201c HW 6 Solutions

May 31, 2010

Problem 1 Prove that the Dirac delta-function is not a function.

Solution to Problem 1 First note that for any g ∈ C ∞ with g(0) = 1 there is the identity gδ0 = δ0 .
Suppose that the Dirac delta-function (evaluation at a point) could be represented as integration
against a locally integrable function f , then for all φ
Z Z
ex f (x)φ(x) dx = f (x)φ(x) dx
R R

but test functions separate locally integrable functions so ex f (x) = f (x) a.e.; hence f (x) = 0 a.e. This
is a contradiction because the Dirac delta is not the zero functional, hence the Dirac delta cannot be
written as a function.
Problem 2 Let g ∈ C ∞ (R. For T ∈ D0 (R) define gT (φ) = T (gφ). Prove that this defines a distribution
and that the map g : D0 (R) → D0 (R) is continuous.
Solution to problem 2 The first thing to show is that gφ is a test function. This product is compactly
supported because φ is. It is C ∞ by the product rule. The map gT is a linear because of the distributive
law for functions. To check that gT is continuous fix φ ∈ D(R) and take a sequence (φn ) ∈ D(R) that
converge to φ in D(R). Continuous functions on compact sets are bounded so there exists C such that

g(φ(α) − φ(α)
n ) ≤ C(φ
(α)
− φn(α) )

thus in D(R) we have gφn → gφ.

To prove that the mapping g(T ) = gT is continuous I must show that for any sequence (Tn ) ∈ D0 (R)
such that Tn → T in D0 (R) we have for any φ a test function gT (φ) − gTn (φ) → 0. This follows from
the fact that gφ is a test function

gT (φ) − gTn (φ) = T (gφ) − Tn (gφ)

= [T − Tn ](gφ)

which converges to zero because T → Tn in the space of distributions.

Problem 3 a Find all solutions of the equation xT = 0 in the space of distributions D0 (R).
Solution to problem 3 a Note that φ ∈ Cc∞ (R) does not imply that φ is analytic. In fact, the zero
function is the only smooth compactly supported analytic function. Analytic means that the radius of
convergence of the Taylor series is infinite and that the function is equal to its Taylor series everywhere.
Thus appeals to Taylor series are inappropriate.
We immediately see that scalar multiples of δ0 are solutions

xλδ0 (φ) = λδ0 (xφ)

= 0.

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 To show that only such distributions satisfy xT = 0 I must prove the following: for any test function
φ vanishing at the origin there is another test function ψ such that

φ = xψ.

The proof is as follows: in a neighborhood of the origin

φ(x) = φ(0) + xφ0 (0) + O(x2 ).

Since φ(x) is a test function so is the order x2 part of the equation above, then

φ(x) = φ(0) + x(φ0 (0) + g/x)

where the ratio g/x can be continuously extended to the origin with the value zero. Then ψ =
x(φ0 (0) + g/x) where g goes as order x2 near the origin. Now let T satisfy xT = 0 and let φ be a test
function vanishing at the origin, then

T (φ) = T (xψ) = 0.

Now take g ∈ D(R) and h another test function such that g(0) = h(0), then T (g − h) = 0, then T is a
multiple of the delta function.
An alternative decomposition is
φ(x) − φ(0)
φ(x) = φ(0) + x
x
with the value at x = 0 defined to make φ(x) continuous.
Problem 3 b Find all solutions of the equation x2010 T = 0 in the space of distributions D0 (R).
Solution to problem 3 The space of solutions is spanned by δ0 and its first 2009 derivatives. This is
because the space of test functions which value at the origin along with their first 2009 derivatives is
the same as the space of test functions that can be written as x2 010ψ(x) with ψ(x) a test function.
This follows from the fact that such a function is equal to

x2 010φ(2010)
φ(0) = + O(§∈ 0∞∞)
2010!
and the proof proceeds as in part (a).
Problem 4 Does the sequence sin nx have a limit in D0 (R)?
Solution to Problem 4 This proof is identical to the proof of weak convergence to zero in Lq (R), which
you did in your second homework.
Problem 5 a Define T as
∞
X
T (φ) = φ(k) (k).
k=0

Prove that T is in D0 (R).

Solution to 5 a Test functions have compact support, so for each φ, ψ the quantity T (αφ + βψ) is a finite
sum of functionals, and hence linear. Continuity of T can be seen by using the fact that convergence
in D(R) requires all derivatives to converge uniformly in L∞ , thus
M
X M
X
φ(k)
n (k) → φ(k) (k),
k=0 k=0

so T is continuous.

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Problem 5 b Prove that T cannot be represented as a distributional derivative of a finite order function.
Solution to 5 b Suppose towards a contradiction that there was an f ∈ L1loc (R) such that
Z
T (φ) = (−1)a f (x)φ(x(a) ) dx.
R
Select a test function φ supported at a+ 1 but not at any larger integer and a sequence of test functions
(a+1)
φn that converge uniformly to φ in their first a derivatives, but φn does not converge uniformly to
(a+1) (a+1) (a)
φ . One way to do this would be to take φn = φ + sin nx in a neighborhood of a + 1, we
need to smooth the sin nx perturbation to zero away from a + 1 to maintain compact support. Then
(a)
define φn by integrating up and matching φn (0) = φ(0). Uniform convergence of φn implies that
Z Z
lim (−1)a f (x)φ(a) n = f (x)φ(a)
n
n→∞ R R
(a)
but limn→∞ T (φn ) does not exist. Then for some of the φn it must be that
Z
f (x)φ(a) a (a)
n 6= (−1) T (φn ).
R

Then the claim that there existed an f such that T = f (a) is false.
Problem 6 Define S, T and U by the following formulas
Z
1
S(φ) = lim φ(x) dx (1)
R x
→0+ i
Z
1
T (φ) = lim φ(x) dx (2)
→0 R x − i
Z −1/n Z ∞
1
U (φ) = lim ( + ) φ(x) dx. (3)
n→∞ −∞ 1/n x
Prove that S, T and U are distributions and show that S = U − πiδ(x) and T = U + πiδ(x).
Solution to Problem 6 I use Lebesgue dominated convergence to prove that each of S, T and U are well
defined. Let φ be a test function with kφkL∞ (R) = C and support contained in [−M, M ]. I break this
into two cases b) φ(0) = 0 and a) φ(0) 6= 0. In case a)
Z Z M
φ(x) xψ(x)
| dx| = | dx|
R x + i −M x + i
≤ 2kψkL∞ (x − i log (x + i))|x=M
x=0
M x=M
≤ 2kψkL∞ (M − i log ( + 1))|x=0
i

which has a well defined limit as  → 0.

In the second case φ can be written as φ(0) + ψ(x) where ψ(0) = 0. Then I must show that the integral
against the constant exists as
Z M Z M Z M
φ(x) φ(0) xψ(x)
| dx| ≤ | dx| + | dx|
−M x + i −M x + i −M x + i
Z M
φ(0)
≤ | dx| + C
−M x + i
M + i
≤ |φ(0)|| log |+C
M − i
≤ |φ(0)| + C.

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The computations for T are essentially the same.

Z 1/n
lim (φ(x) − φ(−x))/x
n→∞ −1/n

To show that U is well defined perform the following manipulation

Z −1/n Z ∞ Z ∞
φ(x) φ(x) − φ(−x)
lim ( + ) dx = lim dx
n→∞ −∞ 1/n x n→∞ ∞ x

The integrand is bounded by 2φ0 (0), so Lebesgue dominated convergence applies and the limit as
n → ∞ exists.
Given that S, T and U are well defined they are continuous on D(R). Let (φn ) → φ in the space of
test functions then kφ − φn kC 1 (R) → 0. Thus the bound S(φ) ≤ CkφkC 1 (R) implies that
φn (x) − φ(x)
Z
lim lim dx = 0.
→0 n→∞ R x + i
Limits and integration against a locally integrable function are both linear operations so S, T and U
are all linear.
Now to show that S = U − πiδ(x) and T = U + πiδ(x). I prefer to show that T + S = 2U and
T − S = 2πiδ(x).
Since T, S are well defined the limits can be added
Z
φ(x) φ(x)
[T + S](φ) = lim lim + dx
→0 0 →0R x − i x + i0
Z
φ(x)2x
= lim dx.
→0 R x2 + 2

Define the distribution W

Z −1/n Z ∞ p
W (φ) = − lim ( + ) log x2 + 2 φ(x) dx
n→∞ −∞ 1/n
√
Since log x2 + 2 is dominated by √ 1 ≥ 1
this is a distribution for y ≥ 0. Taking the distributional
x2 +2 x
derivative of Wy gives
Z −1/n Z ∞
x
Wy0 (φ) = lim ( + ) φ(x) dx;
n→∞ −∞ 1/n x2 + 2
which in the  → 0 limit is S + T (φ)/2. Instead starting with W0 and differentiating you get
Z −1/n Z ∞
φ(x)
W00 (φ) = lim ( + ) dx
n→∞ −∞ 1/n x

so U = (T + S)/2.
For T − S
Z
φ(x) φ(x)
[T − S](φ) = lim lim − dx
→0 0 →0 R x − i x + i0
Z
φ(x)(2i)
= lim dx
→0 R x2 + 2

4
 
The integral kernel x2 +2 is positive definite, has an integral that converges to π and has the property

that for any δ, η > 0 there exists  > 0 such that

Z δ
x 1 δ
= arctan < π − η.
−δ x2 + 2 2 

Which is true because for fixed delta

lim 2 arctan δ/ = π.

→0

Then in D0 integration against 

x2 +2 converges to δ(x).