Int. J. Mining and Mineral Engineering, Vol. 4, No.

1, 2012 1

An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving

at Kazansi Mine

Raymond S. Suglo

Department of Mining Engineering
University of Mines and Technology,
P. O. Box 237,
Tarkwa, Ghana
E-mail: rssuglo@umat.edu.gh


Corresponding author

Seth Opoku
University of Witwatersrand,
409 Isibaya House Simmounds and 84 Marshall Street,
Newtown, Johannesburg, South Africa
E-mail: sopoku@anglogoldashanti.com
Abstract: Dilution, which is difficult to quantify accurately, is a major concern
in underground mining. The level of dilution in the sublevel caving areas at
Kazansi Mine is currently difficult to assess owing to the lack of data. The
acceptable dilution levels differ from mine to mine but the current planned
dilution of 35% on the mine is too high. This paper attempts to assess the
dilution levels in sublevel caving areas (Blocks 5 and 6) at Kazansi Mine.
The excess tonnage concept when used to compute the dilution factor for
the blocks gave a dilution factor of 44.45% while the lowering grade
concept gave a factor of 17.91%. The overall dilution factor for the block
was found to be 31.18%. The lowering grade concept of dilution factor
computation is recommended as it gives smaller value of 17.91%.
Keywords: mining; dilution; stoping; underground and production.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Suglo, R.S. and Opoku
S. (2012) ‘An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine’,
Int. J. Mining and Mineral Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp.1–16.

Biographical notes: Raymond S. Suglo is a holder of PhD and MSc in

Mining Engineering from the University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada,
a Postgraduate Diploma and Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Mining
Engineering from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. He has over 20 years of
professional experience in teaching, research and underground mining
operations. He is an Associate Professor at the University of Mines and
Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana. His research areas are mine ventilation and
safety engineering, simulation of mining systems, surface and
underground mine planning and design, small-scale mining, mining and
environmental laws.
Seth Opoku completed his first Degree programme in Geodetic Engineering
from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology

Copyright # 2012 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

2 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

(KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana, in May 1999. Then, he obtained his MSc

in Mining Engineering from the University of Mines and Technology
(UMaT), Tarkwa, Ghana, in May 2007. He is currently doing his PhD
programme in Mining Engineering on part-time basis at the University of
Witwatersrand, South Africa.

1 Problem definition

The sublevel caving areas at Kazansi Mine currently contribute about 30% of the total
ore produced in the mine. However, the rising dilution levels in the sublevel caving
areas has led to drops in the grade of the ore, increase in mining and processing
costs and also reduction in the profit margins of the mine.
Dilution is present in all mining methods. The acceptable dilution levels differ
from mine to mine and from one mining method to the other. Dilution levels are
also a function of the ore grade, tonnages of ore and waste mined and the
prevailing metal prices. The current planned dilution of about 35% at Kazansi
Mine is very high. The level of dilution on the mine is currently assessed based on
past experience by the geologists and mine planners. This is often due to the lack
of real data for determining the level of dilution. Apart from the huge costs
involved, processing plants usually do not have enough capacities to accommodate
the excess tonnage owing to dilution. As dilution is unavoidable in sublevel caving
method, there is the need to study the causes of dilution so as to minimise them.
This paper attempts to study and analyse the dilution levels from sublevel caving
areas of Blocks 5 and 6 at the Shaba Shaft. This is done in terms of tonnage, cost
incurred and revenue lost.

2 General information about the area

Blocks 5 and 6 are located in the Shaba Shaft area of the North Mine, between 32 and
39 levels vertically and horizontally between grids 16375E and 16900E. The combined
mining rate of the blocks is about 50,000 tonnes per month from about four stopes.
Both transverse and longitudinal methods of sublevel caving are applied depending on
the shape and size of the orebody. Part of the richer hangingwall quartz of the blocks
between 32 and 35 levels have already been mined out by conventional cut-and-fill
method and filled with waste from development ends.

2.1 Mining methods

The factors considered when choosing a particular mining method include safety,
location and geometry of the deposit, the geomechanical and geotechnical
properties of the country rock and ore, and the resources available. Stoping
methods are compared on the basis of their safety, productivity, mining cost and
profit (Mireku-Gyimah, 2005). The current mining methods employed in the
Kazansi Mine include mechanised open stoping, sublevel caving and stope
preparation, which account for 60, 30 and 10% of the total ore production,
respectively (Anon, 2006).
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 3

Open stoping is the preferred mining method when there is consistent gold
distribution, regular ore boundaries, where the dip is greater than 55 and the
strength of the ore is adequate. The orebody and the hangingwall must be
competent enough to remain open during mining and large stopes are mined from
one level to another. Ground support is in the form of cable bolts and wire mesh.
Shotcrete is also installed in the roof prior to commencing stoping. The
development requirements are higher than the other mining methods used at
Kazansi Mine. Stopes are mined in a variety of sizes depending on the nature of
the ground. When drilling is completed, the holes are blasted using Ammonium
Nitrate Blasting Agent (ANBA). Stope blasts can break up to 10,000 tons of ore
per blast. Cleaning in stopes is done using Load-Haul-Dump (LHD) machines
(Anon, 1992).
Mechanised cut-and-fill stoping was used to mine the ore blocks in Tinana Shaft area
and at the lower levels of Kantayuor Shaft because there were multiple parallel and
shallow dipping orebodies with irregular grades or shapes. This is because the method
is closely controlled, capable of coping with weak grounds and the ability to closely
follow the orebody. However, the method is fairly costly as the back and walls must
be conditioned after every cut to provide a safe working environment. The overall
grade of ore in the stope must be sufficient to support the cost of mining and
conditioning. Presently, there are a few cut-and-fill stopes at Kazansi Mine.
The orebody is usually mined in ascending order, starting from the bottom level
and mining the ore blocks in a breasting technique. Lifts of up to 3.0 m thick are
mined by drilling short horizontal holes of 1.8–3.0 m and blasting them in a
breasting technique. The broken ore is levelled slightly and left in the stope to
allow the next set of breast holes to be drilled and blasted. Cleaning slightly lags
behind drilling and blasting. After a lift has been completely mined, the cavity is
backfilled either with waste rock or hydrafill before the next lift is commenced.
Cable bolts are installed in the roof and sides of the stopes to stabilise the ground.
Cleaning is done with load-haul-dump (LHD) machines.
The stopes are usually divided along strike into two faces advancing from the
centre of the orebody to the north and south. One face is mined at a time while the
other face is filled and cable bolted to allow for continuity in the production
operations.
Sublevel caving method is practised at West Shaba Section where the orebodies are
wide and the rock is too weak to permit the use of either mechanised cut-and-fill or
open stoping methods. The ore is blasted from sublevels and removed from the
level(s) or sublevel(s) below. Many sublevels are located between the main levels.
It requires long development time but produces high tonnage once in production.
The method is largely confined to orebodies with steep dips.
Stoping is normally planned to proceed along the strike starting at the extremities
and retreating to the central access areas. The ore block above each sublevel drive is
drilled with long holes in fan-shaped or ring patterns. Drilling of the fan or ring
holes is done well ahead of blasting and cleaning operations. When a ring is blasted,
cleaning continues until up to 120% of the calculated blast tonnage from the ring is
extracted before another ring is blasted. Because of the degree of rock fragmentation
obtained from the primary blast, secondary blasting is frequently required to enable
the LHD machines to operate efficiently during cleaning. Waste dilution is estimated
to be 35% and ore losses at about 25% (Anon, 1998).
4 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

In sublevel caving, the ore blocks are usually mined in descending order. When
mining has proceeded far enough on the first sublevel above, stoping can
commence on the next sublevel below. As stoping proceeds, the hangingwall is
allowed to cave into the void created. Proper mining practices must be kept to
avoid high dilution in the stopes. At the Kazansi Mine, sublevel caving method is
associated with high level of dilution. Thus, the method is usually used if there are
no other cost-effective mining methods.

2.2 Underground production

Underground mining operations at the Kazansi Mine are currently taking place in the
North and South mines. Figure 1 shows that the ore grades have been falling over the
years from 13.7 g=t in 1990 to below 5.8 g=t in 2006. Production was about 4,500
tonnes per year in 1907. It increased to about 880,000 tonnes per year by 1980.
Production from underground operations peaked at 2.5 million tonnes in 2001 but
is currently about 2 million tonnes=year. Since 2003, the grade and tonnage from
underground has been declining owing to geotechnical problems, lack of mining
flexibility and fewer high-grade stopes (Anon, 2011).

2.3 Ground support control

All excavations where men travel through or work in are supported in a safe and
systematic manner. Generally, the types of openings where support is required in
Kazansi Mine can be grouped into short-term support (2 years or less and are
basically for reef development or stope preparation) and long-term support
(primarily for ramps and access drives). Both passive support and the active
support are used at Kazansi Mine.
Passive supports are installed outside the rockmass to keep in place loose blocks.
Examples are metal straps, shotcrete, wire meshes, steel sets, cable slings and steel

Figure 1 Average grade of underground ore from 1988 to 2006 (see online version for colours)
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 5

arches. Active supports are also installed in the rockmass to form an integral part of the
rock structure to mobilise the shear strength within the rock against any instability.
Examples are mechanical rock bolts, split sets, gewi or rebar and grouted cable bolts.

3 Dilution in sublevel caving method

Dilution is a major concern in sublevel caving method. Excessive dilution and low
grade ores are the main reasons for mine closures worldwide. It is difficult to
quantify dilution accurately owing to the complexity of the factors involved. The
problem begins with the need to define precisely the tonnage of ore and waste
material, and the grade of the ore throughout all stages of mining. This includes
delineating the deposit, defining the cut-off grade, selecting the optimum mining
method, determining the planning and production parameters and finally
processing of the ore. Some engineers estimate the dilution level in sublevel caving
based on experience at mines with similar orebody characteristics. The difficulty in
delineating ore and waste contact is one of the factors that account for the
differences between estimated and achieved mill feed tonnages, grades and total
minerals recovered.
Dilution and ore losses are inherent factors that influence the success of sublevel
caving methods. Extensive scientific investigations with the use of computer
simulations have been used to determine the flow of ore during the caving process
and to identify means of minimising dilution and ore losses. The level of dilution
budgeted for any particular method of extraction is critical to the overall
economics of the mine. Values between 10 and 30% are generally employed and the
rate of return for projects set between 10 and 20%. On the basis of Canadian
experience, more than 20% dilution is considered as excessive (Pakalinis et al., 1995).

3.1 Quantification of dilution

Dilution is defined by many authorities as the addition of waste to ore, which
consequently increases the tonnage handled and reduces the grade (Dominy et al.,
1997); the process of reducing the mineral content as a result of the broken ore
being mixed with waste; the unavoidable extraction of barren ore below the cut off
grade along with the ore; the infiltration of waste into the ore stream thus reducing
its value (Cokyane, 1982). Cokyane (1982) expressed dilution mathematically as:
 
Called grade  Mining grade
Dilution ¼  100% ð1Þ
Called grade  Grade of waste material

where Dilution is in percentage.

Called grade is the grade of ore to be mined.
Mining grade is the grade of the broken ore.
Equation (1) can be simplified to:
 
Grade in place  Grade extracted
Dilution ¼  100% ð2Þ
Grade in place  Grade of dilution
6 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

Using the excess tonnage concept, dilution can be expressed in many ways as in
equations (3)–(5):
 
Waste tonnes added
Dilution ¼  100% ð3Þ
Tonnes broken
 
Actual tonnes mined  Planned tonnes to be mined
Dilution ¼  100%
Actual tonnes mined
ð4Þ
 
Waste added
Dilution ¼  100%: ð5Þ
Ore mined þ Waste added

4 Classification of dilution

The types of dilution are planned dilution, unplanned dilution, top dilution, internal
dilution and side dilution (Butcher, 2002). These types of dilution tend to affect ore
grades particularly in bulk mining methods. Figure 2 is a simplified sketch showing
the difference between planned and unplanned dilution.

Figure 2 Difference between planned and unplanned dilution (see online version for colours)

Source: Coble and Moss, 1994

4.1 Planned dilution (internal dilution)

Planned or internal dilution is the waste rock or low-grade material contained within
defined economic orebodies at the stope boundary. Planned dilution includes waste
within the bounds of the minimum mining width. It arises from material below the
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 7

cut-off grade that lies within the stope boundaries. It is determined by the selectivity
of the mining method and complexity of the orebody. It contains waste hosted by the
vein itself. Planned dilution is included in the mine design and reserve estimations
since it cannot be avoided and hence has to be tolerated. In certain cases, planned
dilution can be as high as 40%.
Unplanned dilution or external dilution relates to waste entering the stope during
mining. This can be due to overbreak or geomechanical failure problems, which may
occur during stope drawdown or mucking (Miller and Potvin, 1992). It is often
controllable to some extent and sometimes relates to the type of drilling and
blasting practices employed (Dominy et al., 1997).
Top dilution is defined as the waste rock, which is of uneconomical value. This
type of dilution normally occurs when crown pillars are mined. Side dilution is the
dilution that occurs owing to the sloughing of the stope hangingwall or footwall in
a steeply inclined orebody (or from the sidewalls in a massive deposit). Measuring
the volume of wall slough, the difference between the designed tonnage and the
actual achieved tonnage is a better measure of mining success even if it does not
resolve all the problems (Butcher, 2002). Overbreak and scaling of roofs and walls
introduce waste into the broken ore.
The main parameters influencing dilution and ore losses in underground mining
are orebody delineation, design and sequencing stope development, the quality of
drilling and blasting practices, the types of supports used, production stages and
management style.

5 Causes of dilution in sublevel caving

All mining methods have some level of dilution and the elimination of waste ingress in
most cases is impossible. However, dilution can be controlled to an acceptable level by
the implementation of correct mining engineering principles. The dilution process in
sublevel caving can take many different forms. In ore, which tends to arch over the
extraction opening, higher probability of anomalous dilution is not expected.
Sublevel caving method relies entirely on the inherent ability of the rocks to
fracture. So features such as dykes, joints, patterns and heterogeneity control the
caving process and can lead to unwanted dilution (Butcher, 2002).
In sublevel caving, the sources of dilution include overdrilling, drill hole deviation
and improper sampling; irregularity of orebody; stope geometry design and dip of
orebody resulting in wall slough; interlacing of orebody by waste material;
geological discontinuities such as faults, shears and dykes, which when exposed
during mining provide weakness planes within the wall rock and can cause the
orebody to fail (Butcher, 2002). The geotechnical properties of the host rock if not
properly assessed during detailed geotechnical mapping can lead to dilution. Also,
poor development layouts, poor drilling accuracy, choice of wrong explosives and
poorly designed blast layouts can result in poor blasting and increased dilution.

6 Effects of dilution on a mine

The detrimental impact of dilution to the economics of mining industry is enormous.

According to Puhakka (1991) and Elbrond (1994), dilution and ore losses exist during
8 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

geological modelling and evaluation, decisions regarding cut-off grade, design of the
mining method, stoping and ore concentration. To measure dilution, one must assume
that the ore is delineated in quantity and quality, and the rock volume can effectively
be measured with a high degree of confidence. Dilution is more often inferred than
physically measured. Because the exact grade of all the components of the
waste=ore mixture is not well known, the dilution estimate can carry a sizeable
error. The effects of dilution include increased operating and overall mining cost,
increased metallurgical cost, increased wear and tear and reduced milling capacity
(Cokayne, 1982; Butcher, 2002).

7 Controlling dilution

All mining methods should be designed to limit dilution. However, as dilution cannot
be prevented, it should be controlled and minimised. A major component in the
prevention of dilution in a stope is good geological and geotechnical definition of
the orebody and the country rocks. This enables the amount of internal dilution to
be determined and the boundaries of stopes to correspond with the limits of the
orebody.
A geotechnical definition can be accomplished by using the rock mass
classification system, which incorporates the effects of blasting (Laubscher, 1990).
It is important that the classification is not only carried out in the project planning
stages, but also on an ongoing basis during the mining stage. Also implementing
good draw control strategies can also reduce dilution. The broken ore is usually
surrounded by waste material. To reduce dilution, alternative designs may
incorporate modifying the span, type of support, mining sequence, rate of
extraction and geometry of the stope to arrive at the best possible design.
Elbrond (1994) dealt with the dilution associated with different types of mining
methods. With regard to the choice of mining method, there is a dilemma in that a
high tonnage=low-cost mining method may be required owing to the grade of the
orebody, but the preferred mining method may have opposite characteristics in
terms of controlling dilution.
Dilution can be reduced by accurately setting out the stope boundary to the
orebody contact in open stopes. Avoiding the mining of the ore blocks with
extremely complex and weak geologies can also assist in reducing dilution as they
minimise the level of side and internal dilution (Butcher, 2002). The levels of side
dilution can further be reduced by the implementation of good drilling and blasting
practices (Dominy et al., 1998). Dilution can be reduced significantly in sublevel
caving if there is interactive draw at adjacent drawpoints of sublevel mining faces
(Bull and Page, 2000).

8 Development of sublevel caving in Kazansi Mine

Development to prepare sublevel caving stopes is extensive in Kazansi Mine and

starts by developing a connecting drift between the ramp and the orebody. Access
to the block is from an internal ramp decline. Footwall drives are developed off the
ramp at 15 m vertical intervals. From the footwall drives, cross-cuts are then
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 9

developed at 30 m intervals to traverse the orebody for ore definition. Perpendicular

to this cross-cut, a reef drive is developed along the orebody about 5 m from the
footwall contact.
Depending on the width of the orebody, more than one reef drive may be
developed and usually run parallel to the strike of the orebody, with a
minimum of about 5 m pillars between them. If the orebody is less than 15 m, it
is expensive to develop transverse stopes and longitudinal stopes are preferred.
Figure 3 is a section of a sample ring hole pattern while Figure 4 shows a
section through the sublevel area with the drifts spread across the orebody in a
regular pattern both in vertical and in horizontal projections. Development
drifting, production drilling of longholes, charging, blasting and mucking of
the broken material are carried out simultaneously on different levels or
cross-cuts.

Figure 3 Sample ring 1 (see online version for colours)

Production holes in the form of fan and ring holes are drilled longitudinally from
the reef drive, using 1.9 m burden and spacing pattern, with a dump angle of 85
towards the slot. The slot extension holes are always blasted first to widen the slot
to the desired dimensions and to create a larger free face, before the other fan
holes are blasted into the slot in a sequential order.
In sublevel caving, the footwall drives must be stable but may require occasional
rock bolting. The types of supports used include a combination of mesh with gewi
bars and split sets; mesh or gewi bars and split sets with shotcrete in smooth
graphite; cable sling or steel sets in running=unravelling graphite ground conditions
and gewi bars or cable bolts in metasediment rock conditions.
10 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

Figure 4 Drilling patterns of 33 and 34 N1 levels (see online version for colours)

9 Sampling and grade control

Sampling is done to determine the grade, calculate the ore reserves and to determine
whether the deposit is economically viable for mining. At Kazansi Mine, channel
sampling method is used. Both mineralised and barren zones are usually sampled at
1.5 m intervals. Grade control is an effective tool to control dilution in sublevel caving
areas. In mineralised zones, three sets of samples are taken on both walls at 0.5 m
intervals. The results of channel sampling in stopes or reef drives are used to update the
grades of the resources in blocks, which have been partially mined. In the stopes or reef
drives, samples are taken across the reef either at the stope face or back at 3–5 m intervals.
Visual examination of the ore by geologists and grade control officers after
blasting a ring and during mucking is mainly used to determine the cut-off point
before the next ring is blasted instead of using continuous sampling and assaying
techniques to ascertain the actual cut-off points.

10 Data collection and analysis

The fieldwork was carried out in three stopes namely 33 S 49, 33 S 44 and 33 N1 S 39,
all at Shaba Shaft. Data collected included blasted tonnages, mucked tonnages, in-situ
grades, achieved or reconciled tonnages and mucked grades.

10.1 Computation of dilution using excess tonnage concept

The excess tonnage concept was used to compute the dilution levels for the blocks
using equation (7):
 
Mucked Tonnage  Ring Tonnage
Dilution ¼  100% ð7Þ
Ring Tonnage
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 11

The data was compiled from November 2004 to December 2006. Figure 5 shows the
relationship between the blasted tonnages, mucked tonnages and the reconciled
tonnages at 33 S 49 Stope from November 2004 to December 2006. The reconciled
tonnages are obtained at the end of the month after stope surveys are compared
with the total mill figures and adjusted. The mucked tonnages are also reconciled
with the mill figures at the end of the month.

Figure 5 Blasted, mucked and reconciled tonnes at 33 S 49 Stope (see online version for colours)

The mucked tonnages are usually greater than the blasted and reconciled tonnages
because of dilution. However, owing to ore losses and some ore still remaining in
stopes during the surveys at the month ends, the blasted tonnages are sometimes
greater than the mucked tonnages. It could also be due to dilution caused mainly
by the collapse of the side walls from the upper levels. For example, in December
2004, August 2006 and November 2006 the blasted tonnages were higher than the
mucked tonnages in 33 S 49 Stope. This could be attributed to ore left in the stope
during the end of month stope measurement and reconciliation (see Figure 5).
The total mucked tonnage from November 2004 to December 2006 was 1,104,899
as against the blasted tonnage of 764,880. The results of the tonnage calculations are
shown in Figures 6 and 7. The blue area (shown as Design Wireframe of Stope) in
Figure 6 shows the mucked area while Figure 7 shows the unplanned dilution.

10.2 Computation of dilution using grade

Data on in-situ and mucked grades was collected from January 1996 to December
2006. Equation (8) was used to compute the dilution levels in Blocks 5 and 6.
 
Insitu grade  Mucked grade
Dilution ¼  100% ð8Þ
Insitu grade
12 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

Figure 6 Total planned tonnage (see online version for colours)

Figure 7 Total mucked tonnage for blocks 5 and 6 (see online version for colours)

The average dilution calculated using equation (8) was 17.91%. The in-situ grades
were obtained from the drilling and sampling conducted in the reef drives. The
in-situ grades of stopes on call were computed at the beginning of the month
while the sampled results at the processing plant gave the mucked grades at the
end of the month. Generally, the mucked grades were lower than the in-situ
grades.
The mean dilution (using tonnage) from November 2004 to December 2006 was
calculated to be 44.45% while that using grade for the same period was found to be
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 13

17.91%. The difference between these two figures is due to the design of the layouts
where the cross-sections of the reef drives were not properly located in a diamond
pattern for good ellipsoidal draw.
A characteristic of sublevel caving is that all blasting is against the broken muck.
The mucking of the ore from the previous blast results in the broken muck being
loosened up. It is known that this allows for expansion and makes the dilution
level higher than the grade dilution level. The mean dilution level for the block was
calculated to be 31.18%. Currently, planned dilution varies from 10% to 25%;
unplanned dilution ranges from 15% to 20%, top dilution range is 2–5% while side
dilution is between 5% and 10% at Kazansi mine.

11 Determination of sublevel caving cost

Dilution has a great influence on the cost of mining and ultimately on the profitability
of the mine. The economic impact of dilution is due to costs associated with handling
and treatment of the materials part of which have very little or no value at all.
Unplanned dilution is a major cost factor for many mining operations. The cost
elements in Kazansi Mine considered during dilution computations included
salaries, wages, materials, fuel, power and contracts. Development cost and dilution
are significant portions of costs in Kazansi Mine.
In the calculations of gross revenue, the extraction loss was taken as 15%, Mine Call
Factor (MCF) ¼ 85% and Recovery (R) ¼ 81%. Also, Grade Reconciliation (GR) and
the gold price were taken as 98% and US$ 450=oz, respectively, in the calculations.
Figure 8 is a graph of the frequency distribution of the dilution levels in the sublevel
caving stopes. Using the mean dilution of 31.18% for the year 2006 with an average

Figure 8 Graph of dilution sublevel caving stopes using grade (see online version for colours)
14 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

Table 1 Revenue and cost computations in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine

Parameter Value

Mineable tonnage (t) 61,543

Mill head grade (g=t) 5.13
Equivalent yield (g=t) 4.15
Ounces Recovered (oz) 8216
Gross revenue (US$) 3,697,037.00
Stope development cost (US$) 326,592.00
Mining cost (US$) 744,670.00
Milling cost (US$) 1,046,230.00
Overhead cost (US$) 158,165.00
Royalty (US$) 110,911.00
Total Cost (US$) 2,386,569.00
Profit (US$) 1,310,514.00

monthly in-situ tonnage of 55,194 tonnes, in-situ grade of 8.94 g=t and total ounces of
15,868 oz, various parameters were calculated and are summarised in Table 1.
Figure 9 shows the yearly cost and revenue at various dilution levels. It shows that
the company will not make any profit when the dilution level in Blocks 5 and 6
reaches 57.38%. The results of the economic analysis show that the cost incurred
by the company as a result of dilution was US$ 8.93  106 in 2006 and the
cumulative financial loss owing to dilution from 1997 to 2006 was US $45.98  106.

Figure 9 Yearly cost and revenue for various dilution levels (see online version for colours)

Conclusions

In this paper, the dilution levels of Blocks 5 and 6 at Kazansi Mine have been
assessed. The following observations are made:
 An assessment of dilution in sublevel caving at Kazansi Mine 15

. Part of the hangingwall in Blocks 5 and 6 at Shaba Shaft has been mined out and
backfilled with waste from development ends. In addition, the existence of a
prominent dolerite dyke emplaced at the north-eastern section, which runs
within the reef as well as graphitic presence (carbon graphite), make the
control of dilution difficult. The block has probably the most difficult ground
conditions compared with other blocks.
. The calculated mean dilution (using tonnage) was found to be 44.45% while the
calculated mean dilution (using grade) was 17.91%. Thus, the mean dilution
factor for the blocks was calculated to be 31.18%.
. Currently, planned dilution varies from 10% to 25%; unplanned dilution ranges
from 15% to 20%, top dilution ranges from 2% to 5% while side dilution ranges
from 5% to 10% at Kazansi mine.
. The total cost of dilution from 1997 to 2006 was found to be US$ 45.98  106.
. Visual examination of the ore by geologists and grade control officers is done
during mucking to determine the cut-off point before the next ring is blasted.
. Setting of very high monthly production tonnage calls leads to high dilution
levels as the crews tend to draw waste to attain the high monthly calls.
. Bonuses paid to workers are based on tonnage trammed and not on the grade of
the ore. As a result, there is a tendency to clean and tram as much materials (ore
and waste) as possible regardless of the grade and this increases dilution.
From the results in this work, it is recommended that:

. Continuous sampling and assaying techniques should be used to determine the

cut-off points in sublevel caving at the mine.
. Good geological and geotechnical definition of the orebody and the country
rocks should be conducted in the sublevel caving areas. This will enable the
amount of internal dilution to be determined and the boundaries of stopes to
correspond with the limits of the orebody.
. Reef drives should be designed in a diamond pattern for good ellipsoidal flow of
broken ore when it is being drawn from the levels and sublevels.
. In areas of very weak rock conditions, active support by means of long grouted
cables and rock bolts should be used to stabilise the ground to minimise dilution
in the stopes when using sublevel caving method.
. Where rich portions of the orebody have to be mined using other mining
methods before sublevel caving is used to mine the lower-grade portions,
hydrafill with high levels of cement should be used as backfill to stabilise the
area before sublevel caving is employed.

References
Anon (1992) Rock Drilling Manual; Theory and Technique, Atlas Copco, Sweden, pp.8–9.
Anon (1998) ‘Underground mining standard practices and procedure at AGA, Obuasi’, Mine
Operating Manual, (Unpublished), Section 6, pp.40–45.
16 R.S. Suglo and S. Opoku

Anon (2001) Geotechnical Department, Anglogold Ashanti, Obuasi Mine, Unpublished Notes,
pp.5–10.
Anon (2006) Monthly Stope Production Performance, Mine Operating Records, (Unpublished
Report), pp.23–31.
Bull, G. and Page, C.H. (2000) ‘Sublevel caving – today’s dependable low cost ore factory’,
Proceedings of Mass Mining Conference, Brisbane Queensland Australia, pp.537–556.
Butcher, R.J. (2002) ‘Dilution control in southern African mines’, Proceedings of African
Mining Brisbane (MassMin 2000), 29 October-2 November 2000, Brisbane, Queensland,
Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, pp.1–6.
Cokayne, E.W. (1982) Sublevel caving: Introduction:, in Underground mining methods
handbook, (W.A. Hustrulid, sen. ed.), Society of Mining Engineers of the American
Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum, Inc., New York, pp.872–879.
Dominy, S.C., Camm, G.S. and Phelps, R.F.G. (1997) ‘Narrow vein mining- a challenge to the
operator’, Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, AA Balkema, Rotterdam, pp.141–147.
Dominy, S.C., Camm, P.R.F.G., Sangster, C.J.S. and Camm, G.S. (1998) ‘Problems and
solutions associated with narrow vein mining operations – a review’, Transactions of the
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy (Section A), London, UK, pp.14–20.
Elbrond, J. (1994) ‘Economic effects of ore losses and rock dilution’, CIM Bulletin, Vol. 87, No.
978, pp.131–134.
Laubscher, D.H. (1990) ‘A Geomechanics classification system for the rating of rock masses in
mine design’, African Institute of Mining and Metallurgical, Vol. 90, No. 10, pp.257–287.
Miller, F. and Potvin, Y. (1992) ‘Cavity monitoring system, update and applications’,
Proceedings of 94th Annual Meeting of the CIM, Montreal, pp.1–5.
Mireku-Gyimah, D. (2005) ‘Sublevel caving’, Unpublished Underground Mine Design and
Planning Lecture Notes, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa, pp.1–8.
Pakalnis, R., Poulin, R. and Hadjigeorgiou, J. (1995) ‘Quantifying the cost of dilution in
underground mines’, Mining Engineering, Vol. 47/12, pp.1136–1141.
Puhakka, R. (1991) ‘Geological waste rock dilution’, The Finnish Association of Mining and
Metallurgical Engineers, Vol. 94, pp.6–8.