Introduction

In this paper, explanations are given for six important ethical components in Confucianism
including the concepts of xi, zhi, li, yi, wen and ren. There are also descriptions of the
connections between these qualities. Modern examples are given to clarify the meanings of
these Chinese word-symbols.

The concept of xi (natural capacity for learning) is examined in detail. This mysterious
attribute leads to a discussion of the innate qualities in man. There is a discussion of whether
man is born with a natural tendency toward goodness, evil, or neither. Included are citations on
this subject from other philosophers including Plato, Rousseau, Machiavelli, and Confucian
scholar Giles. The concept of xi is juxtaposed against these other philosophies to examine
similarities and differences concerning the nature of man. Additionally, commentary is offered
on the assimilation of virtue in conjunction with the individual’s innate capacity for learning.

There is a discussion of mysticism and whether it exists in Confucianism. The spiritual goals of
other mystical traditions are compared to Confucian ideals. There are comparisons to Taoism,
Buddhism, Vedanta and Christianity as they relate to the ‘enlightened’ state in Confucianism.

Finally, a conclusion section summarizes the topics discussed. Commentary is offered on the
benefits and limitations of Confucianism as a world religion.

The Basis of Ethical Thought in Confucianism

The discussion begins with explanations of the xi, zhi, li, yi, wen, and ren. Chong contends that
xi relates to one’s capacity to “instill in oneself certain virtuous habits” (Chong, 2007, p. 1).
However, the most interesting definition of xi is, ‘the original good, evil or nothing’ that man is
born with. In Confucianism, xi does not contain any original ‘goodness or badness’ (p.1).
Therefore, Confucius believes that people must learn to act ethically since it is not an original
part of their nature. Although each person has the same capacity for learning to act virtuously,
each person proceeds at their own pace through practice. Consequently, the concept of xi
provides a starting point for the learning of ethics, virtue, truth, and morality.

Zhi is the natural substance of which a person is made, but it is not an innate human
attribute. The individual acquires zhi through education (Chong, 2007, p. 1). The meaning of zhi,
as “native substance” or “basic stuff”, relates to the ‘building of substantial character traits’ the
individual is cultivating through learning and practice (p. 18). Similarly, as with xi, human beings
are not born with moral goodness or badness. The desire for building moral character depends
on the individual’s self-motivation and whether his behavior is in accordance with the qualities
of li (propriety or etiquette) (2007, p. 2). In the West, the concept of li is taught at ‘finishing
schools’ that train young people how to act ‘properly’ and understand the moral and ethical
rules of the culture. These schools promise to complete a young adult’s education by teaching
them the necessary social skills (li) for personal advancement in societal life. There is a question,
however, about the effectiveness of this type of education as it relates to Confucian ethics and
the acquiring of zhi. Although the individual is learning propriety and etiquette at a ‘finishing
school’, these ‘proper’ behaviors can be easily mimicked by the individual. Consequently, this
type of learning affects the individual’s outer behavior, but does not develop his inner value
system or moral nature. In Western schools, many students will ‘sponge-up’ the prescribed
information for purpose of appearances, but the student’s inner world remains untouched.
Therefore, the effectiveness of this teaching method for learning zhi characteristics is highly
questionable. Additionally, if the assimilation of zhi is not genuine within the individual, the
expression of li is hollow and without meaning. Unfortunately, most Western schools use
teaching techniques that present new knowledge to the student, and have an expectation that
the student will repeat the same information back to the teacher for approval. This short-sighted
teaching system does not affect the core beliefs of the student, and does not improve his moral
conduct. Therefore, attaining the attribute of zhi is imperative for the individual wanting to
develop a meaningful form of li within his belief system.

Li also refers to certain rituals within a hierarchical social order, and everyone understands
their responsibility to the community. Practicing li not only shapes character, but motivates the
individual to “behave, desire, feel, and act in required ways” (p. 2). There is an inference that an
individual acquiring li has a sense of fairness or equity. An example of an individual who does not
have li is a Courtroom Judge who follows the letter of the law, and does not allow for special
circumstances when rendering an opinion. These Judges do not have a sense of equity, and
therefore, they render their decisions based on the literal interpretation of the law. Other
Judges, however, do take into consideration the various circumstances connected to a dispute,
and render an opinion based on the ‘spirit’ of the law. These Judges have a sense of ethical
fairness, and have the ability to express their qualities of li. There are also institutions and
organizations where individuals have an opportunity to express their qualities of li in accordance
with their positions and responsibilities.

Yi translates as “morality” (Chong, 2007, p. 3). However, from this simple definition, there are
other meanings such as right action, duty, and righteousness. According to Lau, yi is an essential
concept in Confucianism, “Yi is the standard by which all acts must be judged while there is no
further standard by which yi, itself can be judged” (p. 3). Lau explains that the object of all
learning is yi, and all rites, and rules of conduct are based on yi (p. 3). Therefore, yi is the ethical
set of moral principles that underlies Confucianism. Yi represents the perfection of morality, and
li is the expression of yi. The yi principles of right action, duty, and righteousness are constantly
being practiced through li. By harmoniously performing li, an individual is creating beauty and
balance in his life.

Wen is described by Chong as “the icing on the cake or something that one does at leisure”
(2007, p. 2). These activities include music, poetry, and art that express virtue within the
community. However, Confucius is critical of Chinese culture and believes that the arts are
lacking virtue:

Surely when one says, 'The rites, the rites,' it is not enough merely to mean presents of jade and
silk. Surely when one says 'music, music,' it is not enough merely to mean bells and drums...."
The master said, "What can a man do with the rites who is not benevolent? What can a man do
with music who is not benevolent? (The Analects, XVII: 11, III: 3)

Confucius believes that one should not participate in a ‘creative pursuit’ unless virtue is being
expressed (p. 29). He wants moral themes embedded in the manifestation of creative forms. As a
modern example of this phenomenon, during in the 1960’s a form of music called ‘bubble-gum’
referred to songs that were meaningless and written for the sole purpose of making money.
These ‘hit’ songs were profitable for the music industry, but did not advance the state-of-the-art
continuum in the musical genre of Rock N’ Roll. Consequently, the cultural effects of such music
were temporary and offered nothing of any societal value. Since Confucius believes that
promoting virtue is the purpose for musical expression, he would not approve of ‘bubble-gum’
music. He would approve of music that has an authentic message and raises the consciousness
of the community. Staying with our example of 1960’s music, there are musical albums such as
Sgt. Pepper (Beatles), Tommy (The Who), Highway 61 (Bob Dylan), and Bookends (Simon &
Garfunkel) that are recognized as musical milestones, and include songs that contain meaningful
wen (expression of values) for this generation. These albums continue to have lasting effects on
American culture, and are influencing the writing of today’s modern music. There are countless
other types of music reflecting the human condition at various times in history. Since music is a
universal language, it is an effective vehicle for expressing emotion, virtue, and morality.
Confucius understands that artistic expression is an opportunity to teach (and remind) people of
the perennial virtues which are sometimes forgotten. Consequently, through the expression of
the arts, the community maintains its ethics, compassion, benevolence and morality.

Ren is considered the highest virtue in Confucianism (Chong, 2007, p. 27). Ren is referred to
as “the loftiest ideal of moral excellence, the most difficult of attainment, and the highest
development of the individual’s distinctive nature” (p. 24). Ren is also associated with
benevolence, love, humaneness, and the summation of all the other virtues. As examples, a few
individuals possessing ren include Moses, Jesus, Mohammad, Krishna, Buddha, Lao-Tzu, and
Confucius. An individual acquiring ren is mastering the way of virtue, morality, compassion and
love. This individual is reaching the highest levels of moral perfection in a specific aspect of life.
Accordingly, in every discipline there are a few people who are role-models and inspire others to
achieve greatness. It can be said that Michael Phelps is achieving ren in swimming; Albert
Einstein in physics; or Tiger Woods in golf. There is an element of genius in each of these
individuals that helps them attain this super-human level of ren. Additionally, practice, patience
and perseverance are needed for anyone who is striving to reach the highest levels of ren.

The Confucian Concept of xi – A Comparative Overview

Now, we return to the concept of xi which is not an innate quality of ‘good or evil’ in each
person. However, xi symbolizes a mysterious power that manifests as the human capacity (or
potentiality) for learning. Confucianism teaches that when a person is born, he is not
predisposed toward being a hero or a villain. However, this question of whether man is born
good, neutral, or evil is an enigma that philosophers have been grappling with for thousands of
years. Trying to understand whether man is born good, evil, or neither, calls for an assumptive
theory that can become the foundation for an entire philosophy. Since Confucius says that the
essence of xi has no attributes, it is important to discuss this topic in more detail. Confucian
philosophy rests on the idea that man is not born inherently good, and must learn how to
behave ethically. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the thinking of Confucius with other great
philosophers who have pondered over this question of whether man has any innate qualities.
First we turn to Plato who agrees with Confucius. Plato contends that man must learn ‘how to be
good’ according to societal and cultural norms.

For if a man were born so divinely gifted that he could naturally apprehend the truth, he would
have no need of laws to rule over him; for there is no law or order which is above knowledge,
nor can mind, without impiety, be deemed the subject or slave of any man, but rather the lord of
all. I speak of mind, true and free, and in harmony with nature. But then there is no such mind
anywhere, or at least not much; and therefore we must choose law and order, which are second
best. (360 BCE, Laws)

However, Confucian scholar Giles, who is reading the same material as Chong, disagrees with his
interpretation, and says Confucius believes that man is born inherently good.

The Confucian Criterion.--The keystone of the Confucian philosophy, that man is born good will
be found in the following lines:

How mighty is God!

How clothed in majesty is God,

And how unsearchable are His judgments!

God gives birth to the people,

But their natures are not constant;

All have the same beginning,

But few have the same end. (Giles, 1906, p. 28)

Unfortunately, this citation from Religions of Ancient China does not offer enough evidence to
conclude that ‘man is born with innate goodness’. Although, Confucius is saying that people are
brought into this world by God, he does not say that the goodness of God is born within them.
Additionally, Confucius says that each person has a different ‘nature’ which could include (less-
than good) attributes such as selfishness, greed, laziness, envy, pride etc. If Confucius wanted to
say that man is born with ‘goodness’, he would have placed the word ‘good’ before the word
‘nature’. Instead, he says each person’s nature is not constant, and does not say that people are
born with inherent goodness. Although there is an inference that each person is born with ‘a
clean slate’ (eliminating the idea of past-life karma), there is no reason to conclude that life
begins with the goodness of God in every person.

From another perspective, Rousseau contradicts the Confucian notion that man is born
without goodness. In Rousseau’s Discourse on the Origin and the Foundations of Inequality
among Men, he says,

Man is naturally good and that it is through institutions alone that men become bad. Man’s
nature does not preclude the existence of a social world that would not be plagued by the ills
that we see all around us. (1766)

Rousseau posits that man is born with natural goodness, but is unhappy because of his
experiences in society. The reason for man’s misery is societal distortion, corruption, and
acceptance of false values (2008, Nosotro). Therefore Rousseau would interpret the concept of xi
as being the innate goodness in man that is potentially corruptible.

Moving to the opposite end of the philosophical spectrum, Machiavelli believes that people
are essentially evil and self-serving. He believes that people should take advantage of others
when they are weak and manipulate people with the intention of controlling them. (1967,
Brians, p. 22) Additionally, Machiavelli is an advocate of dictatorship and does not value the
family unit or the community. Therefore, Confucius would consider Machiavelli’s philosophy as
unethical, immoral and inhumane. Consequently, the concept of xi in Machiavellian philosophy
indicates that man is born with the potential of being evil. To support this claim, in The Prince by
Machiavelli, he writes,
A prudent leader will not and should not observe his promises, when such observance will work
against him and when the reasons for making the promise are no longer valid. If all men were
good, this precept would not be good; but since men are evil and will not keep their word with
you, you shouldn't keep yours to them. (Brians, 1967, p. 46)

This pessimistic vision of man’s nature begins with the premise that man is predisposed toward
evil and must learn to be good (if he can ever be good). Machiavelli has little faith in mankind
and believes that achieving evil is actually good. His other philosophical beliefs include the
following:

1) A nice person will always fail;

2) It is better to be feared than loved;

3) Bundle evil into short period of time so people forget sooner;

4) Better to appear to be faithful, merciful, humane and honest than actually be those things
and;

5) Best friends quickly disappear in times of adversity. (Klaus, Qing, 2008)

It is interesting to compare the philosophical differences between Confucius, Plato, Rousseau

and Machiavelli as they relate to the natural qualities of man. However, there is no way to prove
whether human beings are born with a form of xi that is innately good, evil or neutral. Therefore,
this subject becomes an issue of faith and religion. Consequently, in Christianity, xi corresponds
to man’s birth with ‘original sin’ and his limited capacity for learning until he finds salvation. In
Hinduism, xi is tied to the cycle of re-birth and man’s capacity for learning as determined by
karma. In Buddhism, xi is connected to constantly changing attributes (skandhas) that are
affecting the person’s capacity for future learning. In Judaism, the concept of xi relates to the
individual’s capacity for learning during the ‘here and now’. Additionally, atheists, agnostics,
existentialists, and nihilists, would view xi as either non-existent, unimportant, illogical or having
limited applications in daily life. Conversely, if we turn to ancient Egypt and the writings of
Hermes Trismegistus, we find the ‘Hermetic’ axiom, ‘as above, so below’. Based on this concept,
everything that exists in the lower (physical) world is a reflection of the higher world. Therefore,
if love, compassion, benevolence, generosity, truth, selflessness, and beauty exist in the lower
world, it stands to reason that these qualities must exist in the higher world(s). Additionally, if
one accepts the premise of an Ultimate Source or Tao, a correspondence exists between the
innate goodness of the Tao and the innate goodness of xi within each human being. Finally, if
this Ultimate Source has unlimited potentiality, there is an argument to be made that each
person’s xi has an unlimited capacity to learn and grow. Therefore, the nature of xi can be
defined as an innate ‘unlimited potentiality for goodness’ that allows the individual to expand his
capacity for learning to the highest levels of knowledge.

Discussion

Based on the theory of ‘as above, so below’, it is logical to presume that there is a relationship
between the xi of the human-self and the Xi of an Eternal Universal-Self. This analogy is
reminiscent of the relationship existing between the macrocosmic I AM of ‘God’ and the
microcosmic I am of the mortal. If we continue to explore this line of mystical thinking, we find a
relationship in Vedanta (Hinduism) between Atman (a spark of spirit in each person) and its
source - Brahman (the One Eternal Reality). Although Confucius does not offer a mystical or
metaphysical doctrine, there is an implied mystical feeling in the Confucian Doctrine of Man. This
text speaks of the ‘superior man’ who stays calm, in contrast the ‘inferior man’ who depends on
material goods and cannot stay calm (Kupperman, 1971, p. 193).

The superior man is quiet and calm, waiting for the appointments of Heaven, while the mean
man walks in dangerous paths looking for lucky occurrences. (Legge, 1870, p. 129)

To support this point further, in Analectics IX, Confucius says, “the enlightened are free from
doubt; the virtuous free from anxiety; and the brave free from fear” (Kupperman, 1971, p. 193).
This reference to a ‘superior man’ living in a natural state of bliss is similar to the Buddhist
(Theravada) notion of living in a constant state of nirvana. To reach this transcendent state of
calmness, the Buddhist must follow the path of the Bodhisattva. According to Tachibana, “The
career of the Bodhisattva is conspicuous by his noble spirit and self-sacrificing deeds.” (1992, p.
97) Therefore, the Bodhisattva is more concerned about the well-being of each member of the
community than he is about himself. This type of progressive thinking is also found in Taoism.
According to Kohn, there are Masters of Wondrous Practice, Virtue, and Tao, who receive an
ordination certificate for achieving the highest levels of understanding, selflessness, and
compassion (2004, p. 86). The Taoist understands that he cannot become ‘one with the Tao’ until
the entire community is ready for this transition. To reach this level of enlightenment the Taoist
practices Nei-Yeh or ‘inward training’ that centers the vital energies and empties the mind
(Creighton, 2001, p. 590). Additionally, he builds a seamless connection between the
“psychological, physiological, and spiritual aspects, while recognizing the interconnectedness of
the heavens, the earth and human beings” (p. 590). The same theme is found in Christianity for
those seeking to attain ‘Christ Consciousness’. Every religion speaks of the highest levels of
spiritual awareness, and Confucianism is no exception. In the Analectics, Confucius speaks of the
superiority and calmness that is associated with attaining an ‘enlightened’ state of being.
Consequently, once enlightenment is referred to as a sought-after goal, a viable connection is
established between the physical world and the heavens. The next step for the serious student
of Eastern religion is to experience this mystical connection.

Conclusion

It can be argued that Confucius was a philosopher and not a religious leader. His writings
apply to humanistic, rational, ethical and moralistic issues. Virtue and morality are his primary
focus, and there are very few similarities to the exoteric religious teachings of East and West.
Confucius is concerned with teaching people about benevolence, generosity, love, compassion,
and sincerity in a straightforward manner (without worship, metaphysics or dogma). He
concentrates on developing morality - and a sense of shame - so people will behave in
harmonious ways. He also stresses that in order to govern, one must govern themselves.
Additionally, loyalty to family and family lineage are important to maintain honor.

Confucius teaches his students how to live a contented, moral and happy life. He wants
people to associate with others who can act as their teachers. He encourages people to live by
their principles and continue to build upon them. He tells others to love their work, because they
will realize that they are not really working at all. In this natural state of mind, all six of the
essential ethical principles are automatically being assimilated into the person’s being.
 The six Confucian principles of xi, zhi, li, yi, wen, and ren - form a framework of ideals that
allows the individual to become a ‘being’ of pure, unlimited virtue. These six qualities are
interconnected and dependent on each other for the assimilation of moral principles. The
student must be sincere in his efforts while learning these principles, and has a genuine desire to
live the virtuous life. Consequently, he expresses authenticity in words and deeds, and has an
unselfish desire to expand his capacity for learning. Additionally, he builds upon his xi, and
therefore, increases his inner potential for goodness.

The Confucian mystery of xi is a key component that bridges the gap between exoteric and
esoteric philosophy. Although Confucianism is primarily viewed as a philosophical discipline for
cultivating morality, there is a metaphysical question concerning the nature of xi. This concept
cannot be explained rationally, but it inspires discussion about the innate goodness, evil, or
nothingness within man. Confucius claims that man is born without good or bad qualities, but
the unlimited potential goodness of xi casts doubt on this assumption. This one mysterious
aspect of ‘being’ invites the mystic to investigate whether a Confucian-mystical connection
exists. Subsequently, the mystic will want to know if Confucianism offers a mystical doctrine that
is similar to traditions of Taoism, Buddhism and other traditions. Although it is clear that
Confucius was not a mystic, there are mystical references to an ‘enlightened state of being’.
Consequently, the mystical teachings Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism are connected by a
common goal of attaining enlightenment. Additionally, all three traditions are teaching similar
ethical standards that must be assimilated before the individual attains enlightenment.
Therefore, the individual must live the moral life and expand his consciousness in preparation for
entering the enlightened state. Upon mastering the Confucian, Taoist or Buddhist ways of ethical
living, the student is ready to enter the path of the mystic.