Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

UNIT – III
Semiconductor diode characteristics
PN Junction
A PN-junction is formed when an N-type material is fused together with a P-type material
creating a semiconductor diode.
At the instant of pn-junction formation, the free
electrons near the junction in the n region begin to
diffuse across the junction into the p region where
they combine with holes near the junction. The
result is that n region loses free electrons as they
diffuse into the junction. This creates a layer of
positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the
junction. As the electrons move across the
junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons
and holes combine. The result is that there is a
layer of negative charges (trivalent ions) near the
junction. These two layers of positive and
negative charges form the depletion region (or depletion layer). The term depletion is due to the
fact that near the junction, the region is depleted (i.e. emptied) of charge carries (free electrons
and holes) due to diffusion across the junction.
Built-in Potential Barrier:
The presence of impurity ions on both sides of the junction causes an electric field to be
established across this region with the N-side at a positive voltage relative to the P-side. This
electric field created by the diffusion process has created a “built-in potential difference” across
the junction with an open-circuit (zero bias) potential

When no voltage is applied across the pn junction,

then the junction is in thermal equilibrium the
Fermi energy level is constant throughout the
entire system. Figure shows the energy-band
diagram for the pn junction in thermal
equilibrium. The conduction and valance band
energies must bend as we go through the space
charge region, since the relative position of the
conduction and valence bands with respect to the Fermi energy changes between p and n regions.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

Biasing of p-n junction semiconductor diode:

The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called
biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods: forward
biasing or reverse biasing.
Forward biasing:

In forward biasing the battery positive terminal is

connected to p-type and negative terminal is connected to
n-type as shown in Figure. The applied forward potential
establishes an electric field which acts against the field
due to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field is
weakened and the barrier height is reduced at the junction
as shown in Figure. As potential barrier voltage is very
small, therefore, a small forward voltage is sufficient to
completely eliminate the barrier. Once the potential
barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction
resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path
is established for the entire circuit. Therefore, current
flows in the circuit. This is called forward current. With
forward bias to pn junction,
(i) The potential barrier is reduced and at some forward
voltage (0.1 to 0.3 V), it is eliminated altogether.
(ii) The junction offers low resistance (called forward
resistance, Rf) to current flow.
(iii) Current flows in the circuit due to the establishment of low resistance path. The magnitude
of current depends upon the applied forward voltage.

Reverse biasing:

To apply reverse bias, connect negative terminal of the

battery to p-type and positive terminal to n-type as shown in
Figure. It is clear that applied reverse voltage establishes an
electric field which acts in the same direction as the field due
to potential barrier. Therefore, the resultant field at the
junction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased as
shown in Figure. The increased potential barrier prevents the
flow of charge carriers across the junction. Thus, a high
resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence
the current does not flow.
With reverse bias to pn junction,
(i) The potential barrier is increased.
(ii) The junction offers very high resistance (called reverse
resistance, Rr) to current flow.
(iii) No current flows in the circuit due to the establishment
of high resistance path.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

Diode current equation:

Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode:

The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is shown in the
figure. The horizontal line in the below figure represents the amount of voltage applied across
the p-n junction diode whereas the vertical line represents the amount of current flows in the p-n
junction diode. The general expression for current in the p-n junction diode is given by

Forward bias characteristics of p-n junction diode

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be in
forward bias.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

If the external voltage applied on the diode is less tha

thann 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium, the diode allows only a small electric current. However, this small electric current is
considered as negligible. When the external voltage applied on the silicon diode reaches 0.7 volts
and 0.3 volts forr germanium, the pp-n
n junction diode starts allowing large electric current through
it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increases the electric current rapidly. The forward
voltage at which the diode starts allowing large electric current is calle
called cut-in
in voltage.

Reverse bias characteristics of p p-n junction diode

If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the pp-type
type semiconductor and the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the nn-type
type semiconductor, the diode is said to be
b in reverse
bias. In reverse biased p-nn junction diode
diode. If the external reverse voltage applied on the p-n p
junction diode is increased, the width of depletion region increases.

The wide depletion region of reverse biased pp-n junction diode de completely blocks the majority
charge carrier current. However, it allows the minority charge carrier current. The electric
current, which is carried by the minority charge carriers in the pp-n n junction diode, is called
reverse current. Hence, a small vvoltage
oltage applied on the diode pushes all the minority carriers
towards the junction. Thus, further increase in the external voltage does not increase the electric
current. This electric current is called reverse saturation current. In other words, the voltage
voltag or
the point at which the electric current reaches its maximum level and further increase in voltage
does not increase the electric current is called reverse saturation current.

Breakdown: When applied voltage is high enough to break the covalent bonds of thet crystal, the
current rises suddenly in the reverse bias called breakdown and voltage required for breakdown
is called breakdown voltage.
(i) Zener breakdown: When the diode is heavily doped breakdown occurs at low voltage. This
phenomenon is called zenerr breakdown. Corresponding voltage of zener breakdown is called
zener breakdown voltage.
(ii) Avalanche breakdown: When the diode is lightly doped breakdown occurs at high voltage.
This phenomenon is called avalanche breakdown, corresponding voltage of avalanche
breakdown is called avalanche breakdown voltage.
Effect of Temperature on I-V V characteristics:

Temperature can have a marked effect on the

characteristics of a semiconductor diode.

In the forward- bias region the characteristics of silicon

diode shift to the left at the rate of 2.5 mV per °C increase
in temperature.

In the reverse-bias
bias region the reverse saturation current of
a silicon diode doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature
temperature.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

Zener diode
This is a p-n junction device, in which zener breakdown mechanism dominates. Zener diode is
always used in Reverse Bias. Its constructional features are:
1. Doping concentration is heavy on p and n regions of the diode, compared to normal p-n
junction diode.
2. Due to heavy doping, depletion region width is narrow.
3. Due to narrow depletion region width, electric field intensity E = ; will be high, near the
junction, of the order of 106V/m. So Zener Breakdown mechanism occurs.
When the Zener diode is reverse biased, the current
flowing is only the reverse saturation current Io which is
constant like in a reverse biased diode. At V = Vz due to
high electric field , Zener breakdown occurs. Covalent
bonds are broken and suddenly the number of free
electrons increases. So Iz increases sharply and Vz
remains constant, since, Iz increases through Zener
resistance Rz decreases. So the product Vz = Rz. Iz
almost remains constant. If the input voltage is decrease,
the Zener diode regains its original structure. (But if Vi.
is increased much beyond V z' electrical breakdown ofthe device will occur. The device loses its
semiconducting properties and may become a short circuit or open circuit. This is what is meant
by device breakdown. )
Applications
1. In Voltage Regulator Circuits 2. In Clipping and Clamping Circuits 3. In Wave Shaping Circuits.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.
Lecture notes Dr V Seetha Rama Raju Ph.D.

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