3.

Hypotheses
INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY THEORY
o educated guess or prediction to be tested
o relation: a good theory is capable of generating many hypotheses
Sigmund Freud
o comparison: hypotheses: more specific (parent)
 Philosophical Speculations  w/ primitive scientific method
theory: general (offspring)
 evolved the first modern theory of personality
4. Taxonomy
Basis:
o classification of things according to their natural relationships
1. Philosophical Speculations
o relation: taxonomies can evolve into theories
2. Empirical Evidence
o comparison: classification does not constitute a theory
taxonomies: 5 stable personalities
A. PERSONALITY
theory: Big 5 personality theory

Personality
Why there are different theories?
 Persona  theatrical mask  public self a. Theorist make speculation from a particular point of view
 a pattern of relatively permanent traits and unique characteristics that give both consistency b. Theorist must be objective in gathering data but decision and interpretations are personal
and individuality to a person’s behavior c. Reflected on personal backgrounds childhood experiences, philosophy of life, interpersonal
o traits: contribute to individual differences, consistency and stability of behavior; may be relationships, and unique manner of looking at the world
unique, common or shared but pattern is different for each individual (actions,
attitudes, behaviors you possess) Theorists’ Personalities and their Theories of Personality
o characteristics: unique qualities of an individual (temperament, physique, intelligence)
 consistent behavior patterns and intrapersonal processes within the individual Psychology of Science
 consistent patterns of Affect, Behavior and Cognition (ABC)  studies both science and the behavior of scientists
 investigates the impact of an individual scientist’s psychological processes and personal
B. THEORY characteristics on the development of his scientific theories or research
 psychology of science  look at personal traits of scientists  personality differences
Theory influencing one’s theoretical orientation
 set of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles proposed to explain certain observations o Quantitative: behaviourists, social learning theorists, trait theorists
about reality o Clinical and Qualitative: psychoanalysts, humanists, existentialitsts
 set of related assumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to
formulate hypothesis C. USEFUL THEORY

Theory and Its Relatives 1. Generates Research

1. Philosophy o ability to stimulate and guide further research
o love of wisdom o 2 kinds of research:
o pursue wisdom through thinking and reasoning  Descriptive Research: measurement, labeling, categorization
o relation: theory is a tool used by scientist in their pursuit of knowledge  Hypothesis Testing: indirect verification of the usefulness of the theory
o comparison: philosophy: ought to be; what should be 2. Is falsifiable
theory: if-then statements o precise enough to suggest research that may either support or fail to support its major
2. Speculation tenets
o ideas or guesses about something that is not known
o relation: theories rely on speculation 3. Organizes Data
o comparison: speculation: not in advance of controlled observation o organize data that are not compatible with each other
theory: 2 cornerstone are – speculation and empirical observation
 4. Guides Action o person is innately good
o ability to guide the practitioner over the rough course of day to day problems o aim to achieve fullest potentials
5. Is Internally Consistent 5. Behavioral Approach
o need not to be consistent with other theories, but it must be consistent with itself o Learned
o components are logically compatible o Acquired externally
o clearly and operationally defined (defines unit in terms of observable events or 6. Cognitive Approach
behaviors that can be measured)) o Schema
6. Is Parsimonious F. ISSUES IN PERSONALITY/DIMENSIONS FOR A CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
o simple and straightforward
1. Genetic (Biological) vs Environmental (Social) Influences
D. PERSONALITY THEORY 2. Conscious vs Unconscious
3. Free Will vs Determinism
Personality Theory 4. Uniqueness vs Universality (Similarities)
 set of interrelated ideas, constructs and principles proposed to explain consistent patterns 5. Physiological vs Purposive Motivation
of affect, behavior and cognition 6. Cultural Determinism vs Cultural Transparency
 components: 7. Pessimism vs Optimism
1. personality structure: building block of personality 8. Causality vs Teleology
2. motivation: why people behave the way they do
3. personality development: how personality develops G. THINGS TO KNOW ABOUT PERSONALITY THEORY RESEARCH
4. psychological health: describes healthy personality
5. psychopathology: describes unhealthy personality Reliability
6. personality change: offers an ex-planation on how unhealthy personality can be  Extent to which it yields consistent results
changed into a healthy one
 Research, Assumption and Issues: Validity
1. Case Studies and Clinical Research: Interviews, Case Histories  Degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure
2. Laboratory Studies and Experimental Research: Experiments, Observation  Construct Validity: extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct
3. Personality Questionnaires, Assessment Tools and Correlation Research: Research, o Convergent CV: sores on that instrument correlate highly (converge) with scores on a
Standard Tests, and Statistical Tools variety of valid measures of that same contract
o Divergent CV: has low or insignificant correlations with other inventories that do not
E. WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY? measure the construct
o Discriminant Validity: if it discriminates between two groups of people known to be
1. Psychoanalytic Approach (Freud, Adler, Jung, Klein, Horney, Fromm, Sullivan, Erikson) different
o innate desires  Predictive Validity: a test predict some future behavior
o unconscious
2. Trait Approach
o personality lies in a continuum
o different levels of feelings

3. Biological Approach
o physiological aspect
o genetic
4. Humanistic Approach (Maslow, Rogers)
FREUD: PSYCHOANALYSIS  drives, urges, or instincts beyond our awareness but motivate our words, feelings
and actions
Twin cornerstones of psychoanalysis:  Contains fears, unacceptable sexual and immoral motives and urges, irrational
1. sex wishes and selfish needs, shameful experiences
2. aggression  where the id resides
 eg.: dreams, slips of the tongue, repression
Basis: personal experiences, dream analysis, vast readings  punishment and/or suppression  anxiety  repression
 phylogenetic endowment: inherited unconscious images
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF SIGMUND FREUD o Preconscious
 not conscious but can become conscious either quite readily or with difficulty
Full name: Sigismund (Sigmund) Freud  Contains the memories that are not part of current thoughts but can readily be
Birthday: March 6 or May 6, 1856 available to mind if the need arises (equivalent to our memory)
Birthplace: Freiberg, Moravia  Contains the superego
Father: Jacob Freud  sources: conscious perception and unconscious
Mother: Amalie Nathanson Freud 2. Conscious
Siblings: Emmanuel and Philip (Father side only; older than him)  mental elements in awareness at any given point in time
7 others (both parents)  contains whatever we are thinking about or experiencing at a given moment (all our
Death: September 23, 1939 senses detect)
Deathplace: Vienna?  contains the ego
 2 different directions:
Significant part of his life: o perceptual conscious: what we perceive through our sense organs, if not too
 existence of his brother Julius (hostility, unconscious wish for death, feelings of guilt) threatening, enters into consciousness
 favouritism of his mother to him o within the mental structure: nonthreatening ideas from preconscious, well-
 not close relationship to his siblings disguised images from the unconscious
 Jean Martin Charcot: Hypnotic Technique (for hysteria)
C. PROVINCES OF THE MIND/STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
 Josef Breuer: Catharsis  Free Association Technique
 experiments with cocaine
1. Id (deas Es, It)
 male hysteria (from charcot)
 Pleasure principle
 Studies on Hysteria (w/ breuer): psychical analysis  psychoanalysis
 Biological instinctive drive
 seduction theory (seduction by a parent)
 not yet owned component of personality
 association with:
 no contact w/ reality
o Alfred Adler, Wilhelm Stekel, Max Kahane, Rudolf Reitler
 2 processes:
(Wednesdayy Psychological Society)
o primary process: seeks to satisfy
o Carl Jung (International Psychoanalytic Association)
o secondary process: bring it into contact w/ the external world
 crown prince; the man of the future
2. Ego (das Ich, I)
B. LEVEL OF MENTAL LIFE/THE MENTAL ICEBERG  Reality principle
 Realistic and socially accepted
1. Unconscious Proper  Intervene between id impulses and superego inhibitions
 sole source of communication with the external world
o Unconscious  decision making/executive branch of personality
3. Superego (das Uber-Ich, over-I)  self-destruction: final aim
 Morality principle/idealistic principle  explains the need for barriers that people have erected to check aggression
 Ideals and morals  reaction formation
 Represent conscience  forms: teasing, gossip, sarcasm, humiliation, humor and enjoyment of other
 no contact w/ the outside world people’s suffering
 unrealistic demands for perfection 2. Anxiety
 2 subsystems:  Felt, affective, unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation that warns the
o conscience: results from experiences with punishments for improper behavior and person against impending danger
tells us what we should not do  Only the ego can produce or feel anxiety
o ego-ideal: develops from experiences with rewards for proper behavior and tells  3 types of anxiety:
us what we should do o Neurotic Anxiety: apprehension about an unknown danger
 well-developed superego controls sexual and aggressive impulses through repression o Moral Anxiety: conflict between the ego and superego
 guilt: when ego acts contradicting to the moral standard of superego o Realistic Anxiety: related to fear; unpleasant, nonspecific feeling involving a
 feelings of inferiority: ego is unable to meet the standard of superego possible danger

 pleasure seeking person E. DEFENSE MECHANISMS

1. Repression: push unpleasant thoughts to unconscious

 guilt-ridden/inferior-feeling person 2. Reaction Formation: doing the opposite of what you really feels
3. Displacement: redirect emotion from a real person to a lower status person, object, or
animal
 psychologically healthy person 4. Fixation: inability to proceed to the next stage of development due to frustration
5. Regression: going back to the childhood behaviors when face with anxiety
D. DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY 6. Projection: transferring unacceptable thoughts to others
7. Introjection: incorporating into oneself the standards and values of another person
1. Drives 8. Sublimation: redirecting unacceptable, instinctual drives into personally and socially
 Trieb  drive or stimulus within the person acceptable channels
 Term: Instinct < drives/impulses 9. Denial: refusing to accept reality
 Characterization of drives: 10. Rationalization: justify a regretful behavior or event
o Impetus: amount of force it exerts a. sour-graping: bitter
o Source: region of the body in a state of excitation or tension b. sweet-lemoning: creating a bogus “brighter side”
o Aim: seek pleasure by removing that excitation or reducing the tension 11. Compensation: overcompensate to hide insecurity
o Object: person or thing that serves as means through which the aim is satisfied 12. Undoing: cancel out or make up for a bad act by doing good
13. Identification: if you can’t beat them, join them
 2 types of drives:
o Sex/Eros (Libido)
too much use: leads to mental disorder
 Erogenous Zone: genitals, mouth, anus
too little use: problems in life
 ultimate aim: reduce sexual tension
 forms: narcissism (primary and secondary), love (eros-love), sadism,
F. PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
masochism
o Aggression (destructive drive)
 ultimate aim: to return the organism to an inorganic state  Difference in personalities originate in childhood sexual experiences
 death: ultimate inorganic condition  Childhood greatly influence personality in adulthood
  If child goes through a stage properly, he will progress to next stage o early anal period
 Failure to achieve this will lead to fixation  cause of personality disorders  receive satisfaction by destroying or losing objects
Infantile Period  behave aggressively toward their parents for frustrating them with toilet
 Age: birth – 5 years old training
 the most crucial for personality formation o late anal period
 infants possess a sexual life and go through a period of pregenital sexual development  take a friendly interest towards their feces, an interest that stem from the
during the first 4 or 5 years after birth erotic pleasure of defecating
 childhood sexuality differs from adult sexuality in that it’s not capable of reproduction and is  child will present the feces to their parents
exclusively autoerotic satisfied through organs other than genitals if praised  generous and magnanimous adult
if punished  withholding the feces until pressure becomes both painful and
1. Oral Stage erotically stimulating
 Age: birth – 1.5 years old  Anal character: people who continue to receive erotic satisfaction by keeping and
 Focus: mouth possessing objects and by arranging them in an excessive neat and orderly fashion
 Object choice: nipple  anal eroticism (eg. penis envy)  anal triad (orderliness, stinginess, obstinacy); penis,
 Sexual aim: incorporate/receive into one’s nipple baby and feces are same symbol in dreams
 Phases:  orientation:
o oral-receptive phase o active: masculine qualities of dominance and sadism
 no ambivalence towards object, satisfaction is achieved with minimum o passive: feminine qualities of voyeurism and masochism
frustration and anxiety  Anal-Expulsive Personality: excessive pressure = take pleasure in being able to withhold
 but as they grow older, frustration and anxiety increases because of (obsessively clean and orderly)
scheduled feedings, increased time lapses between feedings and eventual 3. Phallic Stage
weaning  Age: 4-5 years old
 feelings of ambivalence toward their love object (mother)  Focus: Genital
 increased ability of their budding ego to defend (through teeth)  difference among the gender was established
itself against the environment and against anxiety leading to:  dichotomy between male and female development is due to anatomical differences
o oral-sadistic period between the sexes
 infants respond through biting, cooing, closing their mouth, smiling and crying  masturbation was repressed (suppression of masturbation)
 first autoerotic experience: thumbsucking (defense against anxiety that  Gratifying Activities: Play with genitals, Sexuality Identification
satisfies their sexual but not nutritional needs) o Feeling of attraction toward the parent of the opposite sex  envy and fear of the
 Gratifying activities: nursing  responsive nurturing is key / sucking same-sex parent
 Oral-Dependent Personality: too much stimulation = child may become very  Oedipus Complex (castration anxiety)
dependent, submissive o from Oedipus (King of Thebes)
 Oral-Aggressive Personality: too little gratification= child will be very aggressive and will o identification with his father (he wants to be his father)
get what he wants through force o develops sexual desire for his mother (wants to have his mother)
 Symptoms of Oral Fixation: Smoking, Nail biting, Sarcasm and Verbal hostility o gives up identification with father and retains stronger desire for mother
2. Anal Stage o sees father as rival for mother love
 Age: 1.5 – 3 years old o (Bisexual) feminine nature  masculine tendency
 Focus: Anus o castration complex  castration anxiety (fear of losing penis)
 Gratifying Activities: toilet training and urge control  Electra Complex (penis envy)
 characterized by satisfaction through aggressive behavior and through excretory o girls assume that all other children have genitals similar to their own
function o soon they discover that boys do not only possess different genital equipment but
 Phases: apparently something extra
 o girls then become envious, feel cheated, and desire to have penis  Psychologically mature people would come through the experiences of childhood and
o penis envy: often expressed as a wish to be a boy or desire to have a penis  to adolescence tin control of their psychic energy and with their ego functioning in the center
have a baby (find expression in the act of giving birth to a baby) of an ever-expanding world of consciousness
o identification with mother (fantasized being seduced by her mother)  id impulses: expressed honestly and consciously with no traces of shame and guilt
o hostility on mother for bringing her into the world without penis superego: would move beyond parental identification and control with no remnants of
o libido for her father antagonism or incest
o simple female oedipus complex (electra complex): desire for sexual intercourse  repression  sublimations
with the father and accompanying feelings of hostility for the mother x neurotic symptoms x = not
 Success: control envy and hostility  identify with same-sex parent
 Failure: Mama’s boy; flirty girl with commitment issues G. APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Latency Period Early Therapeutic Technique

 Age: 5 – puberty  Free Association
 Time of learning, adjusting to the social environment, form beliefs and values  Dream Interpretation
 ‘sublimation stage’  Hypnosis
 Developing same-sex friendships
 parents attempt to punish or discourage sexual activity in their young children Later Therapeutic Technique
if successful  children will repress their sexual drive and direct their psychic energy toward  Free Association: patients are required to verbalize every thought that comes to their mind,
school, friendships, hobbies and other nonsexual activities no matter how irrelevant or repugnant it may appear
 reinforced through constant suppression by parents and teacher and by internal feelings of  Dream Analysis
shame, guild and morality  Transference: refers to the strong sexual or aggressive feelings, positive or negative, that
patients develop toward their analyst during the course of treatment
Genital Period o Negative Transference: should be recognized to overcome resistance to treatment
 Age: Puberty +  Resistance: variety of unconscious responses used by patients to block their own progress in
 Focus: Genital therapy
 Gratifying Activities: masturbation and heterosexual relationships
 Renewed sexual interest desire Dream Analysis
 Pursuit of relationships  used to transform the manifest content of dreams ti the more important latent content
 No fixations  Manifest Content: surface meaning or the conscious description given by the dreamer
 adolescent give up autoeroticism and direct their sexual energy toward another person  Latent Content: unconscious material
instead of toward themselves  Condensation: manifest dream content is not as extensive as the latent level, indicating that
 reproduction is now possible the unconscious material has been abbreviated or condensed before appearing on the
 although penis envy may continue, vagina finally obtains the same status for them that the manifests level
penis had for them during infancy; boys see female organ as sought-after object  Displacement: dream image is replaced by some other idea only remotely related to it
 entire sexual drive takes on a more complete organization  2 method of interpreting dreams:
 mouth, anus and other pleasure producing areas take an auxiliary position to the genitals, o Ask patients to relate their dream and all their associations to it no matter how
which now attain supremacy as an erogenous zone unrelated or illogical these associations seemed
 Eros: life instinct; Thanatos: death instinct o Dream Symbols – to discover the unconscious elements underlying the manifest
content
Maturity  3 Typical Anxiety Dreams:
 Psychological Maturity: stage attained after a person has passed through the earlier o the embarrassment dream of nakedness: fulfils the wish to exhibit oneself
developmental periods in an ideal manner
 o dreams of the death of a beloved person: wish for the destruction of a younger
brother or sister who was a hated rival during the infantile period
o failing an examination in school: anticipating a difficult task
o early experience and the predisposition to the mental illness
o the preconscious, the unconscious, and the prefrontal cortex
o sexual orientation
o psychotherapy and structural changes in the brain
o psychopharmacology as an adjunct to psychoanalysis

Freudian Slips (parapraxes) Unconscious Mental Processing

 slips of the tongue (or pen)  core consciousness: unaware (brain stem and ascending activities)
 misreading  extended consciousness: aware (activity in the prefrontal cortex)
 incorrect hearing
 misplacing objects Pleasure and the Id: Inhibition and the Ego
 temporarily forgetting names or intentions  pleasure seeking drives: brain system, limbic system and neurotransmitter dopamine
 ego: the function was to inhibit drives
H. RELATED RESEARCH
Repression, Inhibition and Defense Mechanisms
Karl Popper  Solms: repression of unpalatable information when damage occurs to the right hemisphere,
 Freud’s theory was not falsifiable and therefore not science and if this is damaged regions becomes artificially stimulated, the repression goes away, that
is, awareness returns
Implicit Cognition  Hysterioud-Obssessioud Questionnaire: the more repressive style people have, the longer it
 nonconscious processing of information and memory takes them to consciously perceive a stimulus

John Bargh Research on Dreams

 (automaticity of being) conclusion 0 95% of our behavior are unconsciously determined  phenomenon of REM Sleep discounted Freud’s theory of dreams
 if these cortical structures were not involved in REM sleep and yet they were higher level
Cognitive and Neuropsychologists thinking took place, then dreams are simply random mental activity and could not have any
 Freud’s theory is one of the most compelling integrative theories (one that could explain inherent meaning
many of these findings)  activation-synthesis theory: meaning is what the waking mind gives to these more or less
 Psychoanalysis is still the most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of the mind random brain activities, but meaning is not coherent in dreams
 Solms: dreaming and REM are not and the same because (1) no one-to-one correct
The following concepts have support from modern science: respondence between REM and dreaming; and (2) lesions do not completely eliminate
1. unconscious motivation dreaming, whereas lesions have eliminated dreaming and yet preserved REM sleep
2. repression  results showed that students dreamed move about the supressed targets than
3. the pleasure principle nonsuppressed ones; they also dreamed more about the suppressed target than the
4. primitive drives suppressed nontargets
5. dreams  suppressed thoughts are likely to “rebound” and appear in dreams
 dream censor: mechanisms that converts the latent content of dreams into the more
Kandel palatable and less frightening the manifest content
 psychoanalysis and neuroscience together could make useful contributions in these eight
domains: I. CRITIQUE OF FREUD
o the nature of unconscious mental processes
o the nature of psychological causality Did Freud Understand Women?
o psychological causality and psychopathology
  frequent criticisms: he did not understand women and that his theory of personality was  But, he battled through his professional life to dispel the notion that he had ever been a
strongly oriented toward men; he lacked a complete understanding of the female psyche follower of Freud
 why?: he was a product of his times, and society was dominated by men during those times  He was accused by Freud as having paranoid delusions and of using terrorist tactics
 tender sex: (what freud regarded women) suitable for caring for the household and  Individual Psychology: feeling of oneness with all humankind
nurturing children but not equal to men in scientific and scholarly affairs  Individual psychology is more optimistic than Freud’s and different because:
 dark continent for psychology: freud’s recognition that he did not understand women as wl o F: reduced all motivation to sex and aggression
as he did men A: he saw people as being motivated mostly by social influences and by striving for
 Freud: “if you want to know more about femininity, enquire from your own experiences of superiority or success
life or turn to the poets o F: people have little or no choice in shaping their personality
A: people are largely responsible for who they are
Was Freud a scientist? o F: present behavior is caused by past experiences
 he do not claim himself as a natural scientist but a human scientist A: present behavior is caused by people’s view of the future
 his theories were not based on experimental investigation but rather on subjective o F: puts emphasis on unconscious components of behavior
perceptions that freud made of himself and his clinical patterns A: psychologically healthy people are usually aware of what they are doing and why
 how well does his theory meet the 6 criteria for useful theory? they are doing it
o generate research: (average) researchers have conducted studies that relate either
directly or indirectly to psychoanalytic theory A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ALFRED ADLER
o falsifiable: (very low) much of the research evidence consistent with freud’s ideas can
also be explained by other models Full name: Alfred Adler
o organize knowledge: (moderate) so loose and flexible that seemingly inconsistent data Birthday: February 7, 1870
can coexist within its boundaries Birthlace: Rudolfsheim, Vienna?
o guide for the solution of practical problems: (low) psychoanalysis no longer dominates Father: Leopold Adler (Jewish Grain Merchant)
the field of psychotherapy, and most present-day therapists use other theoretical Mother: Pauline Adler (homemaker)
orientations in their practice Siblings: 7
o internal consistency: the theory generally possessed internal consistency, although Wife: Raissa Epstain Adler (early feminist and more political)
some specific terms were used with less that scientific rigor Children: Alexandra Adler, Kurt Adler (Psychiatrists)
o parsimonious: not needlessly cumbersome Valentine (Vali) Adler (Political Prisoner)
Cornelia (Nelly) Adler (Aspiring Actress)
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY Death: May 28, 1937
Deathplace: Aberdeen Scotland
1. determinism
2. pessimism Significant part of his life:
3. causality  being abandoned in iceskating and the death of his younger brother lead him into becoming
4. unconscious a physician
5. biological  competition with his brother – Sigmund Adler
6. uniqueness and similarities  his sibling and peers played a pivotal role in his childhood  more interested in social
relationships
 eye specialist  psychiatry and general medicine
ADLER: INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY  part of Wednesday Psychological Society  Vienna Psychoanalytic Society
 Adler was one of the original members of Freud’s inner circle, but they never shared a warm
 Adler was regarded as disciple of Freud relationship
 form the Society for Free Psychoanalytic Study  Society for Individual Psychology
  cornerstones of human motivation:
o social interest The one dynamic force behind people’s behavior is the striving for success or superiority
o compassion
Striving for success or superiority (single drive motivation)
B. INTRODUCTION TO ADLERIAN THEORY  physical deficiency  feelings of inferiority  motivate a person  strive for
superiority/success
Reasons why Adler isn’t as famous as other theorists:  Drives:
 Adler did not establish a tightly run organization to perpetuate his theories o aggression: dynamic power behind all motivation
 He was not a particularly gifted writer, and most of his books were compiled by a series of o masculine protest: implied will to power or a domination of others
editors using Adler’s scattered lectures o striving for superiority: people who strive for personal superiority
 Many of his views were incorporated into the works of such later theorists as Maslow, over others
Rogers and Ellis and thus are no longer associated with Adler’s name o striving for success: describe actions of people who are motivated by
highly developed social interest
Individual Psychology  regardless of the motivation for striving, each individual is guided by a final goal
 Emphasized that our unconscious does not determine personality
 Theory is about the governing internal forces of personality The Final Goal (4 or 5 y/o)
 Overcome inferiorities  People strive a final goal of either personal superiority or the goal of success for all
 First to emphasized the role of family in the development of personality humankind
 fictional and has no objective existence
Inferiority Feelings  Unifies personality and renders all behavior compensable
 Compensate for inferiorities  Product of creative power (people’s ability to freely shape their behavior and create their
own personality)
Source of Inferiorities  reduces the pain of inferiority feelings and points that person in the direction of either
 Physical appearance superiority or success
 Parenting  If neglected or pampered: goal remains unconscious
 Socioeconomic status  If loved and secured: goal is largely conscious and clearly understood
 Psychological mentality
The Striving Force as Compensation
Complexes  People strive for superiority or success as a means of compensation for feelings of inferiority
 Negative coping to inferiorities or weakness
 Inferiority Complex  people are continually pushed by the need to overcome inferiority feelings and pulled by the
o Incompetent self desire for completion
o Justify failure  Without the innate government toward perfection, child would never feel inferior; but
 Superiority Complex without feelings of inferiority, they would never set a goal of superiority or success
o Believes when he is greater than others  2 general avenues of striving:
o Socially non-productive attempt to gain personal superiority
o Social interest and is aimed at success or perfection for everyone
Parenting
 too protective: personal superiority Striving for Personal Superiority
 uninvolved: inferiority/unwantedness  striving for superiority with little or no concern for others
 Their goals are personal ones and their striving are motivated largely by exaggerated feelings
C. STRIVING FOR SUCCESS OR SUPERIORITY of personal inferiority or the presence of an inferiority complex
  for clever disguises: looks like motivated by social interest, but his actions are largely self- Personality is unified and self-consistent.
serving and motivated by overcompensation for his exaggerated feelings of personal
superiority Each person is unique and indivisible
 Stages of developing superiority:
o Be aggressive: actively seek opportunities to improve self Organ Dialect
o Be powerful (positive): apply skills  whole person strives in a self-consistent fashion toward a single goal, and all separate
o Be superior: mastery of skills actions and functions can be understood only as part of this goal
 Directions:  Speaks a language which is usually more expressive and discloses the individual’s opinion
o Negative: take advantage of others more clearly than words were able to do so
o Positive: help others
Conscious and Unconscious
Striving for Success  there is unified personality when there is harmony between conscious and unconscious
 Psychologically healthy people are those who are motivated by social interest and success of  Conscious: understood and regard by the individual as helpful in striving for success
all human kind  Unconscious: part of the goal that is neither clearly formulated nor completely understood
 Maintains a sense of self, but they see daily problems from the view of society’s by the individual; not helpful
development rather than from a strictly personal vantage point
 Social Progress is more important to them than personal credit F. SOCIAL INTEREST

D. SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS The value of all human activity must be seen from the view point of social interest.

People’s subjective perceptions shape their behavior and personality. Gemeinchaftsgefuhl

 social feeling or community feeling
Strivings are shaped not by reality but by their subjective perception of reality – fictions (expectations  feeling of oneness with all humanity it implies membership in the social community of all
of the future) people
 strives not for personal superiority but for perfection for all people in an ideal community
Fictionalism
 subjective, fictional final goal that guides our style of life and gives unity to our personality Social Interest
 people are motivated not by what is true, but by their subjective perceptions of what is true  an attitude of relatedness with humanity in general as well as an empathy for each member
 Ideas that have no real existence, yet they influence people as if they really existed of the human community
 Views of motivation  Natural condition of the human species and the adhesive that binds society together
o Teleology: future needs
o Causality: past experiences Origins of Social Interest
 Originates from the mother-child relationship during the early months of infancy
Physical Inferiorities  Mother’s job: develop a bond that encourages the child’s mature social interest and fosters
 The whole human race is “blessed” with organ inferiorities a sense of cooperation
 physical deficiencies alone do not cause a particular style of life; they simply provide present  Father’s job: demonstrate a caring attitude toward his wile as well as to other people
motivation for reaching future goals  possible dual errors:
 Some people compensate for these feelings of inferiority by moving toward psychological o emotional detachment: may influence the child to develop a warped sense of social
health and a useful style of life interest, a feeling of neglect, and possibly a parasitic attachment to the mother
o paternal authoritarian: may also lead to an unhealthy style of life, a child who sees the
E. UNITY AND SELF-CONSISTENCY OF PERSONALITY father as a tyrant strive for power and personal superiority
Importance of Social Interest
 Sole criterion of human values Creative Self
 Only gauge to be used in judging the worth of a person  freedom to create own style of life
 Standard to be seen determining the usefulness of a life  individual is product of environment and heredity
 Immature people: lack gemeinschaftgefuhl, are self-centered and strive for personal power  individual influences environment
and superiority over others  we can control our environment
 Healthy Individual: are genuinely concerned about people and have a goal of success that
encompasses the well-being of all people I. ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENT
 Psychologically unhealthy individuals  exaggerated feeling of inferiority  neurotic style
of life General Description
 Healthy people  motivated ny normal feelings of incompleteness and high levels of social  Factors underlying all types of maladjustment
interest  healthy style of life o Underdeveloped social interest
for neurotics:
G. STYLE OF LIFE o Set their goals too high
o Live in their own private world
The self-consistent personality structure develops in a person’s style of life. o Have a rigid dogmatic style of life
 people became failures in life because they are overconcerned with themselves and care
Style of Life little about others
 Flavor of a person’s life
 A person’s goal, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitude toward the world External Factors in Maladjustment
 Psychologically unhealthy individual: lead inflexible lives  Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies: deficiencies accompanied by accentuated feelings of
 Psychologically healthy individual: behave in diverse and flexible ways inferiority
 3 major problems of life:  Pampered Style of Life: believe that they are entitled to be first in everything
o Neighborly love  Neglected Style of Life: distrustful of other people and are unable to cooperate for the
o Sexual love common welfare
o Occupation
 Ruling Type: dominating Safeguarding Techniques
 Getting Type: parasitic  Protective devices enabling people to hide their inflated self-image and to maintain their
 Avoiding Type: denial, avoidant current style of life
 Socially Useful Type: appropriate actions to problems accept weaknesses, willing to change  Defense Mechanism: unconscious; Safeguarding Techniques: conscious
 Excuses: “yes, but” or “if only”
H. CREATIVE POWER  Aggression: protect their fragile self-esteem
o Depreciation: tendency to undervalue other people’s achievement and to overvalue
Style of life is molded by people’s creative power one’s own
o Accusation: tendency to blame other’s failure and to seek revenge
Creative Power o Self-Accusation: self-torture and guilt
 Places people in control of their own lives, is responsible for their final goal, determines their  Withdrawal: tendency to run away from difficulties
method of striving for that goal and contributes to the development of social interest o Moving backward: reverting to a more secure period of life
 makes each person a free individual o Standing still: avoid all responsibilities by ensuring themselves against any threat of
 each person uses heredity and environment as the bricks and mortar to build personality, failure
but the architectural design reflects that person’s own style o Hesitating: “it’s too late now”
 “the law of low doorway”
 o Constructing obstacles: build an obstacle then knock it off to protect their self-esteem
and prestige
Masculine Protest
 emphasize importance of being manly
 origins of the masculine protest:
o both men and women place an inferior value on being a woman
o the epitome of success for boys is to win, to be powerful, to be on top. In contrast, girls
often learn to be passive and to accept an inferior position in society
 Adler, Freud and the Masculine Protest
o F: dark continent for psychology
o A: women – because they have the same physiological and psychological needs as men
– want more or less the same things that men want
J. APPLICATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY
Family Constellation
 Birth order, gender of siblings, age-spread between siblings
 Firstborn/Eldest: intensified feelings of power and superiority, high anxiety, and
overprotective tendencies; excessive attention seekers, feels inferior after birth of 2nd child,
greatest number of problems, third parent, achiever
 Secondborn/Middle: if older sibling shows hostility and vengeance, they will highly become
competitive or overly discouraged; matures toward moderate competitiveness, having a
healthy desire to overtake the older rival; easiest, tries to dethrone the first born, high need
of superiority, competition, most insecure
 Youngest: run in a high risk of being problem children; have strong feelings of inferiority and
to lack a sense of independence; highly motivated to exceed older siblings; least amount of
power in family, most pampered and protected
 Only Child: unique position of competing, not against brother and sisters but against father
and mother; develop an exaggerated sense of superiority and an inflated self-concept; lack
well-developed feelings of cooperation and social interest, possess a parasitic attitude;
spoiled, pampered
Early Recollections
 recalled memories
 Always consistent with people’s present style of life and that their subjective account of
these experiences yields clues to understanding both their final goal and their present style
of life
Dreams
 although dreams cannot foretell the future, they can provide clues for solving future
problems
 Everything can be different: If one interpretation doesn’t feel right, try another
 most dreams are self-deceptions and not easily understood by the dreamer
Psychotherapy
 purpose is to enhance courage, lessen feelings of inferiority and encourage social interest
 Adler innovated a unique method of therapy with problem children by treating them in front
of an audience of parents, teachers, and health professionals. When children receive
therapy in public , they more readily understand that their problems are community
problems
 Adler was careful not to blame the parents for a child’s misbehaviour. Instead, he worked to
win the parents’ confidence and to persuade them to change their attitudes toward the child
K. RELATED RESEARCH
Early Recollections and Career Choice
 adler believed that career choices reflect a person’s personality
 the kind of career one chooses as an adult is often reflected in one’s earliest recollections
 Jon Kasler and Ofra Nevo (2005) found that early recollection in childhood did match career
type as an adult, atleast for the 3 career types that were well represented in their sample
Early Childhood and Health-Related Issues
 Adler’s theory of inferiority and superiority and social feeling can be applied to explain
health-related behaviors such as eating disorders and binge drinking
 Susan Belangee (2006) mentioned that dieting, overeating and bulimia can be viewed as
common ways of expressing inferiority feelings; eating disorder and its striving towards
superiority are an unhealthy means of compensating for inferiority (mostly focused on
striving for superiority and not success because of self-centeredness)
 Terasa Laird and Andrea Shelton (2006) found out that youngest children in a family were
more likely to binge drink, whereas older children demonstrated more drinking restraint
Early Recollections and Counseling Outcomes
 If early recollections are fictional construction amenable to present shifts in a person’ style
of life, then early recollections should change as style of life changes.
 Gary Savill and Daniel Eckstein (1987) has a finding in their research that indicates that
when counselling is successful, patients change their early recollections.
 Jane Statton and Bobbie Wilborn (1991) has a research that suggests that earl recollections
may change as a result of psychotherapy or some other life-altering experience.
L. CRITIQUE OF ADLER
  verification or falsification: one of Adler’s most important concepts – the assumption that  religion and medicine is common to his family
present style of life determines early memories rather than vice versa – is difficult to either  mystical beliefs of his family (may be a contribution to his collective unconscious)
verify or falsify  his mother having two separate dispositions (may be a contribution to his compendium of
 generate research: (above average) much of his theory has been investigated especially early opposites)
recollection, social interest and style of life; (moderate) for scales  earliest dream stems
 organize knowledge: (high) make sense out of what we know about human behavior  his 2 personalities: (1) extraverted and in tune to the objective world; (2) introverted and
 guides action: (high) theory serves significant people with guidelines for the solution to directed inward toward his subjective world
practical problems in a variety of settings  Jung and Freud strong mutual respect and affection for one another
 internally consistent: (low) lack of precise operational definitions  belief of Freud in him as becoming his successor; a man of great intellect
 parsimony: (average) awkward and unorganized writings  first president of International Psychoanalytic Association
 Separation with Freud
M. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  Sexual Assualt by a fatherly friend
 creative illness (period of loneliness and isolation)
1. free choice
2. optimism B. DYNAMICS/PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHE
3. teleology
4. conscious and unconscious 1. Opposites
5. social influences  the existence of opposites or polarities in physical energy in the universe
6. uniqueness  partly good, partly bad
JUNG: ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY 2. Equivalence
 some condition is not lost but rather is shifted to another part of the personality
Analytical Psychology  what on the other side is also on the other side; magnitude
 assumption that mystical phenomena can and do influence the lives of everyone 3. Entropy
 tendency toward a balance or equilibrium in the personality
Jung’s theory is a compendium of opposites. People are both introverted and extraverted; rational and  tension, conscious – unconscious
irrational; male and female; conscious and unconscious; and pushed by past events while being pulled 4. Synchronity
by future expectations.  no coincidences
5. Individuation
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF CARL JUNG  the goal of psyche is to have balance

Full name: Carl Gustav Jung C. LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE

Birthday: July 26. 1875
Birthplace: Kesswil, Switzerland 1. Conscious
Father: Johann Paul Jung (minister)  Sensed by ego, whereas unconscious elements have no relationship with the ego
Mother: Emilie Preiswerk Jung (daughter of theologian)  Ego: center of consciousness, but not the core of personality; not the whole personality
Siblings: 3 but must be completed by the more comprehensive self
Wife: Emma Rauschenbach  Self: center of personality that is largely unconscious
Mistress: Sabina Spielrein, Antonia (Toni) Wolff  Individuation: integration of conscious with the unconscious; self-realization
Death: June 6, 1961 2. Personal Unconscious
Deathplace: Zurich  A reservoir of material that was once unconscious but has been forgotten or
suppressed because it was trivial or disturbing
Significant part in his life:
  repressed, forgotten or subliminally perceived experiences of one particular individual
 Complexes
o emotionally toned conglomeration of associated idea
o a core or pattern of emotions, memories, perceptions, and wishes organized
around a common theme
o embedded themes that influence consciousness and behavior
o may stem from both the personal and collective unconscious
3. Collective Unconscious
 Roots in the ancestral part of the entire species
 Not innate ideas but rather a human’s innate tendency to react (stimulated by
biological inherited response tendency)
 Archetypes
o Ancient or archaic images that derive from the collection unconscious
o expressed through different modes: dreams, fantasies, delusions, hallucinations
o Instinct: unconscious physical impulse toward action and archetype psychic
counterpart
o different archetypes:
 Persona: Side of personality that people show to the world; public face
 Shadow: Archetype of darkness and repression
 Anima: feminine tendency of a man; irrational mood and feelings
 Animus: masculine tendency of women; thinking and reasoning
 Great Mother: positive and negative; fertility and nourishment, power and
destruction; rebirth: combination of fertility and power, reborn through self-
realization
 Wise Old Man: wisdom and meaning
 Hero: powerful person
 Self: inherited tendency toward to move toward growth, perfection and
completion; archetypes of all the archetypes; mandala: representation of
unity, balance and wholeness
D. DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY
1. Causality and Teleology
 motivation comes from both past experiences and future events
 human behavior is shaped by both causal and teleological forces and that causal
explanations must be balanced with teleological ones
 Causality: past experiences
 Teleology: future event
2. Progression and Regression
 to achieve self-realization, people must adapt not only to their outside environment but
to their inner world as well
 Progression: adaptation to the outside world involves the forward flow of psychic
energy
 Regression: adaptation to the inner world relies on a backward flow of psychic energy
 progression inclines a person to react consistently to a given set of environmental
conditions, whereas regression is a necessary backward step in the successful
attainment of a goal
E. PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES/THE PSYCHE: CORE OF THE PERSONALITY
1. Attitudes
 A predisposition to act or react in a characteristic direction
 Introversion: turning inward of psychic energy with an orientation toward the
subjective; tuned in their inner world with all the biases, fantasies, dreams, and
individualized perceptions
 Extraversion: turning outward of psychic energy so that a person is oriented toward the
objective and away from the subjective; more influenced by their surrounding than by
their inner world
2. Functions
 Sensing: receives physical stimuli and transmits them to perceptual consciousness; tells
people that something exists; individuals perception of sensory impulses
o Extraverted S: Perceive external stimuli objectively, in much same way that these
stimuli exist in reality (housepainter)
o Introverted S: influenced by their subjective sensations; guided by their
interpretation of sense stimuli rather than the stimuli exist in reality (portrait
artists)
 Thinking: logical intellectual activity that produces a chain of ideas; enables them to
recognize its meaning
o Extraverted T: rely heavily on concrete thoughts (mathematicians, accountants)
o Introverted T: more on the internal meaning they bring with them than by the
objective facts themselves (inventors, philosophers)
 Feeling: process of evaluating an idea or event; tells them its value or worth
o Extraverted F: use objective data to make evaluation; guided by external values
and widely accepted standards of judgment (businesspeople, politicians)
o Introverted F: based their value judgments primarily on subjective perceptions
rather than objective data (art critics)
 Intuition: involves perception beyond the working of consciousness; allows them to
know about it without knowing how they know
o Extraverted I: oriented towards the fact in the external world (inventors
concentrating on unconscious solutions to objective problems)
o Introverted I: guided by unconscious perception of facts that are basically
subjective and have little or no resemblance to external reality (mystics, prophets)
 Self-Realization/Individuations
F. DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY  Process of becoming an individual or whole person
 integrating the opposite poles in a single homogeneous individual
Jung emphasized the second half of life, the period after age 35 or 40, when a person has the  Realization of the self, minimized their persona, recognized their anima/animus, acquired
opportunity to bring together the various aspects of personality and to attain self-realization. balance between introversion and extraversion, elevated all functions to a superior
 achieved only by people who are able to assimilate their unconscious into their total
1. Childhood (early morning sun) personality
 full of potential but still lacking in brilliance  Transcendence: conflict is resolved by bringing opposing forces into balance with each other
 age of innocence with understanding
 does not determine future personality
 concerned with eating, emptying bowels, sleeping G. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION/ASSESSMENT
 problem-free age
 Anarchic Phase: chaotic and sporadic consciousness Word Association Test
 Monarchic Phase: development of the ego; beginning of logical and verbal thinking;  Presented patients with stimulus words and each verbal response, time taken to make a
third person response, rate of breathing and galvanic skin response are recorded
 Dualistic Phase: ego as perceiver; objective and subjective ego; first person
2. Youth (morning sun)
 climbing toward the zenith, but unaware of the impending decline
 birth of psyche (ego) Dream Analysis
 towards individuation  people used symbols to represent a variety of concepts – not merely sexual ones – to try to
 extraversion period comprehend the innumerable things beyond the range of human understanding
 consciousness of “I”  uncover elements from the personal and collective unconscious and to integrate them into
 Puberty until middle life consciousness in order to facilitate the process of self-realization
 Period of increased activity, maturing sexuality, growing consciousness, problem-free  big dreams: have special meaning for all people
era is over  typical dreams: common to most people
 Conservative Principle: desire to live in the past  earliest dreams remembered: can be traced back to about age 3 or 4 and contain
3. Middle Life (early afternoon sun) mythological and symbolic images and motifs that could not have reasonably been
 brilliant like the late morning sun but obviously headed for the sunset experienced by the individual child
 Age of 35 to 40
 interact with people Active Imagination
 ego forms definite form and content  Requires a person to being with any impression – a dream, an image, vision, or fantasy – and
 start of introversion period to concentrate until the impression begins to move
 may fight desperately to maintain their youthful appearance and lifestyle  purpose is to reveal archetypal images emerging from the unconscious
 period of tremendous potential  its image are produced during a conscious state of mind, thus making them more clear and
4. Old Age (evening sun) reproducible
 once bright consciousness now markedly dimmed
Psychotherapy
 Diminution of consciousness
 First stage: confession of a pathogenic secret (cathartic method)
 return to the unconscious
 Second stage: interpretation, explanation, and elucidation
 Fear of death
 Third stage: education of patients
 completion of the psyche
 Fourth stage: transformation (into a healthy being)
 Admitted the importance of transference particularly during the first three stages
  Countertransference: a term used to describe a therapist’s feelings toward the patient  internal consistency: (low) Jung generally used the same terms consistently, but he often
employed several terms to describe the same concept
H. RELATED RESEARCH  parsimony: (low) Jung’s psychology is not simple but neither is human personality, it is more
cumbersome than necessary
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
 measures Jung’s personality types J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

Personality Type and Investing Money 1. neither pessimistic nor optimistic

 business researchers were interested in studying how personality affects the way people 2. neither deterministic nor purposive
invest their money 3. party conscious and unconscious
 Filbeck and colleagues (2005) wanted to better understand the level of risk individuals 4. both causal and teleological
willing to tolerate when ti comes to investing money 5. biological
 instrument: MBTI and questionnaire with several different hypothetical situations of either 6. similarities
increasing or decreasing their wealth
 result: those who are the thinking type have a high tolerance for risk, whereas those of the KLEIN: OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY
feeling type have a relatively low tolerance for the same level of risk; extraversion-
introversion dimension was not a good predictor of risk tolerance The woman who developed a theory that emphasized the nurturing and loving relationship between
 conclusion: personality of investors is an important factor for financial advisors to consider parent and child, had neither a nurturant nor a loving relationship to her own daughter Melitta.
when creating an investment portfolio that best eets the needs and personal values of the
investor Melanie Klein’s bitter rival:
 Edward Glover (analyst of Melitta)
 Walter Schmideberg (analyst and husband of Melitta)
 Anna Freud

Personality Type and Interest In and Attrition From Engineering
 Journal of Psychological Type examined whether personality type and fit predicted interest
in and attrition from engineering
 instrument: MBTI
 result and conclusion: Thomas, Benne, Marr, Thomas & Hume (2000) found that students
who were most likely to drop out were exactly the opposite types of those who were least
likely to enter engineering to being with
I. CRITIQUE OF JUNG
 general testable hypotheses and verification and falsification: nearly impossible to verify
 ability to generate research: (moderate) MBTI
 organize observations: (moderate) Jung is the only modern personality theorist to make a
serious attempt to include such a broad scope of human activity within a single theoretical
framework
 practicality: (low) the concept of a collective unconscious does not easily lend to understand
cultural myths and adjust to life’s trauma
The story of Melanie Klein and her daughter takes on a new perspective in light of the emphasis that
objet relations theory places on the importance of the mother-child relationship.
Object Relations Theory
 was built on careful observation of young children
 importance of the first 4 to 6 months after birth
 the child’s relation to the breast is fundamental and serves as a prototype for later relations
to whole objects, such as mother and father
 Klein’s ideas tend to shift the focus of psychoanalytic theory from organically based stages of
development to the role of early fantasy in the formation of interpersonal relationships
 emphasis on interpersonal relationships
 highlights infant relationship with mother
 people are motivated for human contact not sexual pleasure
 psychic life of infant – begin with inherited predisposition
 infants possess unconscious fantasy life
A. BIOGRAPHY OF KLEIN
Full name: Melanie Reizes Klein
Birthday: March 30, 1882  Psychic representations of unconscious id instincts
Birthplace: Vienna, Austria  Unconscious images of good and bad (eg. Good Breast and Bad Breast)
Father: Dr. Moriz Reizes (physician)  Ex: Good breast  thumb sucking; Bad breast  crying and kicking their legs
Mother: Libussa Deutsch Reizes (seller of plants and reptiles)
Siblings: Emilie (Moriz’s favorite), Emmanuel (her close confidant), Sidonie (her fondness but died) Objects
Husband: Arthur Klein (Engineer)  A drive that could be person, part of a person, or things which satisfies the aim (Freud’s aim)
Children: Melitta, Hans, Erich  any person or part of person an infant introjects and projects later on to others
Death: September 22, 1960  objects have life of its own in child’s fantasy world
Deathplace: England  Example: hunger drive  good breast (object); sex drive  sexual organ
 Introjected objects: are fantasies of internalizing the object in concrete and physical terms’
Significant part of her life: not accurate representations of the real objects but are colored by children’s fantasies
 felt neglected by her elderly father and even she loved and idolized her mother, she felt  External objects: the object itself?
suffocated by her  Internal objects: suggests that these objects have a power of their own, comparable to
 closeness to his brother that may have contributed in her relationship with men Freud’s concept of superego
 unhappy marriage and dreaded sex and abhorred pregnancy
 Sandor Ferenczi introduced her to the world of psychoanalysis D. POSITIONS
 train Erich according to Freudian Principles
 Melitta was analysed by Karen Horney Positions
 Klein analysed Horney’s two youngest daughters  Ways of dealing with both internal and external objects
 established a psychoanalytic practice in Berlin and made her first contribution to the  Not a stage of development to indicate positions alternate back and forth; they are not
psychoanalytic literature with a paper dealing with her analysis of Erich periods of time or phases development through which a person passes
 Had analysis with Karl Abraham
 Did self-analysis after the death of Abraham 1. Paranoid-Schizoid Position (3-4 months)
 Ernest Jones invited her to London to analyse his children and to deliver a series of lectures o A way of organizing experiences that includes both paranoid feelings of being
on child analysis persecuted and a splitting of internal and external objects into the good and the bad
o To tolerate the desire to control the breast by devouring and harbouring it and the
B. INTRODUCTION TO OBJECT RELATIONS THEORY destructive urges that create fantasies of the damaging the breast, the ego splits itself,
retaining parts of its life and death while deflecting parts of both instincts onto the
Object relations theory is an offspring of Freud’s instinct theory, but it differs from its ancestor in at breast.
least three general ways: o “to bite or not to bite” breast
1. Object relations theory places less emphasis on biologically based drives and more o tolerated by the ego
importance on consistent patterns of interpersonal relationship o tendency to see the world as having both destructive and omnipotent qualitites
2. Object relations theory tends to be more maternal, stressing the intimacy and nurturing of o the time the ego’s perception of the external world is subjective and fantastic rather
the mother unlike Freud’s that’s more of paternal – power and control than objective and real.
3. Object relations theorists generally see human contact and relatedness – not sexual pleasure o the child must keep the good breast and bad breast separate, because to confuse them
– as prime motive of human behavior would be to risk defeating good breast and losing it as a safe harbour
o they have biological predisposition to attach a positive value to nourishment and the
C. PSYCHIC LIFE OF THE INFANT life instinct and to assign a negative value to hunger and the death instinct.
o Persecutory Breast: the one who gives frustration to the baby
Klein stressed the importance of the first 4 or 6 months. o Ideal Breast: provides love, comfort, and gratification
2. Depressive Position (5-6 months)
Phantasies
 o feelings of anxiety over losing a loved object coupled with a sense of guilt for wanting to
destroy the object
o losing mother or destroying mother
o infant develops a more realistic picture of the mother and recognizes that she is an
independent person who can be both good and bad
o the ego is beginning to mature to the point at which it can tolerate some of its own
destructive feelings rather than projecting them outward
o fearing the possible loss of the mother, the infant desires to protect her and keep her
from the dangers of its own destructive forces, but infant’s ego is mature enough to
realize that it lacks the capacity to protect the mother
o felt: reparation and empathy
o resolved: when children fantasize that they have made reparation for their previous
transgressions and when they recognize that their mother will not go away
permanently but will return after each departure; also will experience love from mother
and also display their love for her
o when not resolved: lack of trust, morbid mourning at the loss of a loved one, and a
variety of other psychic disorders
E. PSYCHIC DEFENSE MECHANISMS
o not rigid and extreme splitting  positive and useful mechanism not only for infants
but also for adults  enables people to see both positive and negative aspects of
themselves, to evaluate their behavior as good or bad, and to differentiate between
likable and unlikable acquaintance
o excessive and inflexible splitting  pathological repression
o splitting  projection  introjection
o eg: if children’s ego are too rigid to be split into good me and bad me, then they cannot
introject bad experiences into the good ego. when children cannot accept their own
bad behavior. they must then deal with destructive and terrifying impulses in the only
way they can – by repressing them
4. Projective Identification
o infants split off unacceptable parts of themselves, project them into another object,
and finally introject them back into themselves in a changed or distorted form
o unlike simple projection, which can exist wholly in phantasy, projective identification
exists only in the world of real interpersonal relationships
o eg: a husband with strong but unwanted tendencies to dominate others will project
those feelings into his wife, whom he then sees as domineering. The man subtly tries to
get his wife to become domineering. He behaves with excessive submissiveness in an
attempt to force his wife to display the very tendencies that he has deposited in her.

Children adopt several psychic defense mechanisms to protect their ego against the anxiety aroused F. INTERNALIZATIONS
by their own destructive fantasies. Internalizations
 The person takes in (introjects) aspects of the external world and then organizes those
1. Introjection introjections into a psychologically meaningful framework
o infants fantasize taking into their body those perceptions and experiences that they
have had with the external object
o eg: fantasize that their mother is constantly present; that is, they feel that their mother 1. Ego
is always inside their body o One’s sense of self
2. Projection o Has ability to sense both destructive and loving forces and manage them through
o Getting rid of both good and bad objects splitting, projection and introjection
o fantasy that one’s own feelings and impulses actually reside in another person and not o It is strong enough to feel anxiety, use defense mechanism, and form early object
within one’s body relations in both phantasy and reality
o placing the feelings to others 2. Superego
o allows people to believe that their own subjective opinions are true o Differs from Freud according to the following:
o eg: infants who feel good about their mother’s nurturing breast will attribute their own  emerges much earlier in life
feelings of goodness on the breast and imaging that the breast is good; adults  not an outgrowth of the Oedipus complex
sometimes project their own feelings of love on another person and become convinced  much more harsh and cruel
that the other person loves them. o early superego produces not guilt but terror
3. Splitting o The early ego (that forced to defend itself against its own action to manage anxiety
o keeping part incompatible impulses because life and death instincts cannot be completely separated) lays the foundation
o ego splits into good me and bad me that enable them to deal with both pleasurable and for the development of the superego, whose extreme violence is a reaction to the ego’s
destructive impulses toward external objects aggressive self-defense against its own destructive tendencies.
 o This harsh, cruel superego is responsible for many antisocial and criminal tendencies in
adults
3. Oedipus Complex
o Differs from Freud according to the following:
 Begins at much earlier age
 Significant part is the fear of revenge from their parent for their fantasy of
emptying the parent’s body
 Importance of children in retaining positive feeling toward both parents during the
Oedipal years
 Serves the same need for both genders, that is, to establish a positive attitude
o children are capable of both homosexual or heterosexual relations with both parents
o Female Oedipal Development
 girl sees her mother’s breast as both good and bad then more positive than
negative and full of good things
 sees father penis feeds her mother with riches including babies and then develops
a positive relationship to it and fantasizes her father will fill her body with babies
 will see her mother as a rival and will fantasize robbing her mother of her father’s
penis and staling her mother’s babies
 the little girl’s wish to rob her mother produces a paranoid fear that her mother
will retaliate against her by injuring her or taking away her babies
 the little girl’s principal anxiety comes from a fear that the inside of her body has
been injured by her mother, an anxiety that can be levitated only when she later
gives birth to a healthy baby
 penis envy stems from the little girl’s wish to internalize her father’s penis and to
receive a baby from him
o Male Oedipal Development
 Little boy sees his mother’s breast as both good and bad
 Shifts some of oral desires from his mother’s breast to his father’s penis (feminine
position: adopts a passive homosexual attitude toward his father)
 Moves to heterosexual relationship with his mother but with no fear that his
father will castrate him because of the previous homosexual feeling to his father
 Boy must have a good feeling about his father’s penis before he can value his own
 oral-sadistic impulses aroused as the boy wants to bite off his father’s penis and
murder him – this feelings arouse castration anxiety – leading to fear that
convinces him that sexual intercourse with his mother will be extremely dangerous
to him
 important factor when resolved: establish positive relationship with both parents
at the same time; boy sees his parents as whole objects, a condition that enables
him to work through his depressive position
People are born with two strong drives – the life instinct and death instinct.
A person’s ability to love or to hate originates with theses early object relations.
G. LATER VIEWS ON OBJECT RELATION
Margaret Schoenbereger Mahler’s View
 concerned with the infant’s struggle to gain autonomy and a sense of self
 concerned with the first 3 years of life, a time when a child gradually surrenders security for
autonomy
 Psychological Birth: begins during the first weeks of postnatal life and continues for the next
3 years or so
 Sense of Identity: achieved when child becomes an individual separate from his or her
primary caregiver
 believed that children’s sense of identity rests on a 3 step relationship with their mother:
1. infants have basic needs cared for by their mother
2. they develop a safe symbiotic relationship with an all-powerful mother
3. they emerge from their mother’s protective circle and establish their separate
individuality
 Stages (to achieve psychological birth and individuation):
o Normal Autimism:
 birth to 3-4 weeks
 a newborn infant satisfies various needs within the all-powerful protective orbit of
a mother’s care
 sense of omnipotence
 needs are cared for automatically and without their having to expend any effort
 period of absolute primary narcissism in which an infant is unaware of any other
person
 objectless stage
o Normal Symbiosis
 4-5 week to 4-5 months
 infant behaves and functions as though he and his mother were an omnipotent
system – a dual unity within one common boundary
 not true symbiosis because infant needs mother but mother doesn’t need the
infant
 mother and other are still preobjects to infants
o Separation-Individuation
 4-5 months to 30-36 months
 children become psychologically separated from their mothers, achieve a sense of
individuation, and begin to develop feelings of personal identity
 surrender delusion of omnipotence and face their vulnerability to external threats
 Differentiation: 5 months to 7-10 months; bodily breaking away from the mother
infant symbiotic orbit
  Practicing: 7-10 months to 15-16 months; children easily distinguish their body  2 fundamental assumptions:
from their mother’s establish a specific bond with their mother, and begin to o A responsive and accessible caregiver must create a secure base for the child
develop an autonomous ego o A bonding relationship becomes internalized and serves as a mental working model on
 Rapprochement: 16-25 months of age; the desire to bring their mother and which future friendships and love relationships are built
themselves back together both physically and psychologically; Rapprochement  Attachment Style: a relationship between two people and not a trait given to the infant by
Crisis: condition where children fight dramatically with their mother because of the caregiver
the inability to regain the dual unity they once had with their mother
 Libidinal Object Constancy: 3rd year of life; develop a constant inner Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation
representation of their mother so that they can tolerate being physically separated  Style attachment
from her  develops a technique for measuring the type of attachment style an infant develops towards
 its caregiver
Heinz Kohut’s View
 formation of self Strange Situation
 theorized that children develop a sense of self during early infancy when parents and others  A technique for measuring the type of attachment style that exists between caregiver and
treat them as if they had an individualized sense of identity. infant
 emphasized the process by which the self evolves from a vague and undifferentiated image  Consists of 20-minute laboratory session in which a mother, infant and stranger is involved
to a clear and precise sense of individual identity  3 attachment style ratings: (when mother returns after leaving for two 2 minute periods)
 focused on early mother-child relationship as the key to understanding later development. o Secure attachment: infants are happy and enthusiastic and initiate contact
 human relatedness, not innate instinctual drives, are at the core of human personality o Anxious-resistant attachment: infants are ambivalent; upset  seeks contact but
 Infants require adult caregivers not only to gratify physical needs but also to satisfy basic reject attempts at being soothed
psychological needs o Anxious-Avoidant: infants stay calm when their mother leaves and then ignore and
 Self: center of the individual’s psychological universe avoid mother when returns
 Believed that infants are naturally narcissistic, they are self-centered, looking out exclusive
for their own welfare and wishing to be admired for who they are and what they do H. PSYCHOTHERAPY
 2 basic narcissistic needs:
o Need to exhibit the grandiose self Play Therapy
o Need to acquire an idealized image of one or both parents  substitute to Freud’s dream analysis and free association
 Grandiose exhibitionistic self: infant relates to a “mirroring” self-object who reflects  young children express their conscious and unconscious wishes through play therapy
approval of its behavior
 Idealized Parent image: implies that someone else is perfect Kleinian Therapy
 Grandiosity must change into a realistic view of self, and the idealized parent iamge must  encouraged her patients to re-experience early emotions and fantasies but this time with
grow into a realistic picture of the parents. the therapist pointing out the differences between reality and fantasy, between conscious
and unconscious
John Bowlby’s Attachment Theory  goal: to reduce depressive anxieties and persecutory fear and to mitigate the harshness of
 Object relations could be integrated with an evolutionary perspective internalized objects
 Attachments theory formed during childhood have an important impact on adulthood
 3 stages of Separation Anxiety: I. RELATED RESEARCH
o Protest Stage: When their caregiver is out of sight, infants will cry resist soothing by
other people, and search for their caregiver Object Relations and Eating Disorders
o Despair: infants become quiet, sad, passive, listless and apathetic  Steven Huprich and colleagues (2004) examined the connection between disturbed object
o Detachment: infants become emotionally detached from other people, including their relations and eating disorders in a nearly equal number of female and male college students
caregiver  3 measure of object relations:
 o interpersonal independency
o separation-individuation J. CRITIQUE OF KLEIN
o general measure of object relation which assess alienation, insecure attachment,
egocentricity and social incompetence  ability to generate research: (low) only few studies have used the BORI to empirically
 3 measures of eating disorders: investigate object relations
o anorexic tendencies  falsifications: (high) generates very few testable hypotheses
o bulimic tendencies  ability to organize information: lacks usefulness as an organizer of knowledge
o a person’s sense of control and self-efficacy over compulsive eating  guide to the practitioner: useful not only in understanding the early development of their
 result: gender differences on one object relations measure; men scored lower than women clients but also in understanding and working with the transference relationship tat clients
on all three measure of disordered eating  men have less trouble with binge and form with the therapist, whom they view as a substitute parent
compulsive eating than women and are less interpersonally dependent than women  internal consistency: (high) differences far exceed the similarities
 Huprich and colleagues: gender difference, though usually significant, do not neatly divide  parsimony: (low) used needlessly complex phrases and concepts to express her theory
men from on such measures as interpersonal dependency and its relationship to eating
disorders K. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 result: both men and women who were insecurely attached and self-focused (egocentric)
had greater difficulty in controlling their compulsive eating than those who were more 1. determinism
securely attached and less self-focused  when insecurely attaché people of either gender 2. pessimistic and optimistic
are threatened, : they turn to an external object (food) as a means by which to comfort 3. causality
themselves” 4. unconscious
5. social influence
Attachment Theory and Adult Relationships 6. similarities
 Cindy Hazan and Phil Shaver (1987) predicted that different types of early attachment styles
would distinguish the kind, duration and stability of adult love relationships HORNEY: PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY
 result: Securely attached adults experience more trust and closeness in their love
relationships than did avoidant or anxious-ambivalent adults. Moreover, they found that Psychoanalytic Social Theory
securely attached adults were more likely than insecure adults to believe that romantic can
 social and cultural conditions, especially childhood experiences, are largely responsible for
be long lasting. In addition, securely attached adults were less cynical about love in general,
shaping personality.
had longer lasting relationships, and were less like to divorce than either avoidant or
 people who do not have their needs for love and affection satisfied during childhood
anxious-ambivalent adults.
develops basic hostility toward their parents and as a consequence suffer from basic anxiety
 Steven Rholes and Colleagues (2007) tested the idea that attachment style is related to the
type of information people seek or avoid regarding their relationship and romantic partner
3 fundamental styles of relating to others:
 result: avoidant individuals showed less interest in reading information about their partner
 moving toward people
and contained in the relationship profile, whereas anxious individuals sought more
 moving against people
information about their partner’s intimacy-related issued and goals for the future
 moving away from people
 Rivka Davidovitz and Colleagues (2007) believed that attachment style is relevant in leader-
follower relationships because leaders of authority figures can occupy the role of caregiver
Intrapsychic Conflict
and be a source of security in a manner similar to the support offered by parents and
 take the for of either an idealized self-image or self hatred
romantic partners
 result: units of officers who had an avoidant attachment styles were less cohesive and the
Idealized Self-Image Expression:
soldiers expressed lower psychological well-being compared to members of other units; the
 neurotic search for glory
anxiously attached officers were likely more interested in seeking out information about
 neurotic claims
how their soldiers were feeling and how there were getting along with others
  neurotic pride The Impact of Culture
 Cultural influence is the primary bases for both neurotic and normal personality
Self-Hatred Expression: development.
 self-contempt
 alienation from self The Importance of Childhood Experiences
 Horney believed that neurotic conflict can stem from almost any developmental stage, but
A. BIOGRAPHY OF KAREN HORNEY childhood is the age from which the vast majority of problems arise.
 She hypothesized that a difficult childhood is primarily responsible for neurotic needs
Full name: Karen Danielsen Horney  The sum total of childhood experiences bring about a certain character structure, or rather,
Birthday: September 15, 1885 start its development but not responsible for later personality.
Birthplace: Eilbek, Germany
Father: Berndt (Wackels) Danielsen (Sea Captain) C. BASIC HOSTILITY AND BASIC ANXIETY
Mother: Cothilda van Ronzelen Danielsen
Siblings: 6? Children need to experience both genuine love and healthy discipline. Such conditions provide them
Husband: Oskar Horney with feelings of safety and satisfaction and permit them to grow in accordance with their real self.
Death: December 4, 1952 (Cancer)
Deathplace: New York, USA Basic Hostility
 Developed feelings of children when parents do not satisfy the child’s needs for safety and
Significant part of her life satisfaction
 great hostility toward his father; idolized her mother
 her independence
 analysis with Karl Abraham Basic Anxiety
 association with Margaret Mean, John Dollard and others  Repressed hostility that leads to profound feelings of insecurity and a vague sense of
 acquaintances with Erich Fromm and his wife apprehension
 leadership in Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis  Karen Horney
Psychoanalytic Institute Basic Hostility and Basic Anxiety is inextricably interwoven.
 establishment of Karen Horney Clinic
Ways of protecting oneself from feeling of being alone in a potentially hostile world:
B. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOANALYTIC SOCIAL THEORY 1. Affection: a strategy that does not always lead to authentic love; try to purchase love with
self-effacing compliance, material-goods, or some sexual flavors.
Culture, especially early childhood experiences, plays a leading role in shaping human personality. 2. Submissiveness: submit themselves either to people or to institutions
3. Power: defense against the real or imagined hostility of others and takes the form of a
Social rather than biological forces are paramount in personality development. tendency to dominate others
4. Prestige: a protection against humiliation and is expressed as a tendency to humiliate others
Horney and Freud Compared 5. Possession: acts a s buffer against destitution and poverty and manifests itself as a tendency
Horney criticism to Freud’s Theory: to deprive others
1. She cautioned that strict devotion to traditional psychoanalysis would lead to stagnation in 6. Withdrawal: developing an independence from others or by becoming emotionally
both theoretical thought and therapeutic practice detached from them, feeling that they cannot be hurt by others
2. She objected Freud’s ideas on Feminine Psychology
3. She stressed the view that psychoanalysis should move beyond instinct theory and D. COMPULSIVE DRIVES
emphasize the importance of cultural influences in shaping personality
Neurotic individuals have the same problems that affect normal people, except neurotics experience  A neurotic need to protect oneself against feelings of helplesssness
them to a greater degree.  Neurotic Needs: Affection and Approval, Powerful Partner, Restrict one’s life within
narrow borders
Neurotic Needs
 for affection and approval: attempt to please others; live up with the expectations of others Moving Against People
 for a powerful partner: lacking self-confidence, neurotics try to attach themselves to a  Take for granted that everyone is hostile
powerful partner  Aggressive Peronality
 to restrict one’s life within narrow boundaries: strive to remain inconspicuous, to take  Neurotic Needs: Power, Exploit Others, Social Recognition or Prestige, Personal
second place, and to be content with very little; downgrade their own abilities and dread Admiration, Ambition and Personal Achievement
making demands on others
 for power: need to control others and to avoid feelings of weakness or stupidity Moving Away from People
 to exploit others: evaluate others on the basis of how they can used or exploited; fear being  alleviating feelings of isolation
exploited by others  Expression of needs for privacy, independence, and self-sufficiency
 for social recognition or prestige: trying to be fist, to be important, or to attract attention to  Detached Personality
themselves  Neurotic Needs: Self-sufficiency and independence, Perfection and unassailability
 for personal admiration: need to be admired for what they have are rather than for what
they possess E. INTRAPSYCHIC CONFLICTS
 for ambition and personal achievement: strong drive to be the best; they must defeat other
people in order to confirm their superiority Intrapsychic processes originate from interpersonal experiences; they become part of a person’s belief
 for self-sufficiency and independence: strong need to move away from other people; they system, they develop a life of their own – an existence separate from the interpersonal conflicts that
can get along without others gave them life.
 for perfection and unassailability: dread making mistakes and having personal dlaws, and
they desperately attempt to hid their weaknesses from others Idealized Self-Image
 an attempt to solve conflicts by painting a godlike picture of oneself
Neurotic Trends:  an extravagantly positive view of themselves that exists only in their personal belief system
 gives the personality a sense of unity:
People can use each neurotic trends to solve basic conflict, but unfortunately these solutions are o externalization
essentially non-productive or neurotic. o blind spot (compartmentalization)
o rationalization
Normal Defenses Neurotic Defenses  excessive control
Spontaneous Movement Compulsive Movement  arbitrary rightness
Toward People Toward People o elusiveness
(friendly, loving personality) (compliant personality)  3 aspects:
o Neurotic Search for Glory: begin to incorporate it into all aspects of their lives – their
Against People Against People goals, their self-concept, and their relations with others
(a survivor in a competitive society) (aggressive personality)  Need for perfection: drive to mold the whole personality into idealized self
 Neurotic ambition: compulsive drive toward superiority
Away from People Away from People  Drive toward a vindictive triumph: drive for achievement or success, but its chief
(autonomous, serene personality) (detached personality) aim is to put others to shame or defeat them through one’s very success; or to
attain the power, to inflict suffering on humiliating kind
o Neurotic Claims
Moving Toward People (Compliant Personality)  neurotic build a fantasy world – a world that is out of sync with the real world
  they proclaim that they are special and therefor entitled to be treated in
accordance with their idealized view of themselves
o Neurotic Pride
 a false pride based not on a realistic view of the true self but I a spurious, image of
the idealized self
 usually loudly proclaimed in order to protect and support a glorified view of one’s
self
 imagine themselves to be glorious, wonderful and perfect, so when others fail to
treat them with special consideration, their neurotic pride is hurt
 Real Self
o the potential for growth beyond the artificial idealized self
Self-hatred
 when people realize that their real self does not match the insatiable demands of their
idealized self, they will being to hate and despise themselves
 6 major ways in expressing self-hatred:
o relentless demands of the self: people continue to push themselves toward perfection
because they believe that they should be perfect
o merciless self-accusation: constantly berate themselves
o self-contempt: belittling, disparaging, doubting, discrediting and ridiculing oneself
o self-frustration: frequently shackled by taboos against enjoyment
o self-torment or self-torture: inflict harm or suffering on themselves
o self-destructive actions and impulses: overeating, abusing alcohol and other drugs,
working too had, driving recklessly and suicide
F. FEMININE PSYCHOLOGY
 Psychic differences between men and women are not the result of anatomy but rather of
cultural and social expectations
 Men who subdue and rule women and women who degrade or evn men do so because of
the neurotic competitiveness
 Basic Anxiety is at the core of men’s need to conquer women and women’s wish to
humiliate men
 Oedipus Complex: found only in some people and is an expression of the neurotic need for
love; child’s main goal is not security, not sexual intercourse
 Womb Envy: boys sometimes do express a desire to have a baby
 Masculine Protest: they have a pathological belief that men are superior to women.
 The desire for penis is not an expression of penis envy but rather a wish for all those
qualities or privileges which in our culture are regarded as masculine.
G. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Horneyian Therapy
 Help patients gradually grow in the direction of self-realization
 To have patients give up their idealized self-image, relinquish their neurotic search for glory,
and change self-hatred to an acceptance of the real self
 Three neurotic trends can be cast in favourable terms such as love, mastery or freedom
 Convince patients that their present solutions are perpetuating rather than alleviating the
core neurosis
Dream Interpretation
 attempts to solve conflicts, but the solutions can be either neurotic or healthy
Free Association
 patients are asked to say everything that comes to mind regardless of how trivial or
embarrassing it may seem
 eventually reveals patients’ idealized self-image and persistent but unsuccessful attempts at
accomplishing it
H. RELATED RESEARCH
The Neurotic Compulsion to Avoid the Negative
 High levels of neuroticism are associated with experiencing more negative emotion and
being more likely to develop generalized anxiety disorder
 Neuroticism is also associated with setting avoidance goals, in which a person avoids
negative outcomes, rather than setting aprach goals in which a person approaches positive
outcomes
Can Neuroticism Ever Be a Good Thing?
 Michael Robinson and Colleagues (2007) relationship between neuroticism, recognition of
threats and mood
 Theory: The neurotic sensitivity to threat would serve a purpose in that such people could
recognize problems, and presumably avoid them, and that successful avoidance would make
them feel better
 Result: (Successful Neurotic) Those who are predisposed toward being neurotic, the ability
to react adaptively to errors while assessing threat was related to experiencing less negative
mood in daily life
I. CRITIQUE OF HORNEY
 generate research and falsifiability: speculations from the theory do not easily yield testable
hypotheses and therefore lack both verifiability and falsifiability
 organize knowledge (high): deals mostly with neurotics
  guide to action: (low) theory is not specific enough to give the practitioner a clear and  grew up in two very distinct worlds: traditional orthodox Jewish world and modern capitalist
detailed course of action world
 internally consistent: concept and formulations are precise, consistent and unambiguous  world war I
 parsimony: (high) simple, straightforward and clearly written  suicide of a beautiful young artist who killed her self immediately after the death of her
father
 has a Freudian analyst and teacher
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  training by Talmudic teacher
 acquaintance with Karen Horney
1. free choice  association with Harry Stack Sullivan, Clara Thompson and others
2. optimistic
3. causality and teleology
4. conscious and unconscious B. FROMM’S BASIC ASSUMPTIONS
5. social influences
6. similarities  Individual Personality can be understood only in the light of human history
 Human Dilemma: ability to reason for not having the powerful instincts to adapt to a
FROMM: HUMANISTIC PSYCHOANALYSIS changing world; experienced because of separation from nature and yet have the capacity to
be aware of themselves as isolated beings
Humanistic Psychoanalysis  Human Dilemma is a blessing (permits people to survive) and a curse (forces them to
 emphasizes the influence of sociobiological factors, history, economics and class structure. attempt to solve basic insoluble dichotomies)
 looks at people from a historical and cultural perspective rather a strictly psychological one  Basic Soluble Dichotomies:
 less concerned with the individual and more concerned with those characteristics common o Life and Death
to a culture o Goal of Complete Self-Realization
 Basic Anxiety: assumes that humanity’s separation from the natural world has produced o Isolation
feelings of loneliness and isolation
C. HUMAN NEEDS
Isolation Alternatives
 escape from freedom into interpersonal dependencies Not all human needs can satisfy the instinct of human. Only the distinctive human needs like the
 move to self-realization through productive love and work following can move people toward a reunion with the natural world.

A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ERICH FROMM Healthy Individuals are better able to find ways of reuniting to the world by productively solving the
human needs of:
Full name: Erich Krause Fromm
Birthday: March 23, 1900 Existential Nees
Birthplace: Frankfurt, Germany  needs that must be met for a meaningful existence
Father: Naphtali Fromm  inner being is developed
Mother: Rosa Krause Fromm
Wife: Frieda Reichmann Fromm (his analyst), Henny Gurland, Annis Freeman 1. Relatedness: the drive for union with another person or other persons
Death: March 18, 1980 (heart attack) o Submission (becoming part of something bigger than himself)
Deathplace: Muralto, Switzerland o Power (welcoming submissive people; symbiotic relationship: satisfying to both
Significant part of his life partners)
 moody father and prone to depression mother o Love (union with somebody)
 4 basic elements: Care, Responsibility, Respect, Knowledge
 2. Transcendence: urge to rise above a passive and accidental existence and into the realm of  see others suffer
purposefulness and freedom 2. Destructiveness
o Creating Life: reproduction or creativeness in life o destroying/do away with other people
o Destroying Life: rising above our slain victims o attempts to restores lost feeling of power
 Malignant Aggression: to kill for reasons other than survival 3. Conformity
3. Rootedness: need to establish roots or to feel at home again in the world o giving up their identity and becoming what other people want them to be
o Weaning from the orbit of their mother and become fully born: they actively and o the more they conform, the more powerless they feel; the more powerless they feel,
creatively related to the world and become whole or integrated. the more they conform
o Fixation: tenacious reluctance to move beyond the protective security provided by
one’s mother Positive Freedom
4. Sense of Identity: capacity to be aware of ourselves as a separate enitity; “I am I” or “I am  Freedom and not alone, critical and yet not filled doubts, independent and yet an integral
the subject of my actions” part of man kind
o Adjustment to the Group: people identified more closely with their clan and did not
see themselves as individuals existing apart from their group E. CHARACTER ORIENTATIONS
o Individuality: they possess an authentic sense of identity so they do not have to
surrender their freedom and individuality Character Orientations
5. Frame of Orientation: need for a map to make their way in the world  Person’s relatively permanent way of relating to people and things
o Rational: make sense of these event and phenomena
o Irrational: strive to put these events into some sort of framework in orer to make sense Character
of them  relatively permanent system of all noninstinctual striving through which relates himself to
the human and natural world
D. THE BURDEN OF FREEDOM
Social Character
Reason  the core of a character structure common to most people of a given culture
 Is responsible for feelings of isolation and loneliness, but it is also the process that enables
humans to become reunited with the world  People relate into two ways:
o Assimilation: acquiring and using things
Burden of Freedom o Socialization: relating to self and others
 They are free from the security of being one with the mother
Nonproductive Orientations
Basic Anxiety  strategies that fail to move people closer to positive freedom and self-realization
 The feeling of being alone in the world o Receptive
 feel that the source of all good lies outside themselves and that the only way they
Mechanisms of Escape: can relate to the world is to receive things
1. Authoritarianism: giving up one’s identity and fusing with somebody/something outside  positive qualities: loyalty, acceptance and trust
oneself to acquire the lacking strength  negative qualities: passivity submissiveness, lack of self-confidence
o Masochism o Exploitative
 from the basic feelings of powerlessness, weakness and inferiority  aggressively take the things they desire rather than passively receive it
 aimed at joining the self to a more powerful person or institution  positive qualities: impulsive, proud, charming and self-confident
o Sadism (3 kinds)  negative qualities: egocentric, conceited, arrogant and seducing
 make others dependent on oneself o Hoarding
 exploit others  saving and keeping things for themselves
  positive qualities: orderliness, cleanliness and punctuality
 negative qualities: rigidity, sterility, obstinacy compulsivity and lack of creativity
o Marketing
 sees oneself as commodity; I am as you desire me
 positive qualities: changeability, openmindedness, adaptability and generosity
 negative qualities: aimless, opportunistic, inconsistent and wasteful
The Productive Orientations
 productive people work toward positive freedom and a continuing realization of their
potential
 unit with the world and with others while retaining uniqueness and individuality
o Work
 means of creative self-expression ad producing life’s necessities
o Love
 care, responsibility, respect and knowledge
 Biophilia: a passionate love of life and all that is a love
o Thinking/Thought/Reasoning
 motivated by a concerned interest in another person or object
 see others as they are and not as they would wish them to be
F. PERSONALITY DISORDERS
Psychologically disturbed people are incapable of love and have failed to establish union with others.
The following personality disorders are experiences if a person were not able to work, love, and think
productively:
1. Necrophilia
o love or attraction to death
o sexual contact with a corpse
2. Malignant Narcissim
o interest in their own body
o everything belonging to a narcissistic person is highly valued and everything belonging
to another is devalued
o Hypochondriasis: obsessive attention to one’s health
o Moral Hypochondriasis: preoccupation with guilt about previous misbehaviours
o Depression: result if the criticism is overwhelming and that they may be unable to
destroy it, and so they turn their rage inward; feeling of worthlessness
3. Incestuous Symbiosis
o extreme dependence on the mother or mother surrogate
o exaggerated form of benign mother fixation
o inseperable from the host person
Syndrome of Decay: necrophilia, malignant narcissism, incestuous symbiosis
Syndrome of Growth: biophilia, love, positive freedom
G. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Humanistic Psychoanalysis
 The aim of this therapy is for the patients to come to know themselves
 without knowledge of ourselves, we cannot know any other person or thing
 The Therapist should not view the patient as an illness or a thing but as a person with the
same human needs that all people possess.
Dream Analysis
 dreams as well as fairy tales and myths, are expressed in symbolic language – the only
universal language humans have developed
H. FROMM’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION
Social Character in a Mexican Village
 research tools: dream reports, detailed questionnaires, Rorschach Inkblot Test, Thematic
Apperception Test
 Market orientation did not exist among these peasant villagers
 First, non-productive-receptive: look up to others and devoted much energy in trying to
please those whom they regarded as superiors
 Second, productive-hoarding: hardworking, productive ad independent
 Third, non-productive-exploitative: Men get into knife or pistol fights, whereas the women
tended to be malicious gossipmongers
 Fourth, productive-exploitative: accumulated capital by taking advantage of new agricultural
technology as well as recent increase in tourism
 Fromm and Maccoby (1970) reported a remarkable similarity between character orientation
in this Mexican Village and the theoretical orientation Fromm had suggested some yaers
earlier
A Psychohistorical Study of Hitler
 Psychohistory or Psychobiography: examining historical documents in order to sketch a
psychological portrait of a prominent person
 Fromm regarded Hitler as the world’s most conspicuous example of a person with the
syndrome of decay
 Hitler displayed 3 pathological disorders: attracted to death and destruction, narrowly
focused on self-interest, and driven by incestuous devotion the Germanic races
 Fromm believed that each stage od development is important and that nothing in Hitler’s
early life bent him inevitably toward the syndrome of decay
  Each failure of Hitler caused a graver wound to his narcissism and deeper humiliation than  guide to action: neither the researcher nor the therapist receives much practicall
the previous one ifnoramtion
 His necrophilia as expressed n his mania for destroying building and cities, his orders to kill  internal consistency: internally consistent in the sense that a single theme run throughout
defective people, his boredom and his slaughter of millions of Jews his writings
 For malignant narcissism, he was only interested only in himself, his plans, and his ideology  parsimony: lacks simplicity and unity
 His incestuous symbiosis is manifested by his passionate devotion not to his real mother but K. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
to the Germanic race.
 Conclusion: Any analysis that would distort Hitler’s picture by depriving him of his humanity 1. determinism and free choice
would only intensify the tendency to be blind to the potential Hitler’s unless they wear 2. pessimistic and optimistic
horns. 3. teleology
4. conscious
I. RELATED RESEARCH 5. social influences
6. similarities and individuality
Estrangement From Culture and Well-Being SULLIVAN: INTERPERSONAL THEORY
 Mark Bernard and Colleagues (2006) sought to test if anxiety and isolation result from too
much freedom; specifically, the researchers wanted to test a person whether or not Why is it important to know about Sullivan’s sexual orientation (because of his relationship with
discrepancies between a person’s own beliefs and the way the person perceived the beliefs Clarence Bellinger)?
of his or her society led to feelings of estrangement  A personality theorist’s early life history all relate to that person’s adult beliefs, conception
 result: the more a person reported that his or her vales were discrepant from society in of humanity and the type of personality theory that the person will develop
general, the more likely he or she was to have a strong feeling of estrangement,  His sexual orientation may have prevented him from gaining the acceptance and recognition
 Second study: Is feeling of estrangement from one’s culture was related to increased feeling he might have had if others had not suspected that he was homosexual
of anxiety and depression.  Thus, Sulllivan, who otherwise might have achieved greater fame, was shackled by sexual
 result: the more estranged from society people felt in general, the more anxious and prejudices that kept him from being regarded as American’s foremost psychiatrist of the first
depressed they were. half of the 20th century.
 Feeling estranged from society in general may make people more susceptible to feeling of
depression but these feelings can be lessened if a person can find a group of people who Interpersonal Theory
share their beliefs, even if those are not the beliefs of the society in general.  emphasizes the importance of various developmental stages – infancy, childhood, the
juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, late adolescence and adulthood
The Burden of Freedom and Political Persuasions  healthy human development rests on a person’s ability to establish intimacy with another
 Jack and Jeanne Block (2006) examine how people develop the political persuasions they do person, but unfortunately, anxiety can interfere with satisfying interpersonal relations at any
and whether personality can predict which type of political party any given individual. age
 result: children who were described by their teachers 20 years previously as being easily  people achieve healthy development when they are able to experience both intimacy and
offended, indecisive, fearful and rigid were more likely to be politically conservative in their lust toward the same other person
twenties. Children who had been described as being self-reliant, energetic, somewhat  Focus on social aspects of personality and cognitive representations
dominating and relatively under controlled in preschool grew up to be more liberal.  Personality: shaped by social interaction with others
 Self-system: born out of well-being influenced by significant others
J. CRITIQUE OF FROMM
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF HARRY SULLIVAN
 generator of empirical research: (sterile) imprecise and vague terms
 falsifiable: too philosophical; could be explained by other theories Full name: Harry Stack Sullivan
 organize and explainable: lack of precision makes prediction difficult and falsification Birthday: February 21, 1892
impossible Birthplace: Norwich, New York
Father: Timothy Sullivan  Tensions that are transformed into actions
Mother: Ella Stack Sullivan
Siblings: 3 tensions  energy transformations  dynamisms
Death: January 14, 1949 (cerebral haemorrhage)
Deathplace: Paris, France

Significant part of his life

 never developed a close relationship with his father until her mother died and he became a C. DYNAMISMS
prominent physician
 had two women (other than her mother) to mother him Dynamisms
 close friendship Clarence Bellinger  Typical behavior that characterize a person throughout a lifetime
 suspension because of mail fraud  A term that means about the same as traits or habit patterns
 studies of schizophrenia  importance of interpersonal relationships  2 major classes:
 association with: Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, Frieda Fromm-Reichmannn, Clara Thompson o Related to zones
and others o Related to tension
 uncomfortability with his sexuality and ambivalent feelings toward marriage  Disjunctive Dynamisms
 regarded James Inscoe as a son and changed his name into James I. Sullivan  destructive patterns of behavior
 Malevolence: evil and hatred, characterized by the feeling of living among
B. TENSIONS one’s enemies
 Isolating Dynamisms
Tensions  behavior patterns that are unrelated to interpersonal relations
 A potentiality for action that may or may not be experienced in awareness  Lust: isolating tendency, requiring no other person for its satisfaction;
autoerotic behavior when another person is the object of one’s lust
2 types of Tensions:  Conjunctive Dynamisms
 Needs  beneficial behavior pattern
o tensions brought on biological imbalance between a person and the physiochemical  Intimacy: involves a close relationship between two people who are more or
environment, both inside and outside the organism; general needs; zonal needs less of equal status
o Tenderness: interpersonal need  Self-Systems: inclusive of all dynamisms consistent pattern of behaviors that
o Dynamisms: excess energy from satisfying the needs that is transformed into consistent maintains people’s interpersonal security by protecting them from anxiety
characteristic mode of behavior o Security Operations: reduce feelings of insecurity or anxiety that result
 Anxiety from endangered self-esteem
o it is disjunctive, more diffuse and vague and calls forth no consistent actions for its  Dissociation: impulses, desires and needs that a person refuses to
relief allow into awareness; do not become part of the self-system
o Empathy: transfer of anxiety from the parent to the infant  Selective Inattention: refusal to see those things that we do not
o produces behavior that prevents people from learning their mistakes, keep people wish to see
pursuing a childish wish for security and generally ensure that people will not learn
from their experiences D. PERSONIFICATIONS
o Euphoria: complete lack of tension; felt when people avoid anxiety
Personifications
Energy Transformations  Images of themselves and others
 Transform tensions into either covert or overt behaviors and are aimed at satisfying needs
and reducing anxiety 3 Basic Personifications:
1. Bad-Mother, Good-Mother o Feelings about “Good” and “Bad” caregivers
o Bad-Mother: bad nipple; not an accurate image of the real mother but merely the o Age: 0-2 years
infant’s vague representation of not being properly fed o Significant Others: Mother/
o Good-Mother: tender and cooperative behaviors of the mothering one Caregiver
2. Me Personifications o Interpersonal Process: Tenderness
o Building blocks of the self-personification o Important Learnings: Dual Personifications of Mother
o Bad-Me: fashioned from experiences of punishment and disapproval that infants o emphatic linkage between mother and infant leads inevitably to the development of
receive from their mothering one anxiety for the baby
o Good-Me: infant’s experiences with reward and approval o Apathy and somnolent detachment allow the infant to fall asleep despite the hunger
o Not-Me: dissociate or selectively inattend experiences related to that anxiety; denies instead of dying
the experiences to the me image so that they become part of the not-me o autistic language: private language that makes little or no sense to other people
personification 2. Childhood
 Uncanny Emotions: overcomes sudden severe anxiety; serves as valuable signal o Learning applicable to social habits
for approaching schizophrenic reactions; (experienced in dream, or take the form o period of rapid acculturation
of awe, horror, loathing or a chilly crawling) o Age: 2-6 years
3. Eidetic Personifications o Significant Others: Parents
o Unrealistic traits or imaginary friends that many children invent in order to protect their o Interpersonal Process: Protect security through imaginary playmates
self-esteem o Important Learnings: Learn what is ‘proper’ and use language as a tool in social world
o can create conflict in interpersonal relations when people project onto other imaginary o dual personifications of mother is fused into one and is more congruent to the real
traits that are remnants from previous relationships. They also hinder communication mother
and prevent people from functioning on the same level of cognition o emotions become reciprocal: tenderness (mother  child; child  mother)
o 2 important processes learned by children:
E. LEVEL OF COGNITION  Dramatizations: attempts to act like or sound like significant authority figures
 Preoccupations: strategies for avoiding anxiety and fear-provoking situations by
1. Prototaxic Level remaining occupied with an activity that has earlier proved useful or rewarding
o Earliest and most primitive and experiences of an infant 3. Juvenile Era
o These experiences cannot be communicated to others, they are difficult to describe or o Finding playmates and questioning parents
define o Age: 5-8.5 years old
o In adult, momentary sensations, images, feelings, moods and impressions o Significant Others: Playmates of equal status
2. Parataxic Level o Interpersonal Process: Orientation toward living in the world of peers
o Prelogical and usually result when a person assumes a cause-and-effect relationship o Important Learnings: Learn to compete, compromise, and cooperate with other
between two events that occur coincidentally children
o can be communicated to others only in a distorted fashion o The child recognizes new authority figures
o Parataxic distortion: an illogical belief that a cause-and-effect relationship exists o The real world is coming more into focus
between two events in close temporal proximity o Orientation Toward Living (makes it easier to consistently handle anxiety satisfy zonal
3. Syntaxic Level and tenderness needs and set goals based on memory and foresight) readies a person
o Experiences that are consensually validated that can be symbolically communicated for the deeper interpersonal relationships to follow
take place 4. Preadolescence
o Collaborating with a friend
F. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (EPOCHS) o Age: 8.5-13 years
o Significant Others: Single/best friend
1. Infancy o Interpersonal Process: Intimacy with a person of the same age and gender
 o Important Learnings: Learn importance of affection and respect from peers o Originate from organic causes
o This is the start of the capacity to love o Grounded in situational factors
o intimacy and love become the essence of friendships
o usually boy-boy or girl-girl chumships
o most untroubled and carefree time of life
o mistakes made during earlier stages of development can be overcome during
preadolescence, but mistakes made during preadolescence are difficult to surmount
during later stages
5. Early Adolescence H. PSYCHOTHERAPY
o Experiencing lust toward a sexual partner
o Age: 13-15 years Sullivanian Therapy
o Significant Others: Several partners  the therapist serves as a participant observer, becoming part of an interpersonal, face-to-
o Interpersonal Process: Intimacy and lust toward different persons face relationship with the patient and providing the patient an opportunity to establish
o Important Learnings: learn to balance trust, intimacy and security operations syntaxic communication with another human being
o This stage is the basis for adult relationship  psychosis is not merely a physical disorder and that the personal relationship of one human
o getting along with other people being to another is the essence of psychological growth
o genital interest and lustful relationships  aimed at uncovering patients’ difficulties in relating to others
6. Late Adolescence
o Establishing adult love relationship I. RELATED RESEARCH
o Age: 15-18
o Significant Others: Lover The Pros and Cons of “Chums” for Girls and Boys
o Interpersonal Process: Fusion of intimacy and lust  Ruminating: act of dwelling on a negative event or negative aspects of an otherwise neutral
o Important Learnings: Establishes a mature repertory of interpersonal relationships or even positive event and is generally considered to be harmful as it is associated with an
o Opposite sex are no longer desired as sex objects but as people who are capable of increase in depression
being loved nonselfishly  Co-rumination: excessively discussing personal problems within a relationship
o completely determined by interpersonal relations  Amanda Rose and Colleagues (2007) interested in the negative impact of co-rumination in
7. Adulthood childhood friendships
o Completion of the personality  result: co-rumination in same-sex friendships was related to increased feelings of depression
o Significant Others: Lover/Life Partner and anxiety but was also related to greater friendship quality
o Interpersonal Process: Maturity/High Intimacy  Are girls more likely to engage in co-rumination than boys? Is co-rumination better for girls
o Important Learnings: Perceptive of other’s anxiety, needs, and security than boys or vice versa?
o people who have achieved the capacity to love are not in need f psychiatric counsel  findings: boys and girls engage in very different activities within their friendships on a daily
o mature adults are perceptive of other people’s anxiety, needs and security. basis
o operate predominantly on the syntaxic level
 Sex differences in the effects of co-rumination on depression, anxiety and overall friendship
quality
G. PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
 result: Co-rumination was particularly bad for girls but not so bad for boys (For girls: co-
rumination was associated with increased depression and anxiety but also with better
 All psychological disorders have an interpersonal origin and can be understood only with
friendships; For boys: co-rumination was associated with better friendship but was not
reference to the patient’s social environment
related to increased depression or anxiety)
 Everyone is much more simply human than unique, and that no matter what ails the patient,
 For boys, having a supportive friend may well e sufficient to ward off depression and anxiety
he is mostly a person like the psychiatrist
 For girls, no matter how supportive those friends are and no matter how good the friendship
 2 classes of schizophrenia:
is, girls are at increased risk for developing depression
Imaginary Friends Throughout his life, he had difficulty accepting himself as either a Jew or a Gentile
 Tracy Gleason and Lisa Hohmann (2006) explore how children view imaginary friends in
relation to their real friends Erikson coined the term Identity Crisis.
 result: imaginary friends are important and help to model how real friendships should work
 supports sullivan’s assumption that having an imaginary playmate is a normal, healthy Post-Freudian Theory
experience. It is neither a sign of pathology nor a result of feelings of loneliness and  extended Freud’s infantile developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood and old age
alienation from other children.  at each stage a specific psychosocial struggle contributes to the formation of personality
 Identity Crisis: a turning point in one’s life that mey either strengthen or weaken personality
J. CRITIQUE OF SULLIVAN  extension of psychoanalysis
 instead of elaborating psychosexual stages beyond childhood stages, he places more
 generate research: deficiency is lack of popularity among researcher most apt to conduct emphasis on both social and historical influences
research – the academicians
 falsifiable: (low) alternative explanations are possible for most of these findings A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ERIK ERIKSON
 organize knowledge: (moderate) extreme emphasis on interpersonal relations subtracts
from its ability to organize knowledge, because much of what is presently known about Full name: Erik H. Erikson
human behavior has a biological asis and does not easily fit into a theory restricted to Birthday: June 15, 1902
interpersonal relations Birthplace: Southern Germany
 practical guide: relative lack of testing Father: unknown
 internally consistent: logically conceptualized and holds together as a unified entity Mother: unnamed
 parsimonious: (low) writing add needless bulk to a theory that, if streamlined, would be far Wife: Joan Serson
more useful Children: Kai, Jon, Neil (has down syndrome) and Sue
Death: May 12, 1994
K. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY Death place: Cape Cod?

1. determinism? Significant part of his life:

2. neither pessimism nor optimism  invitation of Peter Blos for him to become a teacher with Anna Freud as his employer, who
3. neither causality not teleology? later on become his psychoanalyst as well
4. neither conscious nor unconscious?  searching for his father’s identity
5. social influences  placed Neil in an institution but told his three children that their brother is dead
6. similarities  no degree
 sought his identity through myriad changes of jobs and places of residence
 Erik Salomonsen  Erik Homburger  Erik Homburger Erikson  Erik H. Erikson
ERIKSON: POST-FREUDIAN THEORY  he recognized that the influence of psychological, cultural and historical factors on identity
was the underlying element hat held the various chapters together
3 Separate beliefs of Erikson regarding his origin (father):
 Theodor Homburger, a physician, was his biological father but their features are not the B. THE EGO IN POST-FREUDIAN THEORY
same
 Valdemar Salomonsen, his mother’s first husband, but he left them 4 years before he was Ego
born  positive force that creates a self-identity, a sense of “I”
 He was the outcome a sexual connection between his mother and artistically gifted  center of our personality
aristocratic Dane
  helps us adapt to the various conflicts and crises of life and keeps us from losing our
individuality to the levelling forces of society
 partially unconscious organizing agency that synthesizes our present experiences with past
self-identities and also with anticipated images of self
 person’s ability to unify experiences andactions in an adaptive manner
3 Aspects of Ego:
1. Body Ego
o Experiences with our body
o a way of seeing our physical self as different for other people
o we may be satisfied or dissatisfied with the way our body looks and functions, but we
recognize that it is the only body we will ever have
2. Ego Ideal
o Presents the image we have of ourselves in comparison with an established ideal
o responsible for our being satisfied or dissatisfied not only with our physical self but with
our entire personal identity
3. Ego Identity
o the image we have of ourselves in the variety of social roles we play
Basic points in Psychosocial Development:
1. Growth takes place according to the epigenetic principle.
2. In every stage of life, there is an interaction of opposites. (should be learned both)
o Syntonic (Harmonious)
o Dystonic (Disruptive)
3. At each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements produces an ego
quality or ego strength known as Basic Strength. (allows the person to move on the next
stage)
4. Too little basic strength at any one stage results in a core pathology (opposite of basic
strength) for that stage.
5. Never lost sight of the biological aspect of human development
6. Events on earlier stages do not cause later personality development. Ego identity is shaped
by a municipality of conflicts and events (past, present and anticipated)
7. Personality development is characterized by identity crisis (a turning point, a crucial period
of increased vulnerability and heightened potential)
Psychosocial Stages of Development:

Society’s Influence to Ego: 1. Infancy (0-1y/o): Trust vs Mistrust

 The ego emerges from and is largely shaped by society.
 The ego exists as potential at birth, but it must emerge from within a cultural environment. STAGE PSYCHO-SEXUAL PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.
 Pseudospecies: an illusion performed and continued by a particular society that is somehow MODE SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
chosen to be the human species Infancy Oral- Basic Trust vs. Hope Withdrawal The
respiratory: Basic Mistrust mothering
Sensory- one
Epigenetic Principle kinesthetic
 Epigenetic Development Time of modes of If their pattern Pagasa With little to Primary
o A step by step growth of fetal organs incorporation; incorporation: of accepting hope for, they caregiver,
o it develops, or should develop, according to a predetermined rate and in a fixed taking in not 1. Receiving and things will retreat ordinarily
sequence only through accepting what corresponds from outside their
o Development or supposed development according to a predetermined rate and in their mouth is given with culture’s world and mother.
but through 2. Not only must way of giving begin the
a fixed sequence
various senses get, but must things, then journey toward
o the ego follows the path of epigenetic development, with each stage developing at as well also get infant learns serious
its proper time someone else to trust. If not, psychological
 anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each give then mistrust. disturbance.
part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
whole Needs are met by responsive parents  develops Develop mistrust towards people
 we develop through a predetermined unfolding of our ppersonalities in 8th stages secure attachment and trust
 if we interfere, we ruin the entire development  infants are dependent on others for food, care and affection
 Epigenesis: one characteristic develops on top of another in space and time  must be able to trust their parents

C. STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT 2. Early Childhood (2-3y/o): Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG. 4. School Age (6-12/13y/o): Industry vs Inferiority
SEXUAL MODE SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
Early Childhood Anal-Urethral- Autonomy vs Will Compulsion Parents STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO-SOCIAL BASIC CORE SIG.
Muscular Shame and SEXUAL MODE CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
Doubt
School Age Latency Industry vs Competence Inertia Neighbor-
Receive Learn to control Autonomy: Willingness, Lack of Mother and Inferiority hood, School
pleasure not their body esp. independence kusa purpose and father
only for in relation to Shame: self- lack of self- Striving for Allows children Industry: Confidence Children are Friends,
sphincter cleanliness and consciousness confidence competence to divert their industriousness, to use one’s likely to give Classmates,
muscle but also mobility; time of being energies to a willingness to physical and up and Teacher and
for other body for impulsive looked at and learning the remain busy cognitive regress to an Adult models
functions such self-expression exposed technology of with something abilities to early stage of
as walking, and compulsive Doubt: feeling their culture and to finish a solve the development.
urinating, etc. deviance of being not and the job. problems
certain strategies of that
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome their social accompany
interactions; school age.
Encouraging initiative  develop confidence to cope Disapproving parents  child feel ashamed Competent or
and doubt abilities incompetent
 learn to do things for themselves Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
 self-control and self-confidence develop
Have pleasure in intellectual activities productive  Develop a sense of inferiority
develop sense of competence
3. Play Age (3-5y/o): Initiative vs Guilt  learning and acquiring skills

STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.

SEXUAL SOCIAL STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS 5. Adolescence (12-18y/o): Identity vs Identity Confusion
MODE CRISIS
STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO-SOCIAL BASIC CORE SIG.
Play Age Infantile- Initiative vs Purpose Inhibition Family
SEXUAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
Genital- Guilt
MODE
Locomotor
Adolescence Puberty Identity vs Fidelity Role Repudation Peer
Developing Include the Initiative: Play with a Compulsively Parents, Identity Groups
locomotion, budding selection and purpose, moralistic or Siblings, and Confusion
language skills, understanding pursuit of competing at overly Extended
Gain firm Genital Strive to find out Faithfulness Diffidence: Peers
curiosity, of such basic goals games on inhibited family
sense of ego maturation, who they are and extreme lack of
imagination concepts as Guilt: bad order to win person members
identity; Triggers who they are not self-trust and self-
and the ability reproduction, feeling as a or to be top;
Period of expectations confidence 
to set goals. growth, consequence Do things on
Social Latency of adult Identity shyness/hesitancy
future and of inhibited purpose
and Period of roles yet Confusion: Defiance: act of
death goals
Trial and ahead. syndrome of rebelling against
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome Error problem about authority
Encouraging involved parents  children learns to Develop a sense of guilt when trying to be idneity
follow rules independent Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
Disciplined without guilt Develop strong identity, have plans and goals for Fall into confusion indecisive
 become more engaged in external world the future “identity crisis”
 learn to balance being adventurous and responsibility
  be able to resolve “who am I?” conflict Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
Have and nurtured children  contribute to Remain self-centered and experience stagnation
6. Young Adulthood (19-30y/o): Intimacy vs Isolation next generation (mid-life crisis)
 ability to look outside self and care for others
STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.  parenting = create legacy
SEXUAL SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
MODE 8. Late Adulthood/Old Age (60-Onwards): Integrity vs Despair
Young Genitality Intimacy vs Love Exclusivity Sexual
Adulthood Isolation Partners, STAGE PSYCHO-SEXUAL PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.
Friends MODE SOCIAL CRISIS STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
People must Distinguishe Intimacy: Mature Pushing Partners Old Age Generalized Integrity vs Wisdom Disdain All
acquire the d by mutual fusing one’s devotion that people away; (eg Sensuality Despair humanity
ability to fuse trust and a identity w/o overcomes basic exclude husband), Old people Take pleasure in a Integrity: Informed and A reaction to Everyone
that identity stable fear of losing it difference certain Boyfriends can remain variety o diff. feeling of detached feeling in an
with the identity sharing of Isolation: between men people, /Girlfriends productive physical wholeness concern with increasing state
of another sexual incapacity to and women; activities and and sensations; Greater and life itself in of being
person while satisfactions take chances commitment, ideas in order creative in appreciation for coherence’ the face of finished,
maintaining with a loved in fusing sexual passion, to develop other ways the traditional sense of death itself; confused,
sense of person. through cooperation, strong sense lifestyle of ‘I’ness helpless
individuality intimacy competition and of identity. opposite sex Despair: to be
friendship without hope
Positive Outcome Negative Outcome Positive Outcome Negative Outcome
Able to form close relationships Fear commitment, feel isolated Sense of fulfilment 00> accept death with a Individual despairs and fear death
Achieve sense of identity “quarter life crisis” sense of integrity
 love relationships and intimacy  reflect upon one’s life
7. Middle Adulthood/Adulthood (30-60y/o): Generativity vs Stagnation  filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointment and failures

D. ERIKSON’S METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

STAGE PSYCHO- PSYCHO- BASIC CORE SIG.
SEXUAL SOCIAL STRENGTH PATHOLOGY RELATIONS
MODE CRISIS Anthropological Studies
Adulthood Procreativity Generativity Care Rejectivity Divided labor  studied Sioux Children and Yurok Nation
vs and shared  showed that early childhood training was consistent with this strong cultural value and that
Stagnation household history and society helped personality
People begin Instinctual Generativity: A widening Unwillingness to Work and
to take place drive to generations commitment take certain Home Psychohistory
in society perpetuate of new to take care persons or
 controversial field that combines psychoanalytic concepts with historical methods
and assume species; beings, of the groups; self-
responsibility Includes products and persons, the centeredness,  study of individual and collective life with the combined methods of psychoanalysis and
for whatever assuming ideas products, provincialism, history
society responsibility Stagnation: and the Pseudospeciation:  studied Martin Luther and Mahatma Gandhi
produces for the care too self- ideas one other group of
of offspring absorbed in has learned people are E. RELATED RESEARCH
themselves, to care for inferior to one’s
too self- own
indulgent Generativity and Parenting
  Dan McAdams and Collegaues (1999) developed the Loyola Generativity Scale that measure
the generativity
 Peterson (2006) investigated the impact of parental generativity on the development of
children
 result: children of highly generative parents had more confidence, sense of freedom and we
just generally happy. Also, they had a stronger future time orientation meaning they spent
time thinking about future. If parents are overly self-absorbed and self-indulgent, then they
are spending less time being concerned about the well-being of their children
 also known as humanistic theory, transpersonal theory, the third force in psychology, the
fourth force in personality, needs theory and self-actualization theory
 assumes that the whole person is constantly being motivated by one need or another and
that people have the potential to grow toward psychological health, that is, self-
actualization
 to attain self-actualization, people must satisfy lower level needs such as hunger, safety, love
and esteem
 only after they are relatively satisfied in each of these needs can they reach self-actualization

Generativity versus Stagnation Forces in Psychology

 measure both separately and then measure several outcomes 1. Psychoanalysis
 Van Hiel and Colleagues (2006) try to see how these two constructs match up to important 2. Behaviorism
outcomes 3. Humanism
 result: supported the new proposition that stagnation and generativity should be considered
independently; there are individuals who are high on both generativity and stagnation and A. BIOGPRAGHY OF MASLOW
the such a personality profile is not healthy in terms of mental and emotional well-being
Full name: Abraham Harold (Abe) Maslow
F. CRITIQUE OF ERIKSON Birthday: April 1, 1908
Birthplace: Manhattan, New York
 generate research: (high) most of his topic stimulated active empirical investigation Father: Samuel Maslow
 falsifiability: (average) many findings from this body of research can be explained by theories Mother: Rose Schilosky Maslow
other than erikson’s developmental stages theory Wife: Bertha Goodman
 organize knowledge: does not adequately address such issues as personal traits or Death: June 8, 1970 (massive heartattack)
motivation Deathplace: California?
 guide to action: provides many general guidelines but offers little specific advice
 internal consistency: (high) terms used to label the different psychosocial crises, basic Significant part of his life
strengths and core pathologies are very carefully chosen  most lonely and miserable childhood
 parsimony: (moderate) precision of its terms is a strength but the descriptions of  not especially close to either parent but felt hatred and deep-seated animosity toward his
psychosexual and psychosocial crises are not always clearly differentiated mother
 learned to hate and mistrust religion and to become a committed atheist because of the
G. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY punishment of God as a threat of his mother
 close friendship with his cousin Will Maslow that helped him developed some social skills
1. determinism and was involved in several school activities
2. optimistic  quit law school because he think that it dealt too much with evil people and was not
3. causality sufficiently concerned with the good
4. both conscious and unconscious  fell in love Bertha Goodman (his cousin)
5. social influences  had Edward B. Titchener as his professor in introductory psychology
6. uniqueness  interested in John B. Watson’s behaviourism that leads him to take psychology course to
meet prerequisite for a PhD in psychology
MASLOW: HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC THEORY  quit medical school because he thinks that it reflected an unemotional and negative view of
people and he was both disturbed and bored by his experiences in medical school
Holistic-Dynamic Theory  scored 195 in Intelligence Test
  association with Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Max Wertheimer, Alfred Adler and Kurt
Goldstein
B. MASLOW’S VIEW OF MOTIVATION
Basic Assumptions Regarding Motivation:
 holistic approach to motivation: the whole person, not any single part or function, is
motivated
 motivation is usually complex: a person’s behavior may spring from several separate
motives (eg: sexual union is motivated not only by genital need but also needs for
dominance, companionship, love and self-esteem
 people are continually motivated by one need or another: when one need is satisfied, it
ordinarily loses its motivational power and is then replaced by another (eg: hunger  food
 safety  so on)
 all people everywhere are motivated by the same basic needs: fundamental needs for
food, safety and friendship are common to the entire species
 needs can be arranged on a hierarchy: in order
Hierarchy of Needs
 assumes that lower level needs must be satisfied or at least relatively satisfied before higher
level needs become motivators
 these basic needs are also known as conative needs
 basic needs can be arranged on a hierarchy or staircase, with each ascending step
representing a higher need one less basic to survival
 they must be satisfied or mostly satisfied before higher level needs become ativated
o food, water, oxygen, maintenance of body temperature, and so on
o needs are the physical requirements for human survival; most basic needs of any
person
o only needs that can be completely satisfied or even overly satisfied
o recurring nature
2. Safety Needs (approximately 75%)
o physical security, stability, dependency, protection, freedom from threating forces, law,
order and structure
o cannot be overly satisfied
o people spend more far more energy than do healthy people trying to satisfy safety
needs, and when they are nt successful in their attempts, they suffer from Basic
Anxiety
3. Love and Belongingness Needs (approximately 50%)
o desire for friendship, wish for a mate and children, need to belong to a family, club,
neighbourhood or a nation, sex and human contact
o people who had their love and belongingness do not feel devastated when other
people reject them
o people who never experienced love and belongingness are incapable of giving love;
seldom or never been hugged, or cuddled nor experienced any form of verbal love will
eventually learn to devalue love and to take absence for granted
o people who have received only a little amount of lave have stronger needs for affection
and acceptance than do people who have received either a healthy amount of love or
no love at all
4. Esteem Needs (approximately 40%)
o self-respect, confidence, competence and the knowledge that others hold them in high
esteem
o divided into two levels known as reputation and self-esteem
 Reputation: perception of the prestige, recognition or fame a person has achieved
in the eyes of others
 Self-Esteem: desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for mastery and
competence, for confidence, in the face of the world, and for independence and
freedom
5. Self-Actualization (approximately 10%)
o self-fulfilment; the realization of all one’s potential, and a desire to become creative in
the full sense of the world
o people who have reached the level of self-actualization become fully human, satisfying
needs that others merely glimpse or never view at all
o self-actualizing people maintain their feeling of self-esteem even when scorned,
rejected and dismissed by other people

3 other needs:
1. Physiological Needs (approximately 85%) 6. Aesthetic Needs
 o need for beauty and aesthetically pleasing experiences
o desire beautiful and orderly surroundings, and when these needs are not met, they
become sick in the same way that they become sick when their conative needs are
frustrated
7. Cognitive needs
o a desire to know, to solve mysteries, to understand and to be curious
o when cognitive needs are blocked, all needs on Maslow’s hierarchy are threatened;
that is, knowledge is necessary to satisfy each of the five conative needs
o people who have not satisfied their cognitive needs become pathological, a pathology
that takes the form of scepticism, disillusionment and cynicism
8. Neurotic needs
o lead only to stagnation and pathology
o perpetuate an unhealthy style of life and have no value in the striving for self-
actualization
General Discussion of Needs
 Reversed Order of Needs
o even though needs are generally satisfied in the hierarchical order, they are
occasionally reversed
o Reversals are usually more apparent than real, and some seemingly obvious deviation n
the order of needs are not variations at all. If we understood the unconscious
motivation underlying the behavior, we would recognize that the needs are not
reversed
 Unmotivated Behavior
o not all determinants are motives
o some behavior is not caused by needs but by other factors such as conditioned reflexes,
maturation or motivated
o motivation is limited to the striving for the satisfaction of some needs (eg: expressive
behavior is umotivated)
 Expressive and Coping Behavior
o Expressive behavior is often unmotivated, frequently unconscious and usually takes
place naturally and with little effort, has no goals or aim but is merely the person’s
mode of expression (eg: slouching, showing anger, frown, blush and so on)
o Coping behavior is always motivated and aimed at satisfying a need, ordinarily
conscious, effortful, earned and determined by the external motivation (eg: cope with
the environment, secure food and shelter, make friends and so on)
 Deprivation of Needs
o lack of satisfaction of any of the basic needs leads to some kind of pathology or
metapathology (absence of values, lack of fulfilment and the loss of meaning in life)
o eg: deprivation of physiological needs  malnutrition, fatigue, loss of energy
o Instinctoid Nature of Needs
 some human needs are innately determined even though they can be modified by
learning
 critera for separating instinctoid needs from noninstinctoid needs:
 thwarting of instinctoid needs produces pathology, whereas the frustration of
noninstinctoid needs does not
 instinctoid needs are persistent and their satisfaction leads to psychological
health while noninstinctoid needs are usually temporary and their satisfaction
is not a prerequisite for health
 instinctoid needs are species-specific
 instinctoid needs can be molded, inhibited, or altered by environmental
influences
 Comparison of Higher and Lower Needs
o Higher Level Needs (love, esteem, and self-actualization)
 later on the phylogenetic or evolutionary scale
 produce more happiness and more peak experience
o Lower Level Needs (physiological and safety)
 must be cared for an infants and children before higher level needs become
operative
 produce a degree of pleasure (However, Hedonistic Pleasure is usually temporary
and not comparable to the quality of happiness produced by the satisfaction of
higher needs
C. SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Max Wertheimer and Ruth Benedict represented the highest level of human development – self-
actualization
Maslow’s Quest for the Self-Actualizing Person
 Maslow was searching for a Good Human Being
 found a number of older people who seemed to have some of the characteristics but he
ended up disappointed after interviewing, then he concluded that emotional security and
good adjustment were not dependable predictors of a Good Human Being
 Good Human Being  Self-Actualizing Person
 he tried to find a personality syndrome that had never been clearly identified and many of
the people he believed to be self-actualizing refused to participate in his search
 “What makes Max Wertheimer and Ruth Benedict self-actualizing?”  “Why we are not all
self-actualizing?”
 he identify a syndrome for psychological health  select a sample  studied those people
to build a personality syndrome  refined his original definition  reselected potential self-
actualizers (retaining some, eliminating others and adding new ones)
 o unconventional but not compulsively so; highly ethical but may appear unethical or
nonconforming
o ordinarily live some lives in the sense that they have no need to erect a complex veneer
Criteria for Self-Actualization designed to deceive the world
1. They were free from psychopathology o unpretentious and not afraid or ashamed to express deeply felt emotions
2. Self-actualizing people had progressed through hierarchy of needs 4. Problem Centering
3. Embracing the B-Values o their interest in problems outside themselves
4. Fulfilled their needs to grow, to develop, and to increasingly become what they were o this interest allow them to develop a mission in life, a purpose for living that spreads
capable of becoming beyond aggrandizement
o extend their frame of reference far beyond self
Values for Self-Actualizers 5. The Need for privacy
 B-Values o have a quality of detachment that allows them to be alone without being lonely
o “Being” Values o feel relaxed and comfortable when they are either with people or alone
o eternal verities o spend little energy attempting to impress others or trying to gain love and acceptance
o indicators of psychological health and are opposed to deficiency needs, which motivate and have more ability to make responsible choices
non-self-actualizers
o termed as “metaneeds” to indicate that they are the ultimate level of needs 6. Autonomy
o 14 B-Values: truth, goodness, beauty, wholeness or transcendence of dichotomies, o autonomous and depend on themselves for growth
aliveness or spontaneity, uniqueness, perfection, completion, justice and order, o can be ahcived only through satisfactory relations with others
simplicity, richness or totality, effortlessness, playfulness or humor, and self-sufficiency 7. Continued Freshness of Appreciation
or autonomy o have the wonderful capacity to appreciate again and again, freshly and naively, the
o when metaneeds are not met, people experience illness, an existential illness basic goods of life, with awe, pleasure, wonder and even ecstasy
o absence of the B-values leads to pathology just as surely as lack of food results in 8. The Peak Experience
malnutrition o experiences that were mystical in nature and that somehow gave a feeling of
 Metamotivation transcendence
o motives of self-actualizing people o quite natural and are part of human makeup
o characterized by expressive rather than coping behavior and is associated with B-values o people having a peak experience see the whole universe as unified or all in one piece
and they see clearly their place in that universe
Characteristics of Self-Actualizing People 9. Gemeinshaftsgefuhl
1. More Efficient Perception of Reality o social interest, community feeling, or a sense of oneness with all humanity
o can discriminate between the genuine and the fake o kind of caring attitude toward other people
o not fooled by facades and can see both positive and negative underlying traits in others o have genuine interest in helping others
that are not readily apparent to most people 10. Profound Interpersonal Relation
o perceive ultimate values more clearly than other people do and are less prejudiced and o special quality of interpersonal relations that involves deep and profound feeligns for
less likely to see the world as they wish it to be individuals
2. Acceptance of Self, Others and Nature o no frantic needs to be friends with everyone, but the few important interpersonal
o can accept themselves the way they are relationship they have are quite deep and intense
o lack defensiveness, phoniness and self-defeating guilt 11. The Democratic Character Structure
o not overly critical of their own shortcomings and are not burdened by undue anxiety or o democratic values
shame o could be friendly and considerate with other people regardless of class, color, age or
o they accept others and have the compulsive need to instruct, inform or convert gender; have a desire to learn from anyone
3. Spontaneity, Simplicity and Naturalness o desire and ability to learn from anyone
 12. Discrimination Between Means and Ends
o have a clear sense of right and wrong conduct and have little conflict about basic values Personal Orientation Inventory
o set their sights on ends rather than means and have an unusual ability to distinguish  measures the values and behaviors of self-actualizing people
between the two  2 major scales: 1. Time Competence/Time Incompetence Scale; 2. Support Scale
13. Philosophical Sense of Humor  10 subscales: 1. self-actualization values; 2. flexibility in applying values; 3. sensitivity to
o philosophical, nonhostile sense of humor one’s own needs and feelings; 4. spontaneity in expressing feelings behaviourally; 5. self-
o see little humor in put-down jokes regard; 6. self-acceptance; 7. positive view of humanity; 8. ability to see opposites of life as
o poke fun at themselves, but not masochistically so meaningfully related; 9. acceptance of aggression; and 10. capacity for intimate contact
o make fewer tries at humor than others, but their attempts serve a purpose beyond  limitations: 1. long, taking most participants 30 to 45 minutes to comple; 2. 2-item forced-
making people laugh choice format can engender hostility in the participants, who feel frustrated by the limitation
14. Creativeness of a forced-choice option
o creative in the sense of the word
o keen perception of truth, beauty and reality – ingredients that form the foundation of Short Index of Self-Actualization
true creativity  made to resolve the limitation of Personal Orientation Inventory
15. Resistance to Enculturation  borrows 15 items from the POI that are most strongly correlated with the total self-
o have a sense of detachment from their surrounding and are able to transcend a actualization score
particular culture  6-point likert scale
o neither antisocial nor consciously non-conforming
o autonomous, following their own standards of conduct and not blindly obeying the Brief Index of Self-Actualization
rules of others  40 items placed on a 6-point likert scale and thus yields scores from 40 to 240
o more individualized and less homogenized than others  four factors: 1. core self-actualization (full use of one’s potentials); 2. autonomy; 3.
openness to experience; 4. comfort with solitude
Love, Sex and Self-Actualization
 Self-Actualizing people are capable of both giving and receiving love and are no longer
motivated by the kind of deficiency love (D-love) common to other people F. JONAH COMPLEX
 Self-actualizing people are capable of B-love, that is, love for the essence or “Being” of the
other  fear of being one’s best
 B-love is mutually felt and shared and not motivated by a deficiency or incompleteness  characterized by attempts to run away from one’s destiny just as the biblical Jonah tried to
within the lover escape from his fate
 Not dominated by sex  represents fear of success, a fear of being one’s best and a feeling of awesomeness in the
presence of beauty and perfection
D. PHILOSPHY OF SCIENCE
Why do people run away from greatness and self-fulfillment?
 Maslow argued for a different philosophy of science, a humanistic, holistic approach that is  the human body is simply not strong enough to endure the ecstasy of fulfilment for any
not value free and that has scientists who care about the people and topics they investigate length of time, just as peak experiences and sexual orgasms would be overly taxing if they
 Psychological should place more emphasis on the study of the individual and less on the lasted too long
study of large groups  People have a private ambition to be great. However, when they compare themselves with
 desacralization: type of science that lacks emotion, joy, wonder, ae and rapture those who have accomplished greatness, they are appalled by their own arrogance
 resacralize: instilled with human values, emotion and ritual
 taoistic attitude: noninterfering, passive and receptive G. PSYCHOTHERAPY

E. MEASURING SELF-ACTUALIZATION Maslownian Therapy?

  The aim of the therapy would be for client to embrace the being values, that is, to value
truth, justice, goodness, simplicity, and so forth.
 Client must be free from independency on others so that their natural impulse toward
growth and self-actualization could become active.
 Largely an internal process
 Through a warm, loving, interpersonal relationship with the therapist, the client gains
satisfaction of love and belongingness needs and thereby acquires feelings of confidence
and self-worth
 result: intrinsic and exploratory goals were positively correlated with maturity and
personality development; people who are driven by happiness and need for conceptual
understanding tend to be higher in ego-development and well0being; people high in
exploratory growth goals were especially high in ego-development, and those high in
intrinsic growth goals were especially high in well-being; older adults had higher life
satisfaction than younger adults
I. CRITIQUE OF MASLOW

H. RELATED RESEARCH  generate research: (above average) self-actualization remains a popular topic with
researchers, and the test of self-actualization have facilitated efforts to investigate this
Lower and Higher Needs illusive concept
 Reiss and Havercamp (2006) studied if the lower order needs must be met early in life,  falsifiability: (low) researchers remained handicapped in their ability to falsify or confirm
whereas the higher order needs such as self-actualization tend to be fulfilled later in life Maslow’s means of identifying self-actualizing people
 result: if people can secure the most basic needs early in life, they have more time and  organize knowledge: quite consistent with common sense
energy to focus on achieving the highest reaches of human existence later in life  guide a practitioner: highly useful
 internal consistency: has a consistency and precision that give it popular appeal
Positive Psychology  parsimonious: a hierarchy of needs model with only five steps gives the theory a deceptive
 relatively new field of psychology that combines an emphasis on hope, optimism, and well- appearance of simplicity
being with scientific research and assessment
 Maslow’s influence: role of positive experiences in people’s lives J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
 Burton and King (2004) predicted that writing about these peak or intensely positive
experiences would be associated with beter physical health in the months following the 1. determinism and free choice
writing exercise 2. optimism
 result: those who wrote about positive experiences, compared to those in a control 3. conscious and unconscious
condition who wrote about nonemotional topics, visited the doctors fewer times for illness 4. biological and social influences
during after writing 5. uniqueness and similarities
 Sonja Lyubomirskly and Collegues (2006) investigated whether or not just thinking about 6. teleological
past positive experiences would have benefits comparable to or even greater than the ROGERS: PERSON-CENTERED THEORY
benefits derived from writing about such experiences
 result: those who were instructed to simply think about these experiences for 15 minutes a Carl Rogers
day for 3 consecutive days reported greater well-being 1 month later than those who wrote  founder of Client-Centered Therapy
about such experiences for the same time period  more concerned with helping people than with discovering why they behaved as they did
 wrote a “client-centered” theory of personality
Personality Development, Growth and Goals
 Jan Bauer and Dan McAdams (2004) assumed the existence of two kinds of approaches to A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ROGERS
growth and development – extrinsic and intrinsic.
 Extrinsic Development: primary cognitive and revolves around one’s ability to think Full name: Carl Ransom Rogers
complexly about one’s life goals (fame, money physical appearance, status and power) Birthday: January 8, 1902
 Intrinsic Development: primarily emotional and revolves around one’s ability to feel better Birthplace: Oak Park, Illinois
about one’s life (satisfaction, happiness, personal growth and healthy interpersonal Father: Walter Rogers
relationships) Mother: Julia Cushing Rogers
Wife: Helen Elliott
Children: David Rogers and Natalie Rogers Basic Assumptions
Death: February 4, 1987  Formative Tendency
Deathplace: California o a tendency for all matter to evolve from simpler to more complex form through
creative process
Significant part of his life: o eg: complex organisms develop from single cells
 closer to his mother than his father  Actualizing Tendency
 interest: farmer  religion  medicine? o tendency within all humans to move toward completion or fulfilment of potentials
 gained elementary knowledge of Freudian Psychoanalysis, but was not much influenced by o tendency all motive people possess
it, even though he tried out in his practice o involves the whole person because each person operates as one complete organism
 attended a lecture by Alfred Adler who shared his contention that an elaborate case history o possible in animals and plants also
was unnecessary for psychotherapy o life’s master motive
 strongly influenced by Otto Rank, who had been one of Freud’s closest associates before his o Maintenance
dismissal from Freud’s inner circle  basic needs such as food, air and safety
 give emphasis on the importance of growth within the patient (client)  includes the tendency to resist change and to seek the status quo
 his therapy evolved from nondirective technique to client-therapist relationship  expressed in people’s desire to protect their current, comfortable self-concept
 formed the Center Studies of the Person o Enhancement
 proposed that interpersonal relationship between two individuals is a powerful ingredient  need to become more, to develop and to achieve growth
that cultivates psychological growth within both person  need for enhancing the self Is seen in people’s willingness to learn things that are
not immediately rewarding
B. PERSON CENTERED THEORY  people are willing to face threat and pain because of a biologically based tendency
for the organism to fulfill its basic nature
 Nondirective  Client-centered Person-Centered  Student-Centered Group-Centered o whenever congruence, unconditional positive regard, and empathy are present in a
 Person to Person relationship, psychological growth will invariably occur
 Theory: Person-Centered Theory o this three condition are both necessary and sufficient conditions for becoming a fully
functioning or self-actualizing person
 Therapy: Client-Centered Therapy
o Organismic Valuing Process (OVP): monitoring system of individuals to distinguish
 if-then framework
experiences that promotes or hinders actualization
 eg: if the therapist is congruent and communicates unconditional positive regard and
accurate empathy to the client, then therapeutic change will occur; if therapeutic change
The Self and Self-Actualization
occurs, then the client will experience more self-acceptance, greater trust of self and so on.
 infants begin to develop a vague concept of self when a portion of their experience becomes
personalized and differentiated in awareness as “I” or “me” experiences
Roger’s Phenomenological Position
 Self-actualization is a subset of the actualization tendency and not synonymous with it
 a phenomenological perspective holds that what is real to an individual is that which exists
 Actualizing Tendency: refers to organismic experiences of the individual (whole person)
within that person’s frame of reference, or subjective world, concluding everything in his
awareness at any point in time  Self-Actualization: tendency to actualize the self as perceived in awareness
 a person’s sense do not directly mirror the world by reality; instead, effective reality is as it is  If organism and perceived self are in harmony, the actualization tendencies and self-
observed and interpreted by the reacting organism actualization are nearly identical; If not, a discrepancy exists between the two.
 2 self subsystmes:
Here and Now (ahistorical) o The Self-Concept
 in order for us to understand why a person behave in such a way, we do not need to dig into  all those aspects of one’s being and one’s experiences that are perceived in
his or her past. instead we must understand the person’s relationship to the environment as awareness
he now exist and perceives it  not identical with organismic self (may be beyond awareness)
  composed of real self and ideal self
 Genuineness and Authenticity: being true to yourself and others by being aware
of owns feelings rather than presenting an outward facade
o The Ideal Self
 one’s view of self as one wishes to be
 contains all those attributes, usually positive that people aspire to possess
 gaps between the ideal self and self-concept indicates incongruence
Awareness
 Symbolic representation of some portion of our experience
 synonyms of conscious and symbolization
 Level of Awareness
o Some events are experiences below the threshold of awareness and are either ignored
or denied (preconscious – unconscious?)
o Some experiences are accurately symbolized and freely admitted to the self-structure
(you are what you are being described)
o Experiences perceived in a distorted form (involves reshaping and distorting to be
assimilated with our self)
 Denial of Positive Experiences
o Difficulty accepting genuine compliments and positive feedback even when deserved
o Compliments, even those genuinely dispensed, seldom have a positive influence on the
self-concept of the recipient
o may be distorted because the person distrusts the giver, or tey ma be denied because
te recipient does not feel deserving of them
Becoming A Person
 Individual must make contact – positive or negative – with another person
 As children become aware that another person has some measure of regard for them, they
begin to value positive regard and devalue negative regard
 Positive Regard: a need to be loved, like or accepted by another person
 Positive Self-Regard: experience of prizing or valuing one’s self; lies in the positive regard we
receive from others, but once established, it is autonomous and self-perpetuating
Barriers to Psychological Health
 Conditions of Worth: Perception that their parents, peers or partners love and accept them
only if they meet those people’s expectations and approval
o External Evaluation: our perceptions of other people’s view of us; prevent us from
being completely open to our own experiences
 Incongruence: a psychological disequilibrium between organismic experiences and self-
concept
o Vulnerability: the greater the incongruence, the more vulnerable we are; people are
vulnerable when they are unaware of the discrepancy between their organismic self
and their significant experience
o Anxiety and Threat: experienced as we gain awareness of such incongruence
 Defensiveness: protection of the self-concept against anxiety and threat by the denial or
distortion of experiences inconsistent with it
o (Perceptual) Distortion: we misinterpret an experience in order to fit into some aspect
of our self-concept
o Denial: we refuse to perceive an experience in awareness
 Disorganization: when the incongruence between people’s perceived self and their
organismic experience is either too obvious or occurs too suddenly to be denied or
distorted, their behavior becomes disorganized
C. PSYCHOTHERAPY
If-Then Framework: If conditions are present, then process will transpire; If process takes place, then
outcomes can be predicted
Rogerian Therapy
 Conditions
1. An anxious or vulnerable client must come into ocntact with a congruent therapist who
also possesses empathy and unconditional positive regard for that client
2. The client must perceive these characteristics in the therapist
3. The contact between client and therapist must be of some duration
o Congruence
 Exists when a person’s organismic experiences are matched by an awareness of
them and by an ability and willingness to openly express these feelings
 To be congruent means to be real or genuine, to be whole or integrated, to be
what one truly is
 Congruent Counselor: a complete human being with feelings of joy, anger,
frustration, confusion and so on.
 Source of Incongruence:
 breakdown between feelings and awareness
 discrepany between awareness of an experience and the ability or willingness
to express it
o Unconditional Positive Regard
 When the need to be liked, prized or accepted by another person exists without
any conditions or qualifications
 therapist should be experiencing a warm, positive and accepting attitude toward
what is the client
o Empathic Listening
 Exists when therapists accurately sense the feelings of their clients and are able to
communicate these perceptions so that clients know that another person has
entered their world of feeling without prejudice, projection or evaluation.
 Temporarily living in other’s life
  Process 7. greater richness in life
o Stages of Therapeutic Change
1. Unwillingness to communicate anything about oneself The Fully Functioning Person (going towards actualization) (Spark’s) (additional)
2. Clients become slightly less rigid 8. experiential freedom
3. They more freely talk about self, although still as an object 9. creativity
4. Begin to talk of deep feeling but not ones presently felt 10. accurate empathy (unconditional positive regard)
5. They have begun to undergo significant change and growth
6. Experience dramatic growth and an irreversible movement toward becoming fully E. PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
functioning or self-actualizing
7. Become fully functioning person Rogers: Scientist  Therapist  Personality Theorist
o Theoretical Explanation for Therapeutic Change
 when person comes to experience themselves as prized and unconditionally  Scientists must have many characteristics of the person of tomorrow
accepted, they realize, perhaps for the first time, that they are lovable  Scientists should be complete involved in the phenomena being studied
 when these persons come to prize themselves and to accurately understand  Scientists must care about and care for newly born ideas and nurture them lovingly through
themselves, their perceived self becomes more congruent with their organismic their fragile infancy
experiences  Science begins when an intuitive scientist starts to perceive patterns among phenomena
 they know possess the same three therapeutic characteristics as any effective  Scientists communicate findings from that method to others, but the communication itself Is
helper and in effect they become their own therapist subjective
 Outcomes
o more congruent ad less defensive F. THE CHICAGO STUDIES
o have a clearer picture of themselves
o more realistic view of the world Purpose
o better able to assimilate experiences into the self on symbolic level  to investigate both the process and the outcomes of client-centered therapy
o more effective in solving problems
o have a higher level of positive self-regard
o more accurate view of their potentials
o narrow the gap between the self-ideal and real self
o less physiological and psychological tension Hypotheses
o less vulnerable to threat  all person have within themselves the capacity, either or latent, for self-understanding as
o less anxiety well as the capacity and tendency to move in the direction and self-actualization and
o less likely to use others’ opinion maturity
o relationship with also improved  clients would assimilate into their self-concepts those feelings and experiences previously
denied to awareness
D. THE PERSON OF TOMORROW  the discrepancy between real self and ideal self would diminish and that the observed
behavior of clients would become more socialized, more self-accepting, and more accepting
Characteristics of The Person Of Tomorrow of others
1. more adaptable
2. open to their experiences (trust in their organismic selves) Method
3. live fully in the moment (existential living)  instruments: Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), Self-Other Attitude Scale (S-O Scale) and
4. harmonious relations with others Willoughby Emotional Maturity Scale (E-M Scale)
5. more integrated  relied on Q sort Technique by William Stephenson
6. have a basic trust of human nature
 therapeutic interviews
  2 different methods of control
1. participants (wait group and no wait group)
2. normal/volunteers (wait group and no wait goup)
Findings
 therapy group showed less discrepancy between self and ideal self after therapy than
before, and they retained almost all those gains through the follow-up period
 “normal” controls had a higher level of congruence than the therapy group at beginning of
the study, but in contrast to the therapy group, they showed almost no change in
congruence between self and self-ideal from the initial testing until the final follow up
Summary of Results
 people receiving client-centered therapy generally showed some growth or improvement
 however, improvement fell short of the optimum
 the therapy group began treatment as less healthy than the control group, showed growth
during therapy, and retained most of that improvement throughout the follow-up period
 however, they never attained the level of psychological health demonstrated by normal
people in the control group
G. RELATED RESEARCH
 result: the participants tended to rate the more fulfilling goals with increasing importance
over time and the materialistic goals with decreasing importance
 Schwartz and Waterman (2006) explored the extent to which having more self-realizing
experiences in which people are allowed to express who they really are is related to
experiencing more intrinsic motivation
 result: the more activities people engage in reflect self-realization, the more likely those
activities are to be interesting, self-expressive, and lead to an experience of “flow” – the
experience of being fully immersed and engaged in an experience to the point of losing track
of time and one’s sense of self
H. CRITIQUE OF ROGERS
 generate research: (average) moderately productive outside the psychotherapy and
classroom learning
 falsification: spelled his theory in an if-then framework, and such a paradigm lend itself to
either confirmation or disconfirmation
 organize knowledge: (high) can be extended to relatively wide range of human personality
 guide for the solution: unequivocal for the psychotherapist
 internally consistent: (very high) consistent and carefully worked-out operational definitions
 parsimonious: some of the language is awkward and vague

Self-Discrepancy Theory I. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

 E. Tory Higgins: argues that it is not only the real self-ideal self discrepancy can form mental
discomfort but also real self-ought self discrepancy 1. free choice
 Phillips and Silva (2005) clarifies the conditions under which self discrepancies predict 2. optimistic
emotional experience 3. teleology
 result: the phenomenon of experiencing negative emotion as a result of self discrepancies 4. uniqueness
occurred only among those participants who were highly self-aware 5. social influences
 Wolfe and Maisto (2000) predicted that the higher real-ideal self discrepancy would be 6. conscious?
related to greater alcohol consumption in a sample of university students
 result: a positive relationship between discrepancy and amount of wine consumed for the
low salience (filler task) group – only the greater the discrepancy, the more wine consumed;
MAY: EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
for the high salience group, the researchers found a small negative relationship – the greater
the discrepancy, the less wine consumed
Rollo May
 the foremost spokesperson for existential psychology in the United States
Motivation and Pursuing One’s Goals
 approach was not based on any controlled scientific research nut rather on clinical
 Organismic Valuing Process (OVP): a natural instinct directing us towards the most fulfilling
experience
pursuit; monitoring system of individuals to distinguish experiences that promotes or
 sae people as living in the world of present experiences and ultimately being responsible for
hinders actualization
who they become
 Ken Sheldon and Colleagues (2003) explored the existence of an OVP in college students by
 believed that many people lack the courage to face their destiny so they give up much of
designing studies that ask students to rate the importance of several goals repeatedly over
their freedom and then they run away from their responsibility; not being willing to make
the course of multiple week
 choice, people lose sight of who they are and develop a sense of insignificance and  concerned with both the experiencing person and the person’s experience
alienation  sought to overcome the dichotomy of reason and emotion by turning people’s attentions to
 in contrast, healthy people challenge their destiny, cherish their freedom and live the reality of the immediate experience which underlies both subjectivity and objectivity
authentically with other people and with themselves. they recognize the inevitability of  emphasized a balance between freedom and responsibility
death and have the courage to live life in the present
Other people involved in Existentialism
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF MAY  Friedrich Neitzsche, Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Binswanger, Medard Boss, Karl Jaspers, Victor
Frankl, Jean-Paul Sarre, Alrmert Camus, Martin Buber, Paul Tillich
Full name: Rollo Reese May
Birthday: April 21, 1909 What is Existentialism?
Birthplace: Ada, Ohio  Existence takes precedence over essence (people’s essence is their power to continually
Father: Earl Tittle May redefine themelves through choices they make)
Mother: Matie Boughton May  Existentialism opposes the split between subject and object (people are both subjective
Wifre: Florence DeFrees, Ingrid Kepler Scholl, Georgia Lee Miller Johnson and objective and must search for truth by living active and authentic lives)
Children: Rober, Allegra, and Carolyn May  People search for some meaning to their lives (who am I?,..)
Death: October 22, 1994  Existentialists hold that ultimately each of us is responsible for who we are and what we
Deathplace: Tiburon, California become (we cannot blame parents, teachers, employers, God, or circumstances)
 Existentialists are basically antitheoretical (theories further dehumanize people and render
Significant part of his life them as objects)
 his early intellectual climate was virtually non-existent
 not particularly close to either of his parents Basic Concepts
 attributed his own two failed marriages to his mother’s unpredictable behavior and to his  Being-in-the-World (Dasein)
older sister’s psychotic episode o the basic unity of person and environment is Dasein – meaning to exist there
 St. Claire River became his friend o Being-in-the-World: the hyphens in this term imply a oneness of subject and object of
 listen to his innver voice, the one that spoke to him of beauty person and world
 admired Adler and learned much about human behavior and about himself o Alienation (isolation that brings anxiety and despair) is the illness of ourtime, and it
 enter seminary to ask the ultimate questions concerning the nature of human beings manifests itself in 3 areas:
 learned much of his philosophy from Tillich  separation from nature
 met Sullivan and was impressed with his notion that the therapist is participant observer  lack of meaningful interpersonal relations
and that therapy is a human adventure capable of enhancing the life of both patient and  alienation from one’s authentic self
therapist
 met and was influenced by Erich Fromm o Thus, people experience 3 simultaneous modes in their being-in-the-world:
 admired by Freud but he was more deeply moved by Keirkegaard’s view of anxiety as a  Umwelt: the environment around us
struggle against nonbeing, that is, loss of consciousness  Mitwelt: our relations with other people
 best known American representative of the existential movement  Eigenwelt: oure relationship with ourself
 Nonbeing
B. BACKGROUND OF EXISTENTIALISM o The dread of not being
o nothingness
Soren Kierkegaard o to grasp what it means to exist, one needs to grasp the fact that he might not exist
 where existential psychology rooted o life is more vital, more meaningful when we confront the possibility of our death
 concerned with the increasing trend in postindustrial societies toward the dehumanization o can be expressed in other forms such as: addiction, sexual activity, compulsive
of people behaviors, blind conformity to society’s expectations
 o the fear of death or nonbeing often provokes us to live defensive and to receive less  If anxiety arises when people are faced with the problem of fluffing their potentialities, guilt
from than if we would confront the issue of our nonexistence arises when people deny their potentialities, fail to accurate perceive the needs of fellow
humans, or remain oblivious to their dependence on the natural world
C. THE CASE OF PHILIP  3 forms of ontological guilt:
o Umwelt
 Existential Psychology is concerned with the individual’s struggle to work through life’s  also called as separation guilt
experiences and to grow toward becoming more fully human.  arise from a lack of awareness of one’s being-in-the-world
 Cast: Nicole and Philip  alienation from the nature
 Nicole cheated 3 times but Philip is still trying to understand her o Mitwelt
 Philip wished to accept Nicole’s behavior, but on another, he felt betrayed by her affairs, Yet  stems from people’s inability to perceive accurately the world of others
e did not seem to be able to leave her and to search for another women to love  can see other people only through our own eyes and can never perfectly judge the
 he was paralyzed – unable to change his relationship with Nicole but also unable to break it eeds of these other people
off o Eigenwelt
 denial of our own potentialities or with our failure to fulfill them
D. ANXIETY  grounded in our relationship with self

Much of human behavior is motivated by an underlying sense of dread and anxiety. F. INTENTIONALITY
The failure to confront death serves as a temporary escape from the anxiety or dread of nonbeing. But
the escape cannot be permanent. Intentionality
Death is the one absolute of life that sooner or alter everyone must face.  Structure that give meaning to experiences and allow people to make decision about the
Philip was suffering from neurotic anxiety. Like others who experience neurotic anxiety, he behaved in future
a nonproductive, self-defeating manner. Although he was deeply hurt by Nicole’s unpredictable and  structure of meaning which makes it possible for us, subjects that we are, to see and
“crazy” behavior, he became paralyzed with inaction and could not break off their relationship. understand the outside world, objective that it is
 made the dichotomy between the subject and object partially overcome
Anxiety  action implies intentionality as intentionality implies action
 experienced by people when they become aware that their existence or some value  sometimes unconscious (eg: case of Philip)
identified with it might be destroyed
 subjective state of the individual’s becoming aware that his existence can be destroyed, that G. CARE, LOVE AND WILL
he can become nothing
 a threat to some important value Care
 acquisition of freedom leads to anxiety  to care for someone means to recognize that person as a fellow human being, to identify
 Normal Anxiety with that person’s pain or joy, guilt or pity
o proportionate to the threat, does not involve repression, and can be confronted  active process, opposite of apathy
constructively on the conscious level  state in which something does matter
 Neurotic Anxiety  source of love and will
o reaction which is disproportionate to the threat, involves repression and other forms of
intrapsychic conflict, and is managed by various kinds of blocking-off of activity and Love
awareness  to love means to care, to recognize the essential humanity of the other person, to have an
active regard for that person’s development
E. GUILT  delight in the presence of the other person and an affirming of that person’s development as
much as one’s own
Guilt  without care, there can be no love – only empty sentimentality or transient sexual arousal
Will Freedom
 the capacity to organize one’s self so that movement in a certain direction or toward a  individual’s capacity to know that he is the determined (destined) one
certain goal may take place  comes from an understanding of our destiny: an understanding that death is a possibility at
 different from wish any moment, that we are male and female, that we have inherent weaknesses, that early
childhood experiences dispose us toward certain patterns of behavior
Union of Love and Will  possibility of changing, although we may not know what those changes might be.
 unhealthy division of love and will: Love has become associated with sensual love or sex,  entails being able to harbor different possibilities in one’s mind even though it is not clear at
whereas will have come to mean a dogged determination or will power. the moment which way one must act
 When love is seen as sex, it becomes temporary and lacking in commitment; there is no will,  often leads to normal anxiety
but only wish.
 When will is seen as will power, it becomes self-serving and lacking in passion; there is no Forms of Freedom
care, but only manipulation.  Existential Freedom
 people’s task is to unite love and will o It is the freedom of action—the freedom of doing
 for the mature person, both love and will mean a reaching out toward another person, both o freedom to act on the choices that one makes
involve care, both necessitate choice, both imply action and both require responsibility  Essential Freedom
o freedom of being
Forms of Love:
 Sex Destiny
o a biological function that can be satisfied through sexual intercourse or some other  The design of the universe speaking through the design of each one of us
release of sexual tension  ultimate destiny of human: death
o physiological that seeks gratification through the release of tension  includes other biological properties such as intelligence, gender, size and strength
o plain sex, manipulation of organ, pleasure  our destination, our terminus, our goal
 Eros
o a psychological desire that seeks procreation or creation through an enduring union The paradox is that freedom owes its vitality to destiny, and destiny owes its significance to freedom
with a loved one Philip’s Destiny
o making love, union  Philip, like other people, had the freedom to change his destiny, but first he had to recognize
o combination of sex and philia his biological, social, and psychological limitations.
 Philia  Philip lacked both the understanding and the courage to confront his destiny.
o an intimate nonsexual friendship between two people  As Philip came to terms with his destiny, he began to be able to express his anger, to feel
o cannot be rushed; it takes time to grow, to develop, to sink its roots. less trapped in his relationship with Nicole, and to become more aware of his possible. In
o does not require that we do anything for the beloved except accept him, be with him, other words, he gained his freedom of being
enjoy him
o friendship in the simplest, most direct terms I. THE POWER OF MYTH
 Agape
o esteem for the other, the concern for the other’s welfare beyond any gain that one can Myths
get out of it; disinterested love, tupically the love of God for man  not falsehoods; rather, they are conscious and unconscious belief systems that provide
o spiritual love that carries with it the risk of playing God. It does not depend on any explanation for personal and social problems
behaviors or characteristics of the other person.  like a support beams in a house – not visible from the outside, but they hold the house
o altruistic, undeserved, unconditional together and make it habitable
 stories that unify a society; they are essential to the process of keeping our souls alive and
H. FREEDOM AND DESTINY bringing us new meaning in a difficult and often meaningless world
  eg: Oedipus Story  Jamie Goldenberg and Colleagues (2001) conducted a study to investigate the extent to
which mortality salience would lead to greater denial of our animal nature
2 levels of people’s communication:  result: disgust reactions were greatest adter death had been made salient and even more so
 through rationalistic language: truth takes precedence over the people who are when there had been a delay between mortality salience and disgust evaluations
communicating.  Cathy Cox and Colleagues (2007) extended the findings of Goldenberg and colleagues by
 through myths: the total human experience is more important than the empirical accuracy investigating a very specific type of disgust reaction related to our animal nature: breast-
of the communication. feeding
 result: when their own mortality is made more slient, people tend to be increasingly
J. PSYCHOPATHOLOGY disgusted by creaturely behaviors such as breast-feeding

 According to May, apathy and emptiness—not anxiety and guilt—are the malaise of
modern times.
 When people deny their destiny or abandon their myths, they lose their purpose for being;
they become directionless.
 Without some goal or destination, people become sick and engage in a variety of self-
defeating and self-destructive behaviors
 Psychopathology is due to lack of communication – the inability to know others and to
share oneself with them
 Psychologically disturbed individuals deny their destiny and thus lose their freedom
Fitness as a Defense Against Mortality Awareness
 Arndt and Colleagues (2007) examined the prediction that mortality salience should
therefore increase both reasons for wanting to exercise, namely increasing fitness and
looking better (self-esteem)
 results: mortality salience did immediately increase intention to exercise relative to the
painful dental procedure condition; fitness self-esteem also was not related to intention to
exercise
 overall results: the idea that people may well be motivated to undertake behaviors that fight
against death and disease when their own morality is made salient, especially if exercise is a
relevant source of their self-esteem

K. PSYCHOTHERAPY
Existential Therapy
 Psychotherapy should make people more human
 In becoming human, help them expand their consciousness so that they will be in a better
position to make choices – leading to simultaneous growth of freedom and responsibility
 May insisted that psychotherapy must be concerned with helping people experience their
existence, and that relieving symptoms is merely a by-product of that experience.
 Our task is to help patients get to the point where they can decide whether they wish to
remain victims or whether they choose to leave this victim-state and venture through
purgatory with the hope of achieving some sense of paradise.
K. CRITIQUE OF MAY
 generate scientific research: (very low) may did not formulate his views in theoretical
structure and a paucity of hypotheses is suggested by his writings
 falsified: (very low) theory is too amorphous to suggest specific hypotheses that could either
confirm or disconform its major concepts
 organize knowledge: (average) neglect several important topics in human personality
 guide to action: (weak) gathered his views more from philosophical than from scientific
sources
 internal consistency: never presented operational definitions of some terms
 parsimony: (moderate) dealt with complex issued and did not attempt to oversimplify
human personality

Fantasy Conversation L. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

 client’s speaking both for himself and his fantasies (could be other people)
1. free choice
J. RELATED RESEARCH 2. optimistic
3. teleology
Mortality Salience and Denial of Our Animal Nature 4. conscious and unconscious
 Terror Management Theory: humans are first and foremost motivated by fear of death 5. social and biological influences
6. uniqueness
ALLPORT: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE INDIVIDUAL Allport believed that psychologically healthy humans are motivated by present, mostly conscious drives
and that they not only seek to reduce tensions but to establish new ones.
Psychology of the Individual He also believed that people are capable of proactive behavior, which suggests that they can
consciously behave in new and creative ways that foster their own change and growth.
 emphasized the uniqueness of the individual
 Allport believed that attempts to describe people in terms of general traits rob them of their
What is Personality?
unique individuality
 the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his environment  characteristic behavior and
Morphogenic Science
thought
 used by Allport in his study
 changed that last part because he thought the first implied that people merely adapt to their
 study of the individual
environment
 those that gather data on a single individual
 conveyed the idea that behavior is expressive as well as adaptive; people not only adjust to
their environment, but also reflect on it and interact with it in such a way as to cause their
Nomothetic Method
environment to adjust to them
 used by other theorists
 dynamic organization implies an integration or interrelatedness of the various aspects of
 gather data in groups of people
personality
 psychophysical emphasizes the importance of both the psychological and physical aspects of
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ALLPORT
personality
 determine suggests that personality is something and does something
Full name: Gordon Willlard Allport
Birthday: November 11, 1897  personality is not merely the mask we wear, nor is it simply behavior but the individual
Birthplace: Montezuma, Indiana behind the façade, the person behind the action
Father: John E. Allport (Physician)  characteristic implies individual or unique
Mother: Nellie Wise Allport  behavior (external) and thought (internal) refers to anything the person does
Wife: Ada Lufkin Gould Allport (Clinical Psychologist)  this definition suggests that human beings are both product and process; people have some
Child: Robert Allport (Pediatrician) organized structure while, at the same time, they possess the capability of change; pattern
that coexists with growth, order with diversification
Significant part of his life 
 early interest in philosophical and religious questions and had more facility for words than What is the role of Conscious Motivation?
for games  Healthy individuals are generally aware of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it
 a social isolate who fashioned his own circle of activities  However, Allport recognized the fact that some motivation is driven by hidden impulses and
 entered Harvard, following the footsteps of his brother Floyd sublimated drives
 meet with Sigmund Freud and get embarrassed for telling the story of a child with dirt  He believed that most compulsive behaviors are automatic repetitions, usually self-
phobia defeating, and motivated by unconscious tendencies; they often originate in childhood and
 study under the great German psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler, William retain a childish flavor into adult years
Stern, Heinz Werner and others
 married a clinical psychologist who had the clinical training he lacked What are the characteristics of a Healthy Person?
 had a study about the case of Jenny Gove Masterson and the case of Marion Taylor  psychologically mature people are characterized by proactive behavior; that is, they not only
 became a president APA in 1939 react to external stimuli, but they are capable of consciously acting on their environment in
new and innovative ways and causing their environment to react tot hem
B. ALLPORT’S APPROACH TO PERSONALITY
  mature personalities are more likely than disturbed ones to be motivated by conscious Level of Personal Dispositions
process, which allow them to be more flexible and autonomous than unhealthy people, who
remain dominated by unconscious motives that spring from childhood experiences
 criteria for mature personality
o extension of the sense of self: mature people continually seek to identify with and
participate in events outside themselves
o warm relating of self to others: they have the capacity to love others in an itiamte
compassionate manner
o emotional security or self-acceptance: accept themselves for what they are and
possess emotional poise
o realistic perception (of their environment): they do not live in a fantasy world or bend
reality to fir their own wishes
o insight and humor: mature people know themselves and have no need to attribute
their own mistakes and weaknesses to others; have a nonhostile sense of humor
o unifying philosophy of life: have a clear view of the purpose of life
1. Cardinal Dispositions
o eminent characteristic or ruling passion so outstanding that it dominates their lives
o too obvious that cannot be hidden
o most people do not have a cardinal disposition, but those people who do are often
known by that single characteristic
2. Central Dispositions
o 5 to 10 outstanding characteristics around which a person’s life focuses
o those who would be listed in an accurate letter of recommendation written by
someone who knew the person quite well
o everyone has it
3. Secondary Dispositions
o less conspicuous but far greater in number than central dispositions
o everyone has many secondary dispositions that are not central to the personality yet
occur with some regularity and are responsible for much of one’s specific behavior

C. STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions

 Motivational Dispositions
Continuity Theory o intensely experienced dispositions
 suggests that development of personality is essentially the accumulation of skill, habits and o initiate action
discriminations, without anything really new appearing in the person’s makeup  Stylistic Dispositions
o less intensely experienced dispositions
Discontinuity Theory o guide action
 suggests that in the course of development an organism experiences genuine
transformations or changes and consequently reaches successively higher levels of Proprium
organization  all characteristics that are “peculiarly mine”
 those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and important in
Structure of personality their lives
 refers to its basic units or building block  includes those aspects of life that a person regards as important to a sense of self-identity
 those that permit the description of the person in terms of individual characteristics – and self-enhancement
Personal Dispositions  includes a person’s values as well as that part of the conscience that is personal and
consistent with one’s adult belief
Personal Dispositions  nonpropriate behaviors:
 a generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render o basic drives and needs that are ordinarily met and satisfied without much difficulty
many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms o tribal customs
of adaptive and stylistic behavior o habitual behaviors that are performed automatically and that are not crucial to the
person’s sense of self
Common Traits
 general characteristics that held in common by many people D. MOTIVATION
 provide the means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one another
Most people are motivated by present drives rather than by past events and are aware of what they
are doing and have some understanding of why they are doing it.

Peripheral Motives
 those that reduce a need
Propriate Strivings
 seek to maintain tension and desequilibrium
A Theory of Motivation
 a comprehensive theory must not only include an explanation of reactive theories
(see people as being motivated primarily by needs to reduce tension and to return to a state
of equilibrium), but also must include those proactive theories (must view people as
consciously acting on their environment in a manner that permits growth toward
psychological health)
 The mature person is not motivated merely to seek pleasure and reduce pain but to acquire
new systems of motivation that are functionally independent from their original motives
Functional Autonomy
 Allport’s explanation for the myriad human motives that seemingly are not accounted for by
hedonistic or drive reduction principles
 represent a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the capstone of
Allport’s ideas on motivation
 holds that some human motives are functionally independent from the original motive
responsible for the behavior
 what begins as one motive may grow into a new one that is historically continuous with the
original but functionally autonomous from it
 Requirement for an adequate theory of motivation:
o will acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives
o will be a pluralistic theory – allowing for motives of many types
o will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive processes
o will allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives
 2 levels of functional autonomy:
o Perseverative: refers to those habits and behaviors that are not part of one’s proprium
o Propriate: self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium
 Criterion for Functional Autonomy
o a present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks new goals;
meaning, the behavior will continue even as the motivation for it changes
 Processes that are not Functionally Autonomous
o biological drives (eating, breathing, sleeping)
o motives directly linked to the reduction of basic drives
o reflex actions (eyeblink)
o constitutional equipment (physique, intelligence, temperament)
o habits in the process of being formed
o patterns of behavior that require primary reinforcement
o sublimations that can be tied to childhood sexual desires
o some neurotic or pathological symptoms
E. THE STUDY OF THE INDIVIDUAL
Morphogenic Science
 2 scientific approaches:
o nomothetic: seeks general laws
o idiographic: peculiar to single case
 Allport abandoned the term Idiographic and change it to Morphogenic because of
misconception and idiographic does not suggest structure or pattern
 Morphogenic: patterned properties of the whole organism and allows for intrapeson
comparisons
 Methods of Morphogenic Psychology: verbatim recordings, interviews, dreams,
confessions, diaries, letters, some questionnaires, expressive documents, projective
documents, literary works, art forms, automatic writings, doodles, handshakes, voice
patterns, body gestures, handwriting, gait and autobiographies
 Semimorphogenic Approches: self-rating scales
The Diaries of Marion Taylor
 In the late 1930's, Allport and his wife became acquainted with diaries written by woman
they called Marion Taylor. These diaries-along with descriptions of Marion Taylor by her
mother, younger sister, favorite teacher, friends, and a neighbor-provided the Allports with
a large quantity of material that could be studied using morphogenic methods. However, the
Allports never published this material.
Letters from Jenny
 Even though Allport never published data from Marion Taylor's dairies, he did publish a
second case study-that of Jenny Gove Masterson. Jenny had written a series of 301 letters to
Gordon and Ada Allport, whose son had been a roommate of Jenny's son. Two of Gordon
Allport's students, Alfred Baldwin and Jeffrey Paige used a personal structure analysis and
factor analysis respectively, while Allport used a commonsense approach to discern Jenny's
personality structure as revealed by her letters. All three approaches yielded similar results,
which suggests that morphogenic studies can be reliable.
F. RELATED RESEARCH
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Religious Orientation
 Religious Orientation Scale: applicable only for churchgoers; measuring 11 extrinsic and 9
intrinsic orientation
  Kevin Master and Colleagues (2005) conducted a study looking at religious orientation and 3. teleological
cardiovascular health (high blood pressure) 4. conscious?
 result: those who held an intrinsic religious orientation did not experience the same 5. social influences
increased blood pressure than those who held an extrinsic orientation did 6. uniqueness
o general characteristics that held in common by many people EYSENCK, MCCRAE AND COSTA: TRAIT AND FACTOR THEORY
o provide the means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one
another Presently, most researchers who study personality traits agree that five, and only five, and no fewer
 Timothy Smith and Colleagues (2003) reviewed all the research on the topic of religion and that five dominant traits continue to emerge from factor analytic techniques – mathematical
depression in an attempt to conclusively determine whether religion could serve as a buffer procedures capable of examining personality traits from mountains of test data.
against depression
 result: the more intrinsically oriented toward religion a person is, the less likely he or she will Raymond B. Cattell
experience depressive symptoms. But themroe extrinsically oriented a person, the more  found many more personality traits
likely he or she will be depressed
Hans J. Eysenck
How to Reduce Prejudice: Optimal Contact  insisted that only three major factors can be discerned by a factor analytic approach
 Contact Hypothesis: if members of majority and minority groups interacted more under  factor analytic technique yielded three general bipolar factors or types:
optimal conditions, there would be less prejudice extraversion/introversion, neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism/superego
 Optimal Conditions: 1. Equal status between the two groups; 2. common goals; 3.
cooperation between group; and 4. support of an authority figures, law or custom Gordon Allport
 Thomas Pettigrew and Linda Tropp (2005) have built a large research program targeted at  his commonsense approach yielded 5 to 10 traits that are central to each person’s life
investigating the conditions under which contact between groups can reduce prejudice  major contribution to trait theory may have been his identification of nearly 18,000 trait
 result: not only that prejudice can be reduced, but all that the four criteria originally outlined names in an unabridged English language dictionary
by Allport are essential to this reduction; optimal contact works to reduce prejudiced
attitudes toward the elderly and the mentally ill The Five-Factor Theory (Big Five)
 includes neuroticism and extraversion
G. CRITIQUE OF ALLPORT  but it adds openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

 generate research: (moderate) his religious orientation scale, the study of values, and his A. BIOGRAPHY OF EYSENCK
interest in prejudice have led multiple studies on the specific study of religion, values and
prejudice Full name: Hans Jurgen Eysenck
 falsifiability: (low) the concept of four somewhat independent religious orientations can be Birthday: March 4, 1916
verified or falsified Birthplace: Berlin
 Organizations of observations: must of what is known about human personality cannot be Father: Anton Eduard Eysenck (Comedian, Singer and Actor)
easily integrated into Allport’s theory. Mother: Ruth Werner (Film Star)
 guide for the practitioner: has moderate usefulness Wife: Margaret Davies (mathematician?), Sybil Rostal
 internally consistent: high Children: Michael (first marriage) and 3 others (second marriage)
 parsimonious: high Death: September 4, 1997 (cancer)
Deathplace: London
H. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
Significant part of his life:
1. optimistic  little for him of his parents
2. free choice  had a theatrical family
  grew up with little parental discipline and few strict controls over his behavior
 believe that environmental experiences have little to do with personality development
 inability to take physics because of taking the wrong subject in the entrance exam so he end
up with psychology
 in his time, the psychology department of University of London was pro-Freudian, but it also
had a strong emphasis on psychometrics with Charles Spearman having just left and with
Cyril Burt still presiding
 was not comfortable with most of the traditional clinical diagnostic categories; using factor
analysis, he found that two major personality factors – neuroticism/emotional stability and
extraversion/introversion – could account for all traditional diagnostic groups
 was perhaps the most prolific writer in the history of psychology for having published some
800 journal articles or book chapters and more than 75 books
 believe that psychotherapies are no more effective than placebo treatments
B. THE PIONEERING WORK OF RAYMOND B. CATTELL
Raymond B. Cattell
 an important figure in the early years of psychometrics
 did not have a direct influence on Eysenck
Steps in using Factor Analysis:
1. making specific observations of many individuals (quantified)
2. determine which of these variables are related to which other variables and to what extent
through calculation of correlation coefficient
3. result of these calculations would require a table of intercorrelations or a matrix (could be
zero to high; negative or positive)
4. turn to factor analysis which can account for a large number of variables with a smaller
number of more basic dimensions – Traits (factors that represent a cluster of closely related
values)
5. determine the extent to which each individual score contributes to the various factors –
factor loadings (correlations of score with factors; give us an indvidation of the purity of the
various factors and enable us to interpret their meanings)
6. traits generate through factor analysis may be either unipolar (scaled from zero to some
large amount; height, weight and intellectual ability) and bipolar (one pole to opposite pole
with zero midpoint; introversion vs extroversion, liberalism vs conservatism…)
7. the plotted scores are rotated (orthogonal rotation (right angle) or oblique method (90
degrees)) into a specific mathematical relationship with each other to have a psychological
meaning

D. EYSENCK’S FACTOR THEORY

Cattell
Inductive Method
Used 3 different media of observation to examine
people:
1. L Data (person’s life derived from
observations made by other people)
2. Q Data (self-reports)
3. T Data (objective tests)
Divided traits into common traits (shared by
many) and unique traits (peculiar to one
individual).
Also distinguished source traits or surface traits.
Classified traits into temperament (how),
motivation (why) and ability (how far or how
fast).
16 Personality Factors
Measuring a large number of traits
Eysenck
Deductive Method
Limited to responses on questionnaires Criteria for Identifying Factors
 psychometric evidence: factor must be reliable and replicable
 heritability: must fit an established genetic model
 make sense from a theoretical view: (deductive method) theory  gathering data
 possess social relevance: mathematically derived factors have a relationship with such
socially relevant variables as drug addiction, psychotic behavior, criminality, sporty and so on
Hierarchy of Behavior Organization
types or superfactors
3 Personality Factor
Concentrating on types or superfactors that make
up several interrelated traits trait

C. BASIC OF FACTOR ANALYSIS

habitual acts or cognitions
A comprehensive knowledge of the mathematical operation involved in factor analysis is not essential
to an understanding of trait and factor theories of personality but a general description of this
technique should be useful.
specific actions or cognitions

E. DIMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY
All 3 superfactors are bipolar.
The bipolarity of Eysenck’s factor does not imply that most people are at one end or the other of the
three main poles.
Each factor is unimodally, rather than bimodically distributed.
Each of these factors meet his four criteria for identifying personality dimensions.
3 superfactors:
1. Extraversion /Introversion
o primary cause of differences between extraverts and introverts is one of cortical
arousal level – a physiological condition that is largely inherited rather than learned
o extraverts
 have a lower level of cortical arousal, they have higher sensory threshold and thus
lesser reactions to a sensory stimulations
 because extraverts have a habitually low level of cortical arousal, they need a high
level of sensory stimulation (eg: wild activities) to maintain an optimal level of
stimulation
o introverts
 higher level of arousal, and as a result of lower sensory threshold, they experience
greater reactions to a sensory stimulation
 to maintain an optimal level of stimulation with their congenitally low sensory
threshold, they avoid situations that will cause too much excitement
2. Neuroticism/Stability
o accepted the diatheses-stress model – suggests that some people are vulnerable to
illness because they have either a genetic or an acquired weakness that predisposes
them to an illness
o neuroticism can be combined with different points on the extraversion scale so no
single syndrome can define neurotic behavior
o neurotic: tendency to overreact emotionally and to have difficulty returning to a
normal state after emotional arousal; frequently complain of physical symptoms; does
not necessarily suggest neurosis
3. Psychoticism/Superego
o psychotic: egocentric, cold, nonconforming, impulsive, hostile, aggressive, suspicious,
psychopathic, antisocial
o superego: altruistic, highly socialized, emphatic, caring, cooperative,, conforming and
conventional
o people who score high on psychoticism and who are also experiencing levels of stress
have an increased chance of developing a psychotic disorder
o independent of both E and N
F. MEASURING PERSONALITY
Evolution of 4 Personality Inventories
1. Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI); assessed only E and N and yielded some correlation
between two factors
2. Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI): contains a lie (L) scale to detect faking, but more
importantly, it measures extraversion and neuroticism independently
3. Junior Eysenck personality Inventory: extended to children 7 to 16 years of age
4. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ): included extraversion, neuroticism and
psychoticism; has both adult and junior version
G. BIOLOGICAL BASES OF PERSONALITY
¾ of personality factors determinant can be accounted by heredity and ¼ is accounted by
environmental factors.
3 Threads of Evidence for a Strong Biological Component in Personality
1. researchers have found nearly identical factors among people in various parts of the world
2. evidence suggests that individuals tend to maintain their position over time on the different
dimensions of personality
3. studies of twins show a higher concordance between identical twins than between same-
gender fraternal twins reared together, suggesting that factors play a dominant part
indetermining individual differences
Psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism have both antecedents (genetic and biological) and
consequences (experimental variables such as sensitivity and social behaviors )
Genetic determinants  Biological Intermediaries  mold P, E, N
H. PERSONALITY AS A PREDICTOR
Psychometric traits of P, E, and N can combine with one another and with genetic determinants,
biological intermediates, and experimental studies to predict a variety of social behaviors.
Personality and Behavior
 PEN should predict results of experimental studies as well as social behaviors
 Eysenck argued that an effective theory of personality should predict both proximal and
distal consequences
  He also argued that many psychology studies have reached erroneous conclusion because  conducted work on traits with Costa tat ensured them a prominent role in the 40-year
they have ignored personality factors history of analysing the structure of personality
 He hypothesized that P is related to genius and creativity
 both high P and high E scorers are likely to be troublemakers as children Full name: Paul T. Costa Jr.
 He believed that psychologists can be led astray if they do not consider the various Birthday: September 16, 1942
combinations of personality dimensions in conducting their research Birthplace: Franklin, New Hampshire
Father: Paul T. Costa Sr.
Mother: Esther Vasil Costa
Personality and Disease Wife: Karol Sandra Costa
 Eysenck and David Kissen (1962) found that people who scored low on neuroticism on the Children: Nina, Lora and Nicholas
MPI tended to suppress their emotion and were much more likely than high N scorers to
receive a later diagnosis of lung cancer Significant part of his life
 Eysenck, Yugoslav and Ronald Grossarth-Maticek investigate not only the relationship  major in human develop and has interests in individual differences and the nature of
between personality and disease, but also the effectiveness of behavior therapy on personality
prolonging the life of cancer and CVD patients.  worked with Salvatore R. Maddi and published a book on humanistic personality theory
 result: on the relationship between personality and disease, it do not prove that  worked with Robert R. McCrae in National Institute of Aging’s Gerontology Research Center
psychological factors cause cancer and heart disease. rather, these diseases are caused by
many interaction of many factors. K. IN SEARCH OF THE BIG FIVE

I. THE BIG FIVE: TAXONOMY OR THEORY Allport and Odbert (1930s)  Cattell (1940s)  Tupes, Christal and Norman (1960s)  Costa and
McCrae (1970s and 1980s) (used factor analytic techniques)
Eysenck’s three factor theory approach is a good example of how a scientific theory can cause a Neuroticism and Extraversion  Openness to Experience
taxonomy to generate hundreds of hypotheses. Lewis Goldberg: first used the term “Big Five” in 1981
In Big 5, attempt to identify basic personality traits  taxonomy  theory
Five Factors Found
J. BIOGRAPHIES OF MCCRAE AND COSTA  1983: 3 factor model
 1985: they began to report work on the five factors of personality
Full name: Robert Roger McCrae  NEO-PI: new five-factor personality inventory includes Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness
Birthday: April 28, 1949 and
Birthplace: Maryville, Missouri, Kansas City Agreeableness and Conscientiousness
Father: Andrew McCrae  last two dimension: agreeableness and conscientiousness (fully developed on NEO-PI R in
Mother: Eloise Elaine McCrae 1992)
 factor analysed different personality inventory including Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and
Significant part of his life Eysenck Personality Inventory
 philosophy  psychology
 intrigued by psychometric work of Raymond Cattell Description of the Five Factors
 curious about using factor analysis to search for a simple method for identifying the
structural traits found in the dictionary TRAITS HIGH SCORES LOW SCORES
 believe that traits were real and enduring not consistent as what Walter Mischel believes Extraversion affectionate, joiner, talkative, fun reserved, loner, quiet, sober,
 James Fozard (he assists in research) referred him to other Boston-based personality loving, active, passionate passive, unfeeling
psychologists, Paul T. Costa Jr. Neuroticism anxious, temperamental, self- calm, even-tempered, self-satisfied,
pitying, self-consciousness, comfortable, unemotional, hardy
 worked with Costa as project coordinator in Smoking and Personality for 2 years
 emotional, vulnerable o Structure: organized hierarchically from narrow and specific to broad and general
(deductive?)
Openness imaginative, creative, original, down-to-earth, uncreative,  Postulates for Characteristic Adaptations
prefers variety, curious, liberal conventional, prefers routine, o Over time, people are adapting to the environment by pattern of thoughts, feelings and
uncurious, conservative behavior that are consistent in their personality traits and earlier adaptation.
Agreeableness Softhearted, trusting, generous, Ruthless, suspicious, stingy, o Maladjustment suggests that our responses are not always consistent with personal
acquiescent, lenient, good-natured antagonistic, critical and irritable goals or cultural values
Conscientiousness Conscientious, hardworking, well- Negligent, lazy, disorganized, late, o Basic traits may chance over time in response to biological maturation, changes in the
organized, punctual, ambitious, aimless, quitting environment or deliberate interventions
persevering

L. EVOLUTION OF THE FIVE FACTOR THEORY

M. RELATED RESEARCH

 Five factor taxonomy  five factor theory

The Biology of Personality Traits
 Old theories cannot simply be abandoned: they must be replaced by a new generation of
theories that grow out of the conceptual insights of the past and the empirical findings of
contemporary research
 New theory should be able to incorporate the change and growth of the individual that has
occurred the last 25 years as well as be grounded in the current empirical principles that
have emerged from research
Units of the Five-Factor Theory
 Core Components of Personality
o Basic Tendencies: universal raw material of personality capacities and dispositions that
are generally inferred rather than observed (eg: cognitive abilities)
o Characteristic Adaptations: acquired personality structures that develop as people
adapt to their environment (eg: habits)
o Self-Concept: knowledge, views and evaluations of the self (eg:
 Peripheral Components
o Biological Bases: genes, hormones and brain structures
o Objective Biography: everything that person does, thinks, or feel across the whole
lifespan; what has happened in people’s lives
o External Influence: how we respond to the opportunity and demands of the context
Basic Postulates
 Postulates for Basic Tendencies
o Individuality: unique set of traits  unique combination of trait patterns
o Origin: personality traits are result of internal forces (biological)
o Development: traits develop and change through childhood, slows in adolescence and
stop in mid-adulthood
 Eysenck’s Hypothesis: if introverts have lower thresholds of arousal than do extraverts, then
they should be more reactive to sensory stimulation
 Beauducel and Colleagues (2006) predicted that extraverts would be less cortically aroused
and show worse performance on a boring and monotonous task
 result: supports Eysenck’s theory about extraversion and introversion regarding arousal
 Anthony Gale (1983) summarized the findings from 33 studies examining EEG and
extraversion
 result: introverts showed greater cortical arousal than did extraverts in 22 of the 33 studies
 Robert Stelmack (1997) reviewed the literature and came to two basic conclusions: first,
introverts are more reactive than extraverts on various measures of arousal; second,
extraverts are quicker to respond on simple motor tasks. the faster motoric response rates
of extraverts correspond well with their greater spontaneity, social disinhibition, and
impulsiveness
 Cynthia Doucet and Stelmack (2000) has found out in their study that it was only motoric
response rate – not cognitive processing speed – that differentiated introverts and
extraverts. extraverts were faster motorically but not cognitively. extraverts may move
faster but they do not think faster than introverts
 Eysenck’s Hypothesis: introverts should work best in environments of relatively low sensory
stimulation, whereas extraverts should perform best under conditions of relatively high
sensory stimulation
 Russell Geen (1984) introverted and extraverted participants were randomly assigned to
either a low noise or high noise condition and then given a relatively simple cognitive task to
perform.
 results: showed that introverts outperformed extraverts under conditions of low noise,
whereas extraverts outperformed introverts under conditions of high noise
  organize knowledge: (high) can present a framework in organizing many disparate
Traits and Academics observations about human personality
 Erik Noftle and Richard Robins (2007) conducted a study in which they measured the traits  guides action: (equivocal) provide a comprehensive and structured taxonomy
and academic outcomes of more than 10,000 students  internally consistent: (equivocal) some are consistent and some are not
 result: those who are high on the trait of conscientiousness tend to have higher GPAs in both  parsimony: (excellent) factor analysis is predicted on the idea of the fewest explanatory
high school and college; Big 5 traits were not strong predictors of scores on the math section factors possible
of the SAT, but openness was related to scores on the verbal section
 Michael Zyphur and Colleagues (2007) conducted a study to see whether those high on O. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
neuroticism were indeed more likely to retake the SAT
 result: supported the researchers’ hypothesis in that those who scored high on neuroticism 1. neither determinism vs free choice
were more likely to take the SAT multiple times; also, scores on the SAT tended to increase 2. neither optimism vs optimism
over time so participants in the study tended to score higher the second time than the first 3. neither teleological vs causal
and higher still the third time they took the test 4. consciousness
5. biological influences/genetic factors
6. individual differences/uniqueness
SKINNER: BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS
Traits and Emotion
 Murray McNiel and William Fleeson (2006) conducted a study to determine the direction of Behaviorism
causality for the relationships between extraversion and positive mood and between  an approach emerged from laboratory studies of animals and humans
neuroticism and negative mood
 early pioneers were E.L. Thorndike and John Watson
 result1: participants reported higher positive mood when they were instructed to act
 but the person most associated was B.F. Skinner
extraverted than when they were instructed to act introverted; regardless of your natural
level of extraversion, just acting in an extraverted manner can make you feel better than if
Behavioral Analysis
you act introverted
 clear departure from the highly speculative psychodynamic theories
 result2: participants reported being in a worse mood when they acted neurotic than when
 minimized speculations and focused almost entirely on observable behavior
they did not
 observable behavior is not limited to external events because private behaviors such as
 conclusion: if you are in a bad mood but want to be in a good mood, act extraverted
thinking, remembering and anticipating are all observable by the person experiencing them
 Michael Robinson and Gerald Clore (2007) suggest that it is not the case that everybody
 radical behaviourism: a doctrine that avoids all hypothetical constructs such as ego, traits,
who scores high on neuroticism experiences more negative mood. there are individual
drives, needs, hunger and so forth
differences for the speed with which people process incoming information, and these
 human behavior does not stem from an act of the will, but like any observable phenomenon,
differences might influence the relationship between neuroticism
it is lawfully determined and can be studies scientifically (Skinner’s a determinist)
 result: neuroticism did predict experiencing more negative over the course of the 2-week
 held that psychology must not explain behavior on the basis of the physiological or
reporting period but only for those who were slow at the computer task; those who were
constitutional components of the organism but rather on the basis of environmental stimuli\
high on neuroticism but fast at the computer task did not report any more negative emotion
over the course of the 2-week period than their low neuroticism counterparts
A. BIOGPRAGHY OF SKINNER

N. CRITIQUE OF EYSENCK, MCCRAE AND COSTA

Full name: Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Birthday: March 20, 1904
 generate research: (very high)reported significant amounts of research in these and other
Birthplace: Susquehanna, Pennsylvania
fields of research
Father: William Skinner (lawyer and aspiring politician)
 falsifiable: (moderate to high) eysenck’s research results has not been replicated by outside
Mother: Grace Mange Burrhus Kinner (housewife)
researchers: mccrae and costa lends itself to falsification
Wife: Yvonne Blue
Children: Deborah  instinct, sensation, perception, motivation, mental states, mind and imagery are beyond the
Death: August 18, 1990 (leukemia) realm of scientific psychology
Deathplace: Harvard?
C. SCIENTIFIC BEHAVIORISM
Significant part of his life
 felt more simply independent and less emotionally attached to his parents when his brother
Edward was born Scientific Behaviorism
 become “the family boy” when his brother died  Skinner insisted that human behavior should be studied scientifically
 more inclined in music and literature and wanted to become a professional writer  Behavior can best be studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives. Attributing
 first identity crisis: had his dark year as identity confusion when decided to just be a writer at motivation to human behavior would be like attributing a free will to natural phenomena.
home in the attic  he believed that internal states are outside the domain of science
 became determined to be behaviourist after his dark year  psychology must avoid internal mental factors and confine itself to observable physical
 finished PhD in psychology and now confident of his identity as a behaviourist events
 hunting permanent job: junior fellow in Society of Fellows doing laboratory research   abandoned the practice of attributing motives, needs, or willpower to the motion (behavior)
teaching and research position of living organisms and inanimate objects
 second identity crisis: involved with two of his most interesting ventures: pigeon-guided  Cosmology: concern with causation and clouds the issue and relegates much of psychology
missile and baby-tender (built for Debbie) ot that ream of philosophy
 published Walden Two that became his break in his entire career (resolution to his identity
crisis) Philosophy of Science
 involved with the application of behavioural analysis to the technology of shaping human  Scientific behaviorism allows for an interpretation of behavior but not an explanation of its
behavior causes.
 Interpretation permits as scientist to generalize from a simple learning condition to a more
B. PRECURSORS TO SKINNER’S SCIENTIFIC BEHAVIORISMS complex one

Skinner agreed in the following: Characteristic of Science

1. Cumulative: growing
Edward L. Thorndike 2. An attitude that values empirical observation: a disposition to deal with facts rather than
 observed that learning takes place mostly because of the effects that follow a response with what someone has said about them.
 Law of Effect 3 components of scientific attitude:
o responses to stimuli that are followed immediately by a satisfier (reward) tend to be o rejects authority: just because someone respected said it does it mean it should be a
“stamped in” fact already
o responses to stimuli that are followed immediate by an annoyer (punishment) tend to o demands intellectual honesty: require scientists to accept facts even when these facts
be “stamped out”  inhibits behavior not stamp out are opposed to their wishes
 Skinner also agreed to Thorndike that the effects of rewards are more predictable than the o suspends judgment: should be verified, tested and replicated.
effects of punishments in shaping behavior 3. Search for order and lawful relationships- the scientific method consists of prediction,
control, and description.
John B. Watson
 studied bothn animals and humans and became convinced that the concepts of D. CONDITIONING
consciousness and introspection must play no role in the scientific study of human behavior
 argued that human behavior, like the behavior of animals and machines, can be studied 2 kinds of Conditioning:
objectively
Classical Conditioning (Respondent Conditioning)
  a response is drawn out of the organism by a specific, identifiable stimulus
 behavior is elicited from the organism (drawn from the organism)
 US  UR; US  CS  CR; CS  CR
 pairing of conditioned and unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response
 ex: Little Albert by Watson and Rosalie Rayner
Operant Conditioning (Skinnerian Conditioning)
 behavior is made more likely to recur when it is immediately reinforced
 behavior is emitted from the organism (simply appears because of reinforcement)
 the immediate reinforcement of a response
 does not cause the behavior, but increases the chances of repetition
 Shaping
o a procedure in which the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross
approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired
behavior itself – Successive Approximations
o 3 Conditions:
 Antecedent (A): environment or setting in which the behavior takes place
 Behavior (B): actions
 Consequence (C): reward or punishment
o Operant Discrimination: organism learns to respond to some elements in the
environment but not to others
o Stimulus Generalization: a response to a similar environment in the absence of
previous reinforcement
 Reinforcement
o strengthens the behavior and rewards the person
o Positive Reinforcement: any stimulus that, when added to a situation, increases the
probability that a given behavior will occur
o Negative Reinforcement: removal of an aversive stimulus from a situation also
increases the probability that the preceding behavior will occur
 Punishment
o the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a positive one; sometimes
but not always weakens a response
o Effects of Punishment
 supress behavior
 conditioning of a negative feelingspread of its effects
 Conditioned and Generalized Reinforcers
o Conditioned Reinforcers: those environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying
but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers
o Generalized Reinforcers: associated with more than one primary reinforce
 Schedules of Reinforcement
o Continuous Schedules: organism is reinforced for every response
o Intermittent Schedules: reinforced only on certain selected occurrences of ther
esponse
 Fixed Ratio: number of responses (ex: every after 5)
 Variable Ratio: nth response on the average (ex: after 5, then 10, 15)
 Fixed Interval: designated period of time (ex: every 5 minutes)
 Variable Interval: lapse of random or varied periods of time (ex: every 5 min, 10,
15)
 Extinction: once learned, responses can be lost for at least four reasons:
o forgotten during the passage of time
o lost due to the interference of preceding or subsequent learnings
o disappear due to punishment
o weakened upon nonreinforcement – Extinction
o Operant Extinction: takes place when an experimenter systematically withhold
reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response
diminishes to zero
E. THE HUMAN ORGANISM
Human behavior (and human personality) is shaped by three forces:
1. Natural Selection
2. Cultural Practices
3. Individual’s History of Reinforcement
Natural Selection
 determined by genetic composition and personal histories of reinforcement
 behaviors that were beneficial to the species tended to survive
Cultural Evolution
 selection is responsible for those cultural practices that have survived, just as selection plays
a key role in humans’ evolutionary history and also with the contingencies of reinforcement
Inner States
 refer as feelings of love, anxiety, or fear
 can be studied but the observation is limited
 Self-Awareness:: awareness of the consciousness of self (thoughts, feelings, recollections
and intentions)
 Drives: effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding probability that the
organism will respond
 Emotions: behaviors followed by delight, joy, pleasure , and other pleasant emotions tend to
be reinforced, increasing the probability to recur
 Purpose and Intention: exist within the skin, but they are not subject to direct outside
scrutiny
  excessively restrained behavior: means of avoiding the aversive stimuli associated with
Complex Behavior punishment
 even the most abstract and complex behavior is shaped by natural selection, cultural  blocking out reality: paying no attention to aversive stimuli
evolution, or the individual’s history of reinforcement  defective self-knowledge: self-deluding responses such as boasting, rationalizing, or
 Higher Mental Processes: thinking, problems solving, and reminiscing are covert behaviors claiming to be the Messiah
amenable to the same contingencies of reinforcement as overt behavior  self-punishment: punishing themselves or arranging environmental variables so that they
 Creativity: result of random or accidental behaviors (overt or covert) are punished by others
 Unconscious Behavior: behavior is labeled unconscious when people no longer think about
it because it has been suppressed through punishment
 Dreams: covert and symbolic forms of behavior that are subject to the same contingencies G. PSYCHOTHERAPY
of reinforcement as other behaviors are
 Social Behavior: individuals establish groups because they have been rewarded for doing so Skinnerian Behavior Therapy
 a therapist is a controlling agent and a patient must learn to discriminate between punitive
Control of Human Behavior authority figures and a permissive therapist
 individual’s behavior is controlled by environmental contingencies erected by society,  patients: cold and rejecting; therapist: warm and accepting, patients: critical and
another individual or self judgmental; therapist: supportive and empathic
 Social Control  a therapist molds desirable behavior by reinforcing slightly improved changes in behavior
o operant conditioning  if behavior is shaped by inner causes, then some force must be responsible for the inner
o describing contingencies cause
o deprivation and satiation
o physical restraints H. RELATED RESEARCH
 Self-Control
o use physical aids to alter their environment How Conditions Affect Personality
o change their environment, thereby increasing the probability of the desired behavior  Jennifer Tidey, Suzanne O’Neill and Stephen Higgins (2000) conducted a study if
o arrange their environment so that they can escape from an aversive stimulus only by psychomotor stimulants really increase smoking levels in those who smoke
producing the proper response  result: smoking levels in both the money and in the free smoking session increased in
o take drugs as a means of self-control proportion to d-amphetamine; the higher the dose of d-amphetamine, the more the
o do something else in order to avoid behaving in an undesirable fashion participants smoked; smoking was chosen over money in the choice session in direct
proportion to the amount of d-amphetamine administered
F. THE UNHEALTHY PERSONALITY  conclusion: reinforcers can change their value over time and in combination with other
timuli
The techniques of social control and self-control sometimes produce detrimental effects, which can
result in inappropriate behavior and unhealthy personality development. How Personality Affects Conditioning
 Stacey Sigmon and Colleagues (2003) studied the effects that d-amphetamine has on
Counteracting Strategies smoking using two different reinforcers: cigarette and money;; in addition to trying to
 Escape: people withdraw from the controlling agent either physically or psychologically. replicate thefinding that psychomotor stimulants specifically increase the reinforcing value
 Revolt: controls behave more actively, counterattacking the controlling agent of nicotine compared to money, they wanted to examine whether there were any individual
 Passive resistance: stubbornness differences in the effect
 result: responders were willing to work harder to get cigarettes under increasing amounts of
Inappropriate Behaviors d-amphetamine but this result did not hold for the 8 nonresponders; possiblre reasons were
 excessively vigorous behavior: makes no sense in terms of the contemporary situation but seen in the subjective rating of the effects of the drug
might be reasonable in terms past history
  Jeffrey Gray and Alan Pickering (1999) Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory : temperamental
and biological states affect response sensitivity to conditioning
 Philip Corr (2002) examine the differences in anxiety and impulsivity and their association to
response sensitivities
 result: participants who were highly anxious but also impulsive showed a lower startle
response especially when viewing negative images compared to participants who were
highly anxious but not impulsive
 conclusion: people do not response to reinforcers in the same way, and personality is one of
the key mechanisms that moderates their effect
Reinforcement in the Brain
 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging: technology used to study brain activation
 John Beaver and Colleagues (2006) examine what parts of the brain were activated when
participants looked at various food-related stimuli and if there were individual differences in
personality that predicted this brain activation
 result: people who scored higher on the personality variable of behavioural activation
experienced increased activation to the pictures of cake and ice cream in five specific areas
of the brain – right and left ventral striatum, left amygdala, substantia nigra and left
orbitofrontal cortex – than their low behavioural activation counterparts
 conclusion: personality is realted to differences in biological processes of how we respond to
reward
I. CRITIQUE OF SKINNER
4. unconscious
5. social factors
6. uniqueness
BANDURA: SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Social Cognitive Theory
 the outstanding characteristics of humans is plasticity – humans have the flexibility to learn a
variety of behaviors in diverse situation
o vicarious learning: learning by observing others
 through a triadic reciprocal causation model that includes behavioural, environment, and
personal factors, people have the capacity to regulate their lives
o two important forces of triadic model: chance encounters and fortuitous events
 takes an agentic perspective – humans have the capacity to exercise control over the nature
and quality of their lives
o important component of triadic model: self-efficacy (confidence that they can perform
those behaviors that will produce desired behaviors in a particular situation)
o can predict performance: proxy agency (people are able to rely on others for goods and
services) and collective efficacy (people’s shared beliefs that they can bring about
change
 people regulate their conduct through both external factors (people’s physical and social
environments) and internal factors (self-observation, judgmental process and self-reaction)
 when people find themselves in morally ambiguous situations, they typically attempt to
regulate their behavior through moral agency – includes redefining behavior, disregarding or
distorting the consequences of their behavior, dehumanizing or blaming the victims of their
behavior, and displacing or diffusing responsibility for their actions

 generate research: (very high) spawned great quantity of research A. BIOGPRAGHY OF BANDURA
 falsifiability: (very high) spawned great quantity of research
 organize knowledge: (moderate) his approach was to describe behavior and the Full name: Albert Bandura
environmental contingencies under which it takes place Birthday: December 4, 1925
Birthplace: Mundare, Northern Alberta
 guide action: (very high) abundance of descriptive research turned out by Skinner nad his
Father: Unnamed
followers has made operant conditioning an extremely practical procedure Mother: Unnamed
 internal consistency: (very high)m defined his terms precisely and operationally
 parsimonious: difficult to rate, on one hand it is free from cumbersome hypothetical Significant part of his life:
construct on the other it demands a novel expression of everyday phrases  encouraged by his sisters to be independent and self-reliant
 studied in a school were learning was left to the initaitve of the students
J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY  experience contact with several coworkers who manifested various degrees of
psychopathology which kindled him an interest in clinical psychology
 told Richard Evans that his decision to become a psychologist was quite accidental; that is, it
1. determinism was a result of a fortuitous event
2. optimism  most of his early publications were in clinical psychology, dealing primarily with
3. causality psychotherapy and the Rorschach Test
  collaborated with Richard H. Walters to publish a paper on aggressive delinquents and was  B  E: father’s behavior helped shape the child’s behavior
encouraged to do some with other graduate students as well  B  P: behavior impinged his own thought
 P  B: his cognition partially determined his behavior
 P  E: father, as a father, has an effect on the child
Chance Encounters and Fortuitous Events
B. LEARNING  Chance encounters: an unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other
 Fortuitous event: an environmental experience that is unexpected and unintended
Although people can do learn from direct experience, much of what they learn is acquired through  fortuity adds a separate dimension in any scheme used to predict human behavior and it
observing others. makes accurate predictions practically impossible
 chance encounters influence people only by entering the triadic reciprocal causation
Observational Learning paradigm at point E and adding to the mutual interaction of person, behavior and
 observation allows people to learn without performing any behavior environment
 Modeling  chance encounters and fortuitous events are not uncontrollable rather people can make it
o involves adding and subtracting from the observed behavior and generalizing from one happen
observation to another
o involves cognitive processes and is not simply mimicry or imitation D. HUMAN AGENCY
o symbolically representing information and storing it for use at a future time
o several factors that determine whether a person will learn from a model: Human Agency
 characteristics of the model are important  humans have the capacity to exercise control over their own lives
 characteristics of the observer affect the likelihood of modelling  essence of humanness
 the consequence of behavior being modelled may have an effect on the observer  active process of exploring, manipulating, and influencing the environment in order to attain
 Processes Governing Observational Learning desired outcomes
o Attention: attending and recognizing the distinctive features of the model’s response
o Representation: patterns must be symbolically represented in memory Core Features of Human Agency
o Behavioral Production: converting cognitive representations into appropriate actions  Intentionality: refers to acts a person performs intentionally
o Motivation: inspiration to execute the action again or not again
 Forethought: people set goals, anticipate likely outcomes of their actions and select
behaviors that will produce desired outcomes and avoid undesirable ones
Enactive Learning
 Self-Reactiveness: motivating and regulating actions
 complex human behavior can be learned when people think about and evaluate the
 Self-Reflectiveness: examines their own functioning, think about and evaluate their
consequences of their behaviors
motivations, values and the meanings of their life goals and they can think about the
 3 Functions of the Response Consequences:
adequacy of their own thinking
o inform us of the effects of our actions
Self-Efficacy
o motivate our anticipatory behavior
 people’s belief in their capability to exercise some measure of control over their own
o to reinforce behavior
functioning and over environmental events
 foundation of human agency
C. TRIADIC RECIPROCAL CAUSATION
 varies from situation to situation depending on the competencies required for different
activities
Triadic Reciprocal Causation
 people’s belief in their personal efficacy influence what courses of action they choose to
 assumes that human action is a result of an interaction among three variables –behavior (B),
pursue, how much effort they will invest in activities, how long they will persevere in the
environment (E) and person (P)
face of obstacles and failure experiences, and their resiliency following setbacks
 “reciprocal” to indicate a triadic interaction of forces, not similar or opposite counteraction
 What contributes to self-efficacy?
o Mastery Experiences: past performances
An Example of Triadic Reciprocal Causation
 successful performance raises self-efficacy in proportion to the difficulty of the
 E: child begging her father for a second brownie
task
 B: not giving another brownie
 tasks successfully accomplished by oneself are more efficacious than those
 P: father/’s cognition
completed with the help of others
 E  B: child’s please affecting her father’s behavior  failure is most likely to decrease efficacy when we know that we put forth our best
 E  P: father’s cognition effort
  failure under conditions of high emotional arousal or distress are not as self-
debilitating as failure under maximal conditions
 failure prior to establishing a sense of mastery is more detrimental to feelings of
personal efficacy than later failure
 occasional failure has little effect on efficacy
o Social Modeling: vicarious experiences provided by other people
o Social Persuasion: persuasion from others can raise or lower self-efficacy
o Physical and Emotional States: people’s physiological and emotional states
Proxy Agency
 Involves indirect control over those social conditions that affect everyday living
 relying on the competence and power of others
Collective Efficacy
 People’s shared beliefs in their collective power to produce desired results
 confidence people have that their combined efforts will bring about group accomplishments
 2 Techniques for measuring Collective Efficacy:
o combine individual members’ evaluations of their personal capabilities to enact
nbehaviors that benefit the group
o measure the confidence of each person has in the group’s ability to bring about a
desired outcome
 Several factors that can undermine self-efficacy:
o human live in a transnational world; what happens in one part of the world can affect
people in other countries, giving them a sense of helplessness
o recent technology that people neither understand nor believe that they can control
may lower their sense of collective efficacy
o complex social machinery, with layers of bureaucracy that prevent social change
o the tremendous scope and magnitude of human problems
E. SELF-REGULATION
Self-Regulation
 when people have high levels of self-efficacy, are condiment in their reliance on proxies, and
possess solid collective efficacy they will have considerable capacity to regulater their own
behavior
 2 Strategies: they reactively attempt to reduce the discrepancies between their
accomplishments and their goal; but after they close those discrepancies, they proactively
set newer and higher goals for themselves
 Processes that contribute to self-regulation:
o people possess limited ability to manipulate the external factors that feed into the
reciprocal interactive paradigm
o people are capable of monitoring their own behavior and evaluating it in terms of both
proximate and distant goals
 Behaviors then stems from a reciprocal influence of both external and internal factors
o External Factors in Self-Regulation
 provide us with standard for evaluating our own behavior
 influence self-regulation by providing the means of reinforcement
 Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
 Self-Observation: monitoring own performance
 Judgmental Processes: regulating behavior through the process of mediation and
depends on:
 Personal Standards: allow us to evaluate our performances without
comparing them to the conduct of others.
 Referential Performance: comparing their performances to others or to their
previous performances
 Valuation of Activity: spend much effort on high valued activities and vice
versa
 Performance Attribution: causes of our behavior
 Self-Reaction: people respond positively or negatively to their behaviors
depending on how these behaviors measure up to their personal standards
 Self-Reinforcement
 Self-Punishment
Self-Regulation Through Moral Agency
 People also regulate their actions through moral standards of conduct
 2 Aspects:
o doing no harm to people
o proactively helping people
 Selective Activation: self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate only if they
are activated
 Disengagement of Internal Control: separation of disengagement of people from the
consequences of their behavior by justifying the morality of their actions
 Mechanisms in Disengaging or Selectively Activating Self-Control
o Redefine the Behavior: people justify otherwise reprehensible actions by a cognitive
restructuring that allow them to minimize or escape responsibility through this
techniques:
 moral justification: culpable behavior is made to seem defensible or even noble
 palliative comparisons: comparing own behavior to the even greater atrocities
committed by others
 euphemistic labels: white lies?
o Disregard or Distort the Consequences of Behavior: distorting or obscuring the
relationship between the behavior and its detrimental consequences through these
techniques:
 minimize the consequences of their behavior
 disregard or ignore the consequences of their actions
 distort or misconstrue the consequences of their actions
o Dehumanize or Blame the Victims: dehumanizing the victims or attributing the blame
to them
o Displace or Diffuse Responsibility: in displacement, people minimize the consequences
of their actions by placing responsibility on an outside source; in diffusing
responsibility, the consequences were spread so think that no one person is
responsbility
  Basic Treatment Approaches
F. DYSFUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR o Overt or Vicarious Modeling: observing live or filmed models
o Covert or Cognitive Modeling: visualizing model performing fearsome behaviors
Depression o Enactive Mastery: requires patients to perform those behaviors that previously
 failure  depression  undervalue their own accomplishments produced incapacitating fears (systematic desensitization)
 chronic misery, feelings of worthlessness, lack of purposefulness, and pervasive depression  Cognitive Mediation: common mechanism which is the reason for the effectiveness of the
 Dysfunctional Depression occurring in Self-Regulatory Subfunction: Self-Observation, treatment approaches
Judgmental processes, and Self-Reactions
H. RELATED RESEARCH

Phobias Self-Efficacy and Terrorism

 Fears that are strong enough and pervasive enough to have severe debilitating effects on
one’s daily life
 learned by direct contact, inappropriate generalization, and especially by observational
experiences
Aggression
 acquired trough observation of others, direct experiences with positive and negative
reinforcements, training, or instruction, and bizarre beliefs
 5 Reasons of Aggression:
o they enjoy inflicting injury on the victim (positive reinforcement)
o they avoid or counter the aversive consequences of aggression by others (negative
reinforcement)
o they receive injury or harm for not behaving aggressively (punishment)
o they live up to their personal standards of conduct by their aggressive behavior (self-
reinforcement)
o they observe others receiving rewards for aggressive acts or punishment for
nonaggressive behavior
 children who observed other behaving aggressively displayed more aggression than a
control group of children who did not view aggressive acts (Bobo Doll experiment)
 Peter Fischer and Colleagues (2006) were interested in investigating the possible link
between religion, self-efficacy, and coping with the threat of terrorism
 results: when the salience of terrorism was high, intrinsically religious people were in a
better mood and reported greater self-efficacy than nonreligious people; better mood
experienced by intrinsically religious people was due to their increased feelings of self-
efficacy; when the salience of terrorism was low, there were no differences on mood
between intrinsically religious and nonreligious people
 conclusion: the more we feel in control and capable of handling unforeseen circumstances,
the less the threat pf terrorism will negatively affect our well-being
Self-Efficacy and Diabetes
 William Sacco and Collegaues (2007) studied Bandura’s construct of self-efficacy as it relates
to Type 2 Diabetes; explore the role of self-efficacy as a variable that could increase
adherence to the disease management plan and decrease negative physical and mental
health symptoms
 result: higher levels of self-efficacy were related to lower levels of depression, increased
adherence to doctors’ orders, lower BMI and fewer and decreased severity of diabetes
symptoms; self-efficacy was directly responsible for both the relationship between BMI and
depression and the relationship between adherence and depression

I. CRITIQUE OF BANDURA

 generate research: (very high) generated several thousand research studies

 falsifiability: (high) suggests several areas of possible research that could lead to falsification
of self-efficacy theory
 organize knowledge: (high) many finding from psychology research can be organized by
G. Therapy social cognitive theory
 guide to action/practical: provides useful and specific guidelines
Social Cognitive Therapy  internally consistent: has outstanding internal consistency because it is not highly
 ultimate goal: self-regulation speculative
 to achieve this end, the therapist introduces strategies designed to induce specific  parsimony: (high) simple, straightforward and unencumbered by hypothetical ro fanciful
behavioural changes, to generalize those changes to other situations, and to maintain those explanations
changes by preventing relapse
 Steps: J. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
1. instigate some change in behavior
2. generalize specific changes 1. free choice
3. maintenance of newly acquired functional behaviors 2. optimism
 3. social factors  humans interact with their meaningful environments: people’s reaction to environmental
4. causality and teleology stimuli depends on the meaning or importance that they attach to an event
5. conscious  human personality is learned: it can be changed or modified as longs as people are capable
6. uniqueness
of learning
 personality has a basic unity: people to evaluate new experiences on the basis of previous
ROTTER AND MISCHEL: COGNITIVE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
reinforcement
 motivation is goal directed: human behavior lies in people’s expectations that their
Cognitive Social Learning Theory
behaviors are advancing them toward goals
 cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces
o empirical law of effect: defines reinforcement as any action, condition, or event which
 one’s expectation of future events are prime determinants of performance
affects the individual’s movement toward a goal
 Rotter: people’s cognition, past histories, and expectations of the future are keys to
 people are capable of anticipating events: they use their perceived movement in the
predicting behavior
direction of the anticipated event as a criterion for evaluating reinforcers
 Mischel: cognitive factors, such as experience, subjective perceptions, values, goals and
personal standards, play important roles in shaping personality
B. PREDICTING SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS

A. BIOGPRAGHY OF ROTTER Four variables that must be analysed in order to make accurate predictions in any specific situation:
 Behavior Potential
Full name: Julian B. Rotter
o likelihood that a given behavior will occur in a particular situation
Birthday: October 22, 1916
o behavior potential in any situation is a function of both expectancy and reinforcement
Birthplace: Brooklyn
value
Father: unnamed
 Expectancy
Mother: unnamed
o a person’s expectation that some specific reinforcement or set of reinforcements will
Wife: Clara Rotter
occur in a given situation
Children: Jean and Richard
o probability is not determined by the individual’s history of reinforcements, but is
subjectively held by the person
Significant part of his life
o 2 kinds of Expectancies: Generalized Expectancies and Specific Expectancies (E’ or E
 highly competitive, fighting youngest child
prime)
 depression sparked in him a lifelong concern for social injustice and taught him the
o total expectancy partially determines the amount of effort people will expend in pursuit
importance of situational conditions affecting human behavior
of their goals
 was an avid reader and was able to Adler, Freud, and Menninger’s writings; was impressed  Reinforcement Value
by Adler and Freud and soon returned for more
o the preference of a person attaches to any reinforcement when the probabilities for the
 attended Adler’s medical lectures and several of his clinical demonstrations and came to occurrence of a number of different reinforcements are all equal
personally know Adler o when experiences and situational variables are held constant, behavior is shaped by
 took a job at Ohio State University, where he attracted a number of outstanding graduate one’s preference for the possible reinforcements, that is, reinforcement value
students, including Walter Mischel o determinants of reinforcement value
 Him and George Kelly reigned as the two most dominant members of the psychology  Internal Reinforcement: perception of an individual that contributes to the
department at Ohio State positive or negative value of an event
 External Reinforcement: events, conditions or actions on which one’s society or
K. INTRODUCTION TO ROTTER’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY culture places a value
o what adds to reinforcement value: needs and expected consequences
5 Basic Hypotheses of Social Learning Theory o reinforcement-reinforcement sequence: cluster of reinforcement
 Psychological Situation
 o part of the external and internal world to which the person is responding
o complex pattern of cues that a person perceives during a specific time period
o a complex set of interacting cues acting upon an individual for any specific time period
o people do not behave in a vacuum; instead, they respond to cues within their perceived
environment.
 Basic Prediction Formula
o BPx1, s1, ra = f(Ex1,ra,s1 +RV a, s1)
 This formula is read: the potential for behavior x to occur in situation 1 in relation to
reinforcement a is the function of the expectancy that behavior x will be followed by
reinforcement a in situation 1 and the value of reinforcement a in situation 1.
 Because precise measurement of each of these variables may be beyond the scientific study
of human behavior, Rotter proposed a strategy for predicting general behaviors
C. PREDICTING GENERAL BEHAVIORS
Generalized Expectancies
 includes generalization and generalized expectancies
 involves what he has been or what he experienced before predicting someone’s behavior
 predicting reaction is a matter of knowing how he views the options available to him and
also the status of his present needs
Needs
 any behavior or set of behaviors that people see as moving them in the direction of a goal.
 Categories of Needs
o Recognition-Status: need to be recognized by others and to achieve status
o Dominance: need to control the behavior of others
o Independence: need to be free of the domination of others
o Protection-Dependency: needs to be cared for by others, to be protected from
frustration and harm, and to satisfy the other need categories
o Love and Affection: need for acceptance by others that go beyond recognition and
status to include some indication that other people have warm, positive feelings for
them
o Physical Comfort: needs that includes behaviors aimed at securing food, good health,
and physical security
 Need Components (analogous to the more specific concepts of behavior potential,
expectancy and reinforcement value)
o Need potential (NP): possible occurrence of a set of functionally related behaviors
directed toward satisfying the same or similar goal
o Freedom of Movement (FM): one’s overall expectation of being reinforced for
performing those behavior that are directed toward satisfying some general need
o Need Value: degree to which she or he prefers one set of reinforcements to another;
General Prediction Formula
 NP = f (FM + NV)
 This equation means that need potential (NP) is a function of freedom of movement (FM)
and need value (NV). The formula is analogous to the basic prediction formula, and each
factor is parallel to the corresponding factors of that basic formula.
Internal and External Control of Reinforcement
 reinforcement does not automatically stamp in behaviors but that people have the ability to
see a causal connection between their own behavior and the occurrence of the reinforce
 people strive to reach their goals because they have a generalized expectancy that such
strivings will be successful
 but many people did not increase their feeling of personal control after experiencing success
and that others did not lower their expectancies after repeated failure
 Locus of Control: internal and external control of reinforcement
 Internal-External Control Scale: to assess internal and external control of reinforcement or
the locus of control; measure the degree to which people perceive a causal relationship
between their efforts and environmental consequences
 Misconception in I-E Control Scale
o scores are determinant of behavior
o locus of control is specific and can predict achievement in a specific situation
o scale divides people into distinct types – internal and external
o many people seem to believe that high internal scores signify socially desirable traits
and that high external scores indicate socially undesirable characteristics
Interpersonal Trust Scale
 Interpersonal Trust: a generalized expectancy held by an individual that the word, promise,
oral or written statement of another individual or group can be relied on
 asked people to agree or disagree to 25 items that assessed interpersonal trust and 15 filler
items designed to conceal the nature of the instrument
 high trusters are not gullible or naïve, and rather than being harmed by their trustful
attitude, they seem to possess many of the characteristics that other people regard as
positive and desirable
D. Maladaptive Behavior
Maladaptive Behavior
 any persistent behavior that fails to move a person closer to a desired goal
 it frequently, but not inevitably, arises from the combination of high need value and low
freedom of movement: that is, from goals that are unrealistically high in relation to one’s
ability to achieve them
 people may also have low freedom of movement because they make a faulty evaluation of
the present situation
  people have low freedom of movement because they generalize from one situation in
which, perhaps, they are realistically inadequate to other situations in which they could have
sufficient ability to be successful
 characterized by unrealistic goals, inappropriate behaviors, inadequate skills or
unreasonably low expectancies of being able to execute the behaviors necessary for positive
reinforcement
o have patietns enter into a previously painful social situation, but rather than speaking
as much as usual, theya r asked to reamin as quitet as possible and merely observe
Therapist should be an active participant in a social interaction with the patient.
F. INTRODUCTION TO MISCHEL’S PERSONALITY THEORY

E. PSYCHOTHERAPY 2 Types of Personality Theories

 personality as a dynamic entity motivated by drives, perceptions, needs goals and
Rotterian Therapy expectancies
 “the problems of psychotherapy are problems of how to effect changes in behavior through o include Adler’s, Maslow’s, Bandura’s
the interaction of one person with another. That is, they are problems in human learning in a o emphasizes cognitive and affective dynamics that interact with the environment to
social situation.” produce behavior
 goal: to bring freedom of movement and need value into harmony, this reducing defensive  personality as a function of relatively stable traits or personal dispositions
ad avoidance behaviors o include Allport’s, Eysenck’s, McCrae and Costa’s
 the therapist assumes an active role as a teacher and attempts to accomplish the o sees people as being motivated by a limited number of drives or personal traits that
therapeutic goal in two basic ways: tend to render a person’s behavior somewhat consistent
o changing the importance of goals
o eliminating unrealistically low expectancies for success Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory
 holds that behavior stems from relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitive-affective
Changing Goals processes interacting with a particular situation
 help the patients understand the faulty nature of their gals and to teach them constructive
means of striving toward realistic goals G. BIOGRAPHY OF WALTER MISCHEL
 3 sources of problems that follow from inappropriate goals
o two or more important goals may be in conflict Full name: Walter Mischel
o destructive goal Birthday: February 22, 1930
o many people find themselves in trouble because they set their goals too and are Birthplace: Vienna
continually frustrated when they cannot reach or exceed them Father: unnamed
Mother: unnamed
Eliminating Low Expectancies Wife: Harriet Nerlove
 therapist tries to eliminate patient’s low expectancies of success and its analog, low freedom
of movement Significant part of his life
 3 reasons why people may have low freedom of movement:  grew up in a pleasant environment only a short distance from Freud’s home
o they may lack the skills or information needed to successfully strive toward their goals  divided his time among art, psychology, and life
o low freedom of movement is faulty evaluation of the present situation  appalled by the rat-centered introductory psychology classes tat seemed to him far removed
o low freedom of movement can spring from inadequate generalization from the everyday lives of humans
 Several techniques  his humanistic inolinations were solidified by reading Freud, the existential thinkiers, and the
o teach patients to look for alternative courses of action great poet
o help patients understand other people’s motives  association with the most influential faculty, Julian Rotter and George Kelly, in Ohio State
o help patients look at the long-range consequences of their behaviors and to understand University
that many maladaptive behaviors produce secondary gains that outweigh the patients’  his cognitive social theory was influenced by Rotter’s social learning theory and Kelly’s
present frustration cognitively based theory of personal constructs
  Rotter taught Mischel the importance of research design for improving assessment
techniques and for measuring the effectiveness of therapeutic treatment; Kelly taught him
that participants in psychology experiments are like the psychologists who study them in
that they are thinking
 practiced spirit possession and investigate delay of gratification in a cross-cultural setting
 become a colleague of Albert Bandura
 his experiences as consultant to the Peace Corps taught him that under the right conditions,
people are atleast as capable as standardized tests at predicting their own behavior
 argued that traits are weak predictors of performance in a variety of situations and that the
situations is more important than traits in influencing behavior
H. BACKGROUND OF THE COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
Behavior was largely a function of the situation.
Consistency Paradox
 people’s behavior is relatively consistent, yet empirical evidence suggests much variability in
behavior
 some basic traits do persist over time, but little evidence exists that they generalize from
one situation to another
Person-Situation Interaction
 personal dispositions influence behavior only under certain conditions and in certain
situations
 this view suggests that behavior is not caused by global personal traits but by people’s
perceptions of themselves in a particular situations
 behavior is shaped by personal dispositions plus a person’s specific cognitive and affective
processes
 person’s beliefs, values, goals, cognitions, and feelings interact with those dispositions to
shape behavior
 neither the situation alone nor stable personality traits alone determine behavior rather
behavior is a product of both
I. COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM
Cognitive-Affective Personality System (Cognitive-Affective Processing System; CAPS)
 accounts for variability across situations as well as stability of behavior within a person
 predicts that a person’s behavior will change from situation to situation but in a meaningful
manner
 variations in behavior can be conceptualized in this framework: If A, then X; If B, then Y
Behavior Prediction
 if-then framework
 if personality is a stable system that processes the information about the situations, external
or internal, then it follows that as individuals encounter different situations, their behaviors
should vary across the situations
 assumes that personality may have temporal stability and that behaviors may vary from
situation t0 situation
 prediction of behaviors rests on a knowledge of how and when various cognitive-affective
units are activated
Situation Variables
 The relative influence of situation variables and personal qualities can be determined by
observing the uniformity or diversity of people’s responses in a given situation.
 when different people are behaving in a very similar manner, situation variables are more
powerful than personal characteristics
 events that appear the same may produce widely different reactions because personal
qualities override situational ones
Cognitive-Affective Units
 includes all those psychological, social and physiological aspects of people that cause them
to interact with their environment with a relatively stable pattern of variation
 Encoding Strategies: people’s ways of categorizing information received from external
stimuli
 Competence and Self-Regulatory Strategies: what people can do and their strategies and
plans to accomplish a desired behavior
o Competencies: vast array of info we acquire about the world and our relationship to it
o Self-regulatory strategies: used by people to control their own behavior through self-
imposed goals and self-produced consequences
 Expectancies and Beliefs: people behave depends on their specific expectancies and beliefs
about the consequences of each of the different behavioral possibilities
 Goals and Values: people do not react passively to situations but are active and goal
directed; people’s subjective goals, values, and preferences
 Affective Responses: include emotions, feelings and physiological reactions; interlocking
cognitive-affective untis as more basic than the other cognitive-affective units
J. RELATED RESEARCH
Locus of Control and Holocaust Heroes
 Midlarsky and Colleagues (2005) sought to use personality variables to predict who was a
Holocause hero and who was a bystander during the tragic years of WWII
 result: the researchers found that possessing an internal sense of control was positively
related to all the personality variables measured, which means that those who had a high
sense of internal control also were more autonomous, took more risks, had a stronger sense
 of social responsibility, were more tolerant, were more empathic, and exhibited higher 6. teleology
levels of altruistic moral reasoning
 further analysis revealed that those who put their own life on the line to assist their KELLY: PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
prescuted neighbors had a higher sense of internal control than those who did not offer
assistance Psychology of Personal Constructs
 “metatheory”: theory about theories
Person-Situation Interaction
 all people anticipate events by the meanings or interpretations (constructs) they place on
 Lara Kammrath and her colleagues (2005) demonstrated the if-then framework very clearly; those events
the goal of the study was to show that people understand the if-then framework and use it
 behavior is shaped by their gradually expanding interpretation or construction of that world
when making judgments about others
 constructive alternativism: assumes that people are constantly active and that their activity
 result: average person understands that people do not behave in the same manner in all
is guided by the way they anticipate events
situations - depending on their personality, people adjust behavior to match the situation
 Mischel and Colleagues (2001) conducted a study on the conditional nature of dispositions A. BIOGRAPHY OF KELLY
in an “I am… when…” framework
 result: support the prediction that students would feel more sadness in the unconditional Full name: George Alexander Kelly
self-evaluation condition than in the conditional one; at least when making unconditional Birthday: April 28, 1905
self-evaluations, those who made trait-like self-evaluations experienced greater sadness Birthplace: Perth, Kansan, South of Wichita
than those who made state-like self-evaluations’ those who believed intelligence and Father: Theodore V. Kelly (ordained presbyterian minister)
personality tend to be fixed entities reported greater sadness to the failure experiences than Mother: Elfleda M. Kelly (schoolteacher)
those who believed those traits were more malleable Wife: Gladys Thompson
 conclusion: social-cognitive interactionist conceptualization of the person-situation Death: March 6, 1967
environment is a more appropriate way of understanding human behavior than the
traditional “decontextualized” views of personality in which people behave in a given way Significant part of his life
regardless of the context  attended school only irregularly, seldom for more than a few weeks at a time and 4 different
high schools in 4 years
K. CRITIQUE OF ROTTER AND MISCHEL  man of many diverse interests: physics and mathematics  educational sociology  oratory
 drama coach  aeronautical engineering  education  physiological psychology 
generate research: generated both quantity and quality research psychotherapist
falsifiable: exposes these theories to possible falsification and verification
 pointed out that his decision was not dictated by circumstances but rather by his
organize knowledge: (above average)
interpretation of events; that is, his own construction of reality altered his life course
guide to action: (moderately high)
 formulate a theory of personality in his days in Fort Hays State
internally consistent: careful in defining terms so that the same term does not have two ormroe
 association
emanings
 with Rotter, Maslow and Mischel
parsimonious: relatively simple and does not purport to offer explanations for all human personality

B. KELLY’S PHILOSOPHICAL POSITION

L. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY

Human Behavior is based on reality and people’s perception of reality.

1. free choice
2. optimism and pessimism?
Personal Constructs
3. conscious
 ways of interpreting and explaining events, hold the key to predicting their behavior
4. social factors
 Personal Constructs Theory: a theory of people construction of events: that is, their
5. unique factors and similarities
personal inquiry into their world

Person as a Scientist
 Your perception of reality is colored by your personal construct- your way of look at,
explaining, and interpreting events in your world
 all people, in their quest for meaning, make observations, construe relationships among
events, formulate theories, generate hypotheses, test those that are plausaible, and reach
conclusions from their experiments
Scientist as a Person
 the pronouncements of scientists should be regarded with the same skepticisim with which
we view any behavior
 every scientific observation can be looked at from a different perspective
 every theory can be slightly tilted and viewed from a new angle
Constructive Alternativism
 people construe reality in different ways, and the same person is capable of changing his or
her view of the world
 People always have alternative ways of looking at things. It assumes that facts can look at
from different perspective.
 person, not the facts, holds the key to an individual;s future
C. PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
Personal Constructs
 assumes that people’s interpretation of a unified, ever-changing world constitutes their
reality
 one’s way of seeing how things (or people) are alike and yet different from other things (or
people)
Basic Postulate
 “A person’s process (living, changing, moving human being) are psychological channelized
(people move with a direction through a network of pathways or channels) by the ways in
which anticipate events (people guide their actions according to their repdictions of the
future).”
 people’s behaviors (thoughts and actions) are directed by the way they see the future
 all psychological process are directed with the ways in which anticipates event
Supporting Corollaries
 Similarities among Events (Construction Corollary): similarity among events
 Differences among people (Individuality Corollary): individual differences
 Relationship among Constructs (Organization Corollary): different people organize similar
events in a manner that minimizes incompatibilities and inconsistencies
 Dichotomy of Construct/ Dichotomy Corollary: either-or proposition
 Choice between Dichotomies (Choice Corollary): people choose actions that are most likely
to extend their future range of choices
 Range of Convenience (Range Corollary): personal constructs are finite and not relevant to
everything.
o concept: all elements having a common property, and it excludes those that do not
have that property
o construct: outside the range of convenience is not considered part of the contrasting
field but simply an area of irrelevancy
 Experience and Learning (Experience Corollary): person’s construction system varies as
he/she successively construes the replication of events
 Adaptation to Experience (Modulation Corollary): the extent to which people revise their
construct is related to degree of permeability of their existing construct.
 Incompatible Construct (Fragmentation Corollary): allows for the incompatibility of specific
elements
 Similarities among People (Commonality Corollary): similarities among people
 Social Processes (Sociality Corollary): extent that people accurately construe the belief
system of others, they may play a role in a social process involving other people
Role
 pattern of behavior that results of a person’s understanding of the construct of others with
whom that person is engaged in a task
D. APPLICATIONS OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCT
Abnormal Development
 psychologically healthy people validate their personal constructs against their experiences
with the real world
 unhealthy people stubbornly cling to outdates personal constructs, fearing validation of any
new constructs that would upset their present comfortable view of the world
 disorder: any personal construction which is used repeatedly in spite of consistent
invalidation
 four common elements in most human disturbance
o threat: awareness of imminent comprehensive change in one’s core structures
o fear: specific and incidental change in a person’s core structures
o anxiety: recognitions that the events with which one is confronted lie outside the range
of convenience of one’s construct system
o guilt: sense of having lost one’s core role structure
E. PSYCHOTHERAPY

Psychological distress exists whenever people have difficulty validating their personal constructs,
anticipating future events, and controlling their present environment. When distress becomes
unmanageable, they may seek outside help in the form of psychotherapy.
Kellyian’s Therapy
 clients, not the therapist, select the goals
 clients are active participants in therapeutic process and the therapist’s role is to assist them
to alter their construct systems in order to improve efficiency in making predictions
 Techniques:
o Fixed-Role Therapy
 help clients change their outlook on life (personal constructs) by acting out a
predetermined role
 together with the therapist, clients work out a role, one that includes attitudes and
behaviors not currently part of their core role
 this new role is then tried out in everyday life in much the same manner that a
scientist tests a hypothesis – cautiously and objectively
 creative process that allows clients to gradually discorepreviously hiddent aspects
of themselves
o The Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test
 used to discover ways in which people construe significant people in their lives
 a person is give a Role Title list and asked to designate people who fit the roles
titles by writing their names on a card
F. RELATED RESEARCH
Gender as a Personal Construct
 Marcel Harper and Wilhelm Schoeman (2003) argued that although gender is perhaps one
of the most fundamental and universal schemas in person perception, not all people are
equal in the extent to which they organize their beliefs and attitudes about other around
gender
 prediction: less information someone has about a person, the more likely he or she will use
stereotypic gender schemas to evaluate that person
 result: gender was a basic category for many participants, with no one scoring 0, and the
mean was slightly less than 10 out of 20; those who used gender most as a way of
categorizing people on the Rep also were more likely to apply gender stereotypes to
strangers in social situations
 conclusions: participants who frequently engaged in gender stereotyping also organized
their person schemas in terms of gender; this suggests that participants who use gender
stereotypes in perceiving strangers also tend to circumscribe their perceptions of friends,
family members and acquaintances along gendered lines
Smoking and Self-Concept
 Peter Weiss and Colleagues (2003) predicted that smokers would identify with and rate
their own personalities more similar to the personality description they had of other
smokers than of nosmokers’ also, lower self-concept for smokers than for nonsmokers
 result: both the smokers and nonsmokers identified with and valued more highly the traits
of nonsmokers than of smokers; the prediction that smokers would have lower self-esteem
did not hold
 conclusion: Rep test is not only a useful tool for assessing self-concept, but it is perhaps a
more valiud and more individualized tool than standard questionnaire inventories
Personal Constructs and the Big Five
 James Grice (2006) sought to determine just how good the repertory grid approach was at
capturing uniqueness compared to he Big Five’ measure the amount of overlap in
participants’ repertory grid ratings and Big Five scores
 result: there was only 50% overlap; this means that the repertory grid was capturing aspects
of people the Big Five was not and that the Big Five was capturing aspects the repertory grid
was not
G. CRITIQUE OF KELLY
 generate research: (moderate to strong) generated a sizable number of studies)
 falsifiability: (low) theory does not lend itself easily to either verification or falsification
 organize knowledge: (low) limited in giving specific meanings
 guide to action: (low) playing the role of a fictitious person, someone the client would like to
know, is indeed an unusual and practical approach to therapy
 internal consistency: (very high) exceptionally careful in choosing terms and concepts to
explain his fundamental postulate and the 11 corollaries
 parsimony: exceptionally straightforward and economical
H. CONCEPT OF HUMANITY
1. optimism
2. free choice
3. teleological
4. conscious
5. social factors
6. uniqueness