Within the passive zone the work of loads on the deformations
equals: Z 0.5·lg
Enf = q · y(x) · dx (3.23)
0

With:
Enf Energy dissipation
q Homogeneous load distribution belt and material
lg Spacing between consecutive idlers
y(x) Bending lines of a belt

The bending lines of a belt y(x) assumed for calculations the flexure resistance
of bulk material and the flexure resistance of a belt are the same. Assuming
that the two separate zones are proportional to pressure between the belt and
the transported material, following the grainy medium mechanics with regard to
energy dissipation the flexure resistance of bulk material is:

Enf
Wf = Ψf · (3.24)
lg
3.3. Laboratory tests 27

Table 3.1: Specifications for figures 3.13 and 3.14

Conveyor number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Mass flow t/h 1,000 15,900 750 2,500 15,900 5,000 6.000 6,000
Density kg/m3 740 1,000 1,580 2,500 1,650 1,736 811 2,765
Speed m/s 2.5 6.5 2.9 2.6 5.2 4 6 3
Filling ratio φv 1 1 0.65 0.7 0.8 0.95 1 0.62
Idler spacing (top) m 1.2 1.88 1.25 1.2 1.25 1.24 1.25 1.25
Idler spacing (bottom) m 3.0 7.5 4 3 3.75 3 5 5
Diameter roll (top) m 0.133 0.219 0.108 1.133 0.194 0.133 0.159 0.159
Diameter roll (bottom) m 0.108 0.194 0.108 0.108 0.108 0.089 0.108 0.108
◦
Troughing angle β 30 37 35 30 41 30 40 40
Mass idlers kg/m 27.1 64.8 10.6 42.8 79.1 27.9 38.8 38.8
Mass belt kg/m 23 99 23.4 39.4 99 45.6 55.8 30.2
Belt tension (top) kN 905 570 100 120 260 120 100 80
Belt tension (bottom) kN 51.7 530 40 73.2 227 73.9 69 46
Belt width m 1.2 2.2 0.8 1.2 2.2 1.4 1.6 1.6
st st st st st st st D
Belt type
800 2500 1800 1600 2500 1600 2000 1850

With
φw
tan2 ( π4 − 2
)
Ψf = 1 − φw
(3.25)
tan2 ( π4 + 2
)

With:
Wf Flexure resistance of bulk material
Ψf Damping factor of material
φw Angle of friction between belt and bulk material

3.3. Laboratory tests

The mathematical models described in the previous sections also need to be
verified. This can be done by simulating the belt conditions using a test rig or
making a DEM (Discrete Element Modelling) simulation.
As can be seen in equation 3.4 the coefficient for the flexure resistance of the
belt is a function of the ratio between the vertical load on the idler roll and
the belt tension. Spaans used data from Limberg [16] to verify that. Limberg
used multiple steel cord belts in his experimental research and measured the
resistance per idler and further the coefficient of the main resistance according to
the calculation method of DIN21101. Figure 3.13 indicates this linear relation as
well as the position of the separate conveyors (numbers 1 to 8 in the figure) are
all lined out. Using the same data, Spaans also made a graph of the coefficients
of different resistances as can be seen in figure 3.14. This gives some insight in
the share of these resistances under different circumstances.
An important aspect of the analysis is the allowance for the influence of belt
speed. As indicated previously the transition between the stress states is assumed
to occur at 50% to 60% of the idler spacing as indicated in position C in figure 3.7.
3.3. Laboratory tests 28

Figure 3.13: Coefficient fb for the flexure resistance of the belt as a function of Fv /T [7].

Figure 3.14: Calculated coefficients of indentation resistance, fi , flexure resistance of the belt,
fb , and flexure resistance of bulk material, fs , arranged according to the coefficient of the
measured main resistance [7].
3.3. Laboratory tests 29

The exact location of the transition is heavily dependant on the belt speed since
as the belt speed increases the transition, and therefore the point of maximum
sag moves further away from the midpoint of the idler spacing. Typically at high
belt speeds the transition will occur at 55% to 60% of the idler spacing.
Since the bulk solid flexure resistance is calculated from the difference between
work done during each stress state, increasing belt speed has the effect of increasing
bulk solid flexure resistance. Wheeler used Discrete Element Modelling to simulate
the movement of bulk solid as it is conveyed from one idler set to the next. In his
research he examined the influence of the different parameters on the bulk solid
flexure resistance.
While the belt conveyor designer typically has little control over the properties of
the bulk solid being conveyed, it is still worth noting the influence of the internal
friction angle on the bulk solid flexure resistance. Figure 3.15 shows the internal
friction angle versus the bulk solid flexure resistance for a range of idler spacings.
As the internal friction angle increases the ratio between the passive and active
stress factors also increases. This has the effect of increasing both longitudinal
and lateral components of the bulk solid flexure resistance, which are calculated
from the difference between the work done during the passive and active stress
states.
Also of interest is the reduction in the bulk solid flexure resistance coefficient
with increasing idler spacing. This occurs since the magnitude of the flexure
resistance per idler set only increases marginally with idler spacing since in the
present example the sag ratio is maintained at 2%. Consequently, the flexure
resistance force per unit length decreases with increasing idler spacing providing
belt tension is increased accordingly to maintain 2% sag.
Figure 3.16 shows the influence of keeping the idler spacing constant and varying
the sag ratio. As expected increasing sag results in higher bulk solid flexure
resistance since the belt and therefore the bulk solid undergoes greater relative
movement that results in higher frictional losses. Furthermore, as the internal
friction of the bulk solid becomes greater there is a relative increase in bulk solid
flexure resistance.
Figure 3.17 shows the influence of belt speed on the bulk solid flexure resistance.
As the belt speed increases the bulk solid flexure resistance also increases since the
transition between the active and passive stress states takes place at a location
greater than 50% of the idler spacing. The increasing flexure resistance occurs
for each of the sag ratios shown and is slightly more pronounced with higher sag
ratios.
Given the influence of particular conveyor parameters on the bulk solid flexure
resistance it is clear that the conveyor designer has control over many of there
variables at the design stage. The selection of these variables should be made with
consideration to the other components of the main resistance in addition to the
total life cycle cost of the conveyor installation. Additionally, while the present
discussion has been limited to static conveyor design in practice this particular
3.3. Laboratory tests 30

Figure 3.15: Calculated bulk solid flexure resistance coefficient versus kinematic internal
friction angle for a range of idler spacings [9].

Table 3.2: Specifications for figure 3.15

Belt speed vb 5 m/s

Belt width B 1.2 mm
Sag ratio s 2%
Density ρ 1000 kg/m3
Angle of friction between belt and bulk φw 30◦

Table 3.3: Specifications for figure 3.16

Belt speed vb 5 m/s

Belt width B 1.2 mm
Idler spacing a 2m
Density ρ 1000 kg/m3
Angle of friction between belt and bulk φw 30◦

Table 3.4: Specifications for figure 3.17

Belt width B 1.2 mm

Idler spacing a 2m
Density ρ 1000 kg/m3
Angle of friction between belt and bulk φw 30◦
3.3. Laboratory tests 31

Figure 3.16: Calculated bulk solid flexure resistance coefficient versus kinematic internal
friction angle for a range of sag ratios [9].

Figure 3.17: Calculated bulk solid flexure resistance coefficient versus belt speed for a range of
sag ratios [9].
3.3. Laboratory tests 32

Table 3.5: Normal force distribution for 24 mm belt deflection (2% sag) - DEM results [11]

Bulk Solid Normal Force on Each side (N) Normal Force on Centre (N)
Coal 64 207
Gravel 118 397
Magnetite 190 534
River Sand 132 428

Table 3.6: Normal force distribution for 32 mm belt deflection (2.7% sag) - DEM results [11]

Bulk Solid Normal Force on Each side (N) Normal Force on Centre (N)
Coal 66 204
Gravel 119 406
Magnetite 194 533
River Sand 140 414

methodology may also be incorporated into a dynamic analysis program where

the bulk solid flexure resistance is expressed as a function of belt tension and belt
speed.
To experimentally verify the theoretical model Wheeler developed an instrumented
idler set to measure the total motion resistance at a given point in a belt conveyor.
To determine the contribution of the bulk solid flexure resistance the other
main resistance components were measured and then subtracted from the total
resistance. After some tests the results showed an increase in flexure resistance
with the internal friction angle which correlated well with the theoretical analysis.
Ilic [11] tested the influence of belt sag using a DEM model and the equations as
described by Wheeler. When comparing the results of table 3.5 and 3.6 there is
very little difference in the normal forces exerted on the belt. To investigate the
influence of the sag further, a comparison of the normal force variation during an
opening and closing cycle was also undertake, focussing on coal and magnetite,
since their relative particle densities are smallest and largest respectively. The
results are shown in figures 3.18 and 3.19 As can be seen, the amplitude of the
force between the open and closed belt positions is greater with the increased belt
sag of 32 mm. This implies a greater amount of work resulting in more energy.
3.3. Laboratory tests 33

Figure 3.18: Coal - normal force as a function of time [11].

Figure 3.19: Magnetite - normal force as a function of time [11].

 4
Implementation

With all the information acquired in the previous chapters a lot of research
can be done. First and most important is that with the formulas and insight
in the flexure resistance following research will be al lot easier. While today
two-dimensional models are still state-of-the-art, the full three-dimensional finite
element models of belt conveyor systems are getting more and more integrated
in research. Besides Wheeler [9], who used DEM to simulate the movement of
bulk solid as it is conveyed from one idler set to the next, and Ilic [11], who used
DEM for simulating the pressure factors, Mustoe [17] used DEM to calculate the
influence of belt sag on the forces and therefore the energy losses. However, three-
dimensional models are much more complicated and still need to be verified by
laboratory set-ups and known researches. On the other hand, when the simulation
models are working correctly it is much easier and cheaper to run a simulation
instead of building a set-up to test an hypothesis. Each time we go longer, higher,
wider or faster, we stretch the limits of our analytical tools to predict system
performance. And because each conveyor is unique, the only way we have to
predict performance is our numerical analysis and simulation tools. Therefore it
is imperative we continue to improve our design tools as our goals get bigger [18].
Now that we explored the main researches about the flexure resistance of the
belt and its bulk material, we can look at what variables influence the flexure
resistance. When designing a conveyor belt the capital costs of the system is
a restriction and when the designer knows how to reduce motional resistances
and thus the energy consumption of the belt, the costs can also be reduced.
While reducing energy is an important consideration, the design of the conveyor
should also be made with consideration to maintenance and capital costs of the
system. As a result the economic performance of a belt conveyor system is suited
to evaluation using life cycle cost analysis. Roberts [19] made a very detailed
economic analysis of belt conveyor systems. When looking at figure 4.1, made by
Lodewijks using the data given by Roberts, it is quite clear that the structure
has the biggest influence on the costs. However, the effect of the indentation
resistance and both the flexure resistances should not be overlooked. Therefore,
it is important to look more into the options to reduce the flexure resistances to
safe energy and therefore costs.

34
 35

Figure 4.1: Annual equivalent costs for a horizontal steel cord conveyor belt versus idler
spacing [6].

Table 4.1: Specifications for figure 4.1

Throughput 1000 t/hr

Length 1000 m
Belt speed 3 m/s
Belt width 1m
 36

From chapter 3.2 it follows that the flexure resistance of the bulk material in the
main resistance is larger if:
• The mass of the bulk material per meter is larger
• The thickness of the layer of bulk material is larger
• The internal friction of the bulk material is greater
• The tensile force of the belt is smaller
• The elasticity modulus of the belt is smaller
• The flexural rigidity of both the belt itself and the troughed belt is smaller
• The belt sag is larger
It also shows that for a certain geometry the thickness of the layer of bulk material
has a great influence on the flexure resistance of the bulk material. This means
that the volume flow and the height-width ratio of that volume flow can, to a
large extent, influence the flexure resistance. A high tensile force T of the belt
√
causes a considerable decrease of the resistance. For a certain volume flow d2 / T
is determining for the magnitude of the flexure resistance. The flexural rigidity
of the belt and the internal friction of the bulk material is thick and the tensile
force in the belt is small. A large flexure resistance of the belt always consides
with a large flexure resistance of the bulk material.
Under normal conditions the share of flexure resistance of the belt in the main
resistance is very small. In the case of large belt conveyors the flexure resistance
of the bulk material flow can be considerable and will even exceed the indentation
resistance. While the share of the flexure resistance of the belt is relatively small
to the main resistance, it is still important to take it into account. This resistance
is larger if:
• The mass of the material per meter is larger
• The tensile force of the belt is smaller
• The elasticity modulus of the belt is smaller
• The flexural rigidity of both the belt itself and the troughed belt is smaller
Observing those two lists we find that they are almost similar. It is important to
reduce both flexure resistances, while not increasing the other resistances. From
the model described above, it can be derived how the flexure resistance in those
cases can be limited. However, most of the time the designer can’t choose which
type or the amount of material is transported by the belt conveyor. This leads
to limited flexibility in designing. On the other hand, when the designers knows
the type of material and the throughput (and therefore the mass of the material
per meter, the thickness of the layer of bulk material and the internal friction
force) he can anticipate by changing the tensile force, the elasticity modulus or
the flexural rigidity of the belt in order to decrease the flexure resistance.
 37

Figure 4.2: Typical tension distribution in a driven belt conveyor [2].

For example by increasing the tensile force. In the research of Lodewijks and
Pang [20] it is given that since a conveyor belt is not a flywheel but an elastic
band, it also behaves like an elastic body. This means that it takes time for a
tension wave to travel around the conveyor. The belt tension decreases with an
increase in the magnitude of the dip. This can be a problem with starting after
an emergency stop, but also under normal circumstances it belt tension must
not be to small. A solution for increasing the belt tension is to increase the belt
pre-tension [20]. If the belt’s pre-tension T2 (see figure 4.2) is seriously increased
then the belt tension in the dip may be acceptable. However, if this is the only
measure taken then the pre-tension may have to be raised to unpractical levels.
The impracticality comes from the required raise in belt rating, which would be
quite expensive. Other solutions given by Lodewijks and Pang is to counteract the
decrease of the belt tension by locally increasing the belt tension or decrease the
idler pitch in the dip. This last solution does not help to prevent low belt tensions,
but it will limit the belt sag and therefore the flexure resistance. Furthermore the
belt tension is the main factor that influences longitudinal vibration [21]. This
indicates that more attention should be paid to controlling tensile loading in belt
conveyor design.
Both Hiltermann et.al [4] and Lodewijks et.al [22] researched the methods to
save power of a conveyor belt by speed control. The speed can be controlled by
using different methods like a varying load or material. Narrow belts running at
speeds up to 15 m/s are technically feasible and are more cost effective than wide,
slow belts [23]. While the indentation resistance is still the biggest resistance,
the mathematical models of the flexure resistance can be used to predict speed
control savings even further. Furthermore, a review of both fabric and steel cord
belts and variable belt widths and troughing profiles should also be undertaken.
 38

Summarily, there are a lot of ways to research the option to reduce the flexure
resistance. But it is also important to keep looking at all the other resistances,
cause reducing the flexure resistance may lead to increasing another one.
The most important effect of all the research done on the different aspects of
a belt conveyor is that better models can be made and dynamic simulation
techniques can be applied in their control systems. This development will affect
the future of belt conveyor systems [1]. Nowadays engineers are faced with the
fact that they have to design control procedures that work more or less under
all operational circumstances. These procedures however are far from optimal
and put the conveyor system in most operational conditions under a relative high
strain just to make sure that they also work in the worst case conditions. In the
future, however, large belt conveyor systems will have intelligent control systems
that will keep track of all the dynamic parameters using sensors. This results on
one hand that safety factors on the different components can be decreased and
on the other hand that the overall system safety and reliability will increase.
 5
Conclusion

In this report a number of researches about the flexure resistance are presented.
The research used to create this report date back more than 40 years. With the
results of this literature survey, more insight is given in the theoretical analysis
of the physical behaviour of the running conveyor belt. When looking at the
main resistances working on the belt, the flexure resistance is mainly the second
contributor after the indentation resistance. While the indentation resistance is
extensively research, the analysis of the flexure resistances lags behind due to the
fact that its contribution is much smaller.
Luckily some researchers like Spaans, Wheeler and Gladysiewicz did do some
research to the flexure resistance. It is split into the flexure resistance of the belt
and the flexure resistance of the bulk material. While Gladysiewicz derives his
equations from the energy balance, Spaans and Wheeler use the principle of the
equilibrium of forces and Coulomb’s earth pressure theory. The bulk material
also experiences stresses due to the opening and closing of the belt. In order
to calculate the influence of this cyclic deformations, the transit zone has to be
calculated using pressure factors.
When looking at the equations and the laboratory tests, both the flexure resis-
tances are influenced by the belt sag, the mass and height of the bulk material,
the type of bulk material and belt, the tensile force of the belt, the elasticity
modulus of the belt and the flexural rigidity of the belt. When the impact of all
this parameters is known, the engineer can design more efficient belt conveyors.
With the information gained a better analysis of the whole belt conveyor can
be made. However, some research still needs to be done concerning the flexure
resistances and the other resistances working on the belt and the bulk material.
Also the simulation models still need to be tested thoroughly in order to correctly
predict the dynamics of the bulk material. In the future the models, laboratory
set-ups as well as dynamic simulation techniques, can be improved and more
intelligent control systems can be implemented in the design.

39
 Bibliography

[1] Gabriel Lodewijks. Two decades dynamics of belt conveyor systems. Bulk
Solids Handling, 22(2):124–132, 2002.

[2] G Lodewijks. Lecture slides of introduction transport engineering and

logistics, wb3420-11. Delft University of Technology, 2015.

[3] M Hager and A Hintz. The energy-saving design of belts for long conveyor
systems. Bulk Solids Handling, 13:749–749, 1993.

[4] J Hiltermann, G Lodewijks, DL Schott, JC Rijsenbrij, JAJM Dekkers, and

Y Pang. A methodology to predict power savings of troughed belt conveyors
by speed control. Particulate science and technology, 29(1):14–27, 2011.

[5] Lech Gladysiewicz, Monika Hardygora, and Witold Kawalec. A method

of determining the primary resistance of a belt conveyor with a particular
consideration of belt properties. Bulletin of Warsaw Technical University
No. CPBP, 2:90, 1990.

[6] Gabriel Lodewijks. Current Developments in Bulk Solids Handling. Vogel,

2010.

[7] C Spaans. The calculation of the main resistance of belt conveyors. Bulk
Solids Handling, 11(4):1–16, 1991.

[8] C. Spaans. The Flexure Resistance of Belt Conveyors. Afdeling der Werktu-
igbouwkunde: WTHD. Lab. for Transport Engineering, 1979.

[9] Craig Wheeler. Bulk solid flexure resistance. Bulk Solids Handling, 25(4):220–
225, 2005.

[10] Craig A Wheeler, Alan W Roberts, and Mark G Jones. Calculating the
flexure resistance of bulk solids transported on belt conveyors. Particle &
Particle Systems Characterization, 21(4):340–347, 2004.

[11] Dusan Ilic and Fisa Fia. Bulk solid and conveyor belt interactions dur-
ing transport. In International Materials Handling Conference (Beltcon),
volume 17, 2013.

[12] F Krause and W Hettler. Die belastung red tregrollen von gurtbandförderem
mit dreiteiligen tragrollenstationen infolge fördergut unter beachtung des
fördervorganges und der schüttguteigenscheften, wiss. Zeitschrift der TU
Magdeburg, 18, 1974.

[13] Dusan D Ilic, Craig A Wheeler, and Alan W Roberts. Bulk solid interactions
in belt conveying systems: Transition zone. Particle & Particle Systems
Characterization, 24(4-5):345–351, 2007.

40
Bibliography 41

[14] Xiangwei Liu, Yusong Pang, and Gabriel Lodewijks. A stress discontinuity
approach to model the stress profile on a loaded conveyor belt. Powder
Technology, 273:102–110, 2015.

[15] Xiangwei Liu, Yusong Pang, and Gabriel Lodewijks. Theoretical and experi-
mental determination of the pressure distribution on a loaded conveyor belt.
Measurement, 77:307–316, 2016.

[16] Helmut Limberg. Untersuchung der Trumbezogenen Bewegungswiderstände

von Gurtförderanlagen: Dissertation. Universität, 1988.

[17] Graham GW Mustoe and Ren BinT. Discrete element modeling of sag energy
losses in a conveyor belt system. In 2008 Annual SME (Salt Lake City),
2008.

[18] MA Alspaugh. Latest developments in belt conveyor technology. In MINExpo,

pages 275–281, 2004.

[19] AW Roberts, A Harrison, and JW Hayes. Economic factors relating to the

design of belt conveyors for long distance transportation of bulk solids. Bulk
Solids Handling, 5(6):1143–1149, 1985.

[20] G Lodewijks and Y Pang. Belt de-tensioning in dips. Beltcon, 17:1–17, 2013.

[21] You-fu Hou and Qing-rui Meng. Dynamic characteristics of conveyor belts.
Journal of China University of Mining and Technology, 18(4):629–633, 2008.

[22] G Lodewijks, DL Schott, and Y Pang. Energy saving at belt conveyors by

speed control. In Proceedings of the BeltCon 16 Conference, Johannesburg,
August 2-3, 2011, 2011.

[23] A Harrison and AW Roberts. Technical requirements for operating conveyor

belts at high speed. Bulk Solids Handling, 4(1):99–104, 1984.