What Is RFID?

Radio Frequency IDentification is a technology that allows almost any

object to be wirelessly identified using data transmitted via radio waves.

Benefits of RFID
The ability to identify and track individual items, as well as crates of items,
without line of sight can be an advantage for many companies across
almost any vertical. For example, if a company has 5,000 identical plastic
crates, an RFID tag can be placed on each one in order to recognize crate
1,948 from crate 3,097 without requiring line of sight. Identifying these
crates can be crucial to the company’s bottom line when one is carrying
valuable merchandise or a customer’s order. That company needs to not
only keep track of that merchandise or order, but also potentially the c rate
itself, if it is one of the company’s assets. RFID can be used to locate and
track these assets. Below are some additional benefits of using RFID:

 RFID doesn’t need line of sight

 RFID tags are able to be rewritten and reused
 RFID tags can be extremely durable against impact and
environmental factors
 RFID tag data is encrypted and can also be locked for extra security
 RFID tags can hold more data than other types of tags or labels
 RFID readers can read hundreds of tags within seconds
 RFID tags can have information printed on them like instructions,
barcodes, or company names
 RFID systems can be integrated with other internal systems or
processes
What Makes Up an RFID
System?
Several pieces of hardware are involved in creating a working RFID
system. If a system is set up properly with the correct equipment and
thoroughly tested and tuned, then it should be able to read moving or
stationary tags with near 100% efficiency. Below are the different parts that
make up a UHF RFID system.

Reader – An RFID reader is the “brain” of the system. Readers can be

programmed to only read certain RFID tags, read tags at a certain time,
read tags once in inventory mode, or read tags over and over to gauge
specific information. Readers vary from around a few hundred dollars for a
simple reader/writer to over several thousand dollars for a complex, high -
performance reader.

Antenna – RFID antennas actually send the RF energy to the RFID tags in
order to energize them and then listen to receive the tag’s reply. They are
connected to the RFID reader using a coaxial cable, and function like a
reader’s “arm” to send and receive information.

Tags – RFID tags are placed on objects and, unless they are active RFID
tags, wait to be read or interrogated by the reader. Tags have one or more
memory banks to store various information and unique identifiers.
Cables – Coaxial cables connect the reader and antenna allowing the
reader to send commands via RF energy to the antenna. RFID cables vary
in terms of connectors, length, and insulation rating – each which is
important to understand for an application’s success.

Auxiliary Items – Depending on how complex an RFID system is,

additional items can be added for ease-of-use or additional functionality.
Those items include antenna mounting brackets, RFID printers, GPIO
adapters, and portals.

Software – Some type of software is necessary in any RFID system.

Whether it is just firmware and a basic software program, or firmware,
middleware, and complex software – some type of software must be
present in order for the hardware to perform even basic functions.

For more information about RFID and RFID systems, checkout

our Beginner’s Guide to RFID.

Breaking Down RFID –

Frequency Types
RFID tags communicate using electromagnetic waves and operate
between 125 kHz and 960 MHz. Below is a breakdown of the different
frequencies and how they are typically used.

Passive RFID:
Low Frequency – 125 – 134 kHz – Low Frequency (LF) is used for
applications such as animal tracking. These tags are small and work well
with tracking animals because water has almost no effect on their read
range. The read range for low frequency is between contact to 10
centimeters in length.

High Frequency – 13.56 MHz – High Frequency (HF) systems have a

read range from 1 centimeter to up to 1 meter in length. Near-Field
Communication (NFC) is part of this frequency and is used in applications
like smart posters, movie kiosks, and other short range applications such
as transit ticketing systems.

Ultra-High Frequency – 865 – 960 MHz –this frequency (UHF RFID)

makes up the bulk of RFID applications. The read range for passive UHF
tags is from a few centimeters for small tags, to up to 35 feet in large tags.
This frequency is often seen in tolling applications, asset tracking, race
timing, and tool tracking.

Active RFID :
Active RFID – 433 MHz or 915 MHz – Active RFID tags contain a battery
to boost their read range to anywhere between 100 and 300 meters in
length. These tags can be read from a long distance away, but the battery
life is only about 3-5 years and the tags are larger, bulkier, and higher-cost
than their passive counterparts. Active tags are seen in construction yard
applications (due to the long read range) and just about any system that
requires real-time location (due to the continuous beaconing of the tags).

For more information on the different frequency types and their

applications, checkout our eBook “Types of RFID and How They Are
Used”.
What RFID Isn’t
 RFID technology isn’t an all-knowing, all-seeing, limitless technology.
 RFID tags do not store immense amounts of data – most are designed
to hold a number for identification. While some tags can store more
data in the user memory section, accessing that additional data slows
down read time.
 RFID tags can’t be read from everywhere. Most UHF RFID tags, on
average, can only read 14 – 20 feet depending on the frequency and
size. The tags used in large outdoor applications CAN be read from
up to 500 feet, but they are active RFID tags (which means they
contain batteries and on average only live 3-5 years) and are pretty
big – typically larger, heavier, and a good deal more expensive than
passive tags.
 An RFID system isn’t cheap – most systems average in cost from a
few hundred dollars for a small reader/writer and a few tags to over
several thousands of dollars for a single read zone with a reader, a
few antennas, and tags.
 RFID tags are not insecure or unprotected – most tags come with
a security protocol that can be enhanced with software or the tag can
be locked from being read with a passcode.
 Just like you can’t track down your “chipped” animal when it is lost (LF
RFID), you can’t track tagged objects unless there is RFID hardware
in the read area. If hardware is setup throughout a building, you can
track a tagged object in the building, even (with the correct setup)
identifying the room in which it is located. But, once the object leaves
the building and the read area, the tag is no longer traceable unless
introduced back into the read area.
RFID Around Me
Most people don’t realize how many times they have used RFID or driven
past an RFID-enabled device on a daily or weekly basis. Access cards and
key fobs to enter buildings, automated toll collection on highways, truck
weigh stations, movie kiosks, and credit card chip readers are all around
us and all use RFID technology – and that is just the beginning. Hotels are
now using RFID for room keys, hospitals are using it for inventory control,
warehouses for asset management, and construction sites for tool tracking;
the possibilities are nearly infinite.

While most of those applications have been around a few years, more pop
up every day. Whether tags are in wristbands at popular music festivals, in
golf balls at driving ranges, interactive children’s toys, or inside a beer mug
at a local bar (think self-serve beer) – the fact is, RFID technology is
growing rapidly and is powering the Internet of Things (IoT). Endless
applications are being brought to life every day that are quickly changing
people’s questions from “What is RFID?” to “What can I do with RFID?”.

For more information on all things RFID, checkout our resources

page or contact us for more information.
First, let’s start with the acronym
and what it means: RFID = Radio
Frequency IDentification.
If you have ever used an access card or fob to get into a building or
passed through an automated toll collection system on a highway, you
have used RFID. The definition of RFID is rather broad because it has so
many uses.

Now, let’s break down what this means: a system of technologies that
allows an object, person, or animal to wirelessly identify itself to another
object or person. Hence the words RF (Radio Frequency) and ID
(IDentification). To be able to do this in so many usage scenarios, form
factors, price points, thermal environments, etc., the technology used for
enabling RFID takes many forms. The most common ways of subdividing
the technology are by frequency and whether or not the tag is a passive or
active device. Let’s first look at the different frequencies.

At the lowest common frequency or LF (Low Frequency), this spans the

range of 58-148.5 kHz or 58-148.5 thousand cycles per second. This
frequency’s readers have short read range (usually several centimeters),
but most importantly, this frequency allows the RF waves to transmit
through metals a few millimeters thick as well as liquids. These factors
make LF technology very suitable for implanting into animals, but also for
access control and electronic article surveillance (EAS) applications. LF is
a passive technology in which the tags only respond when energized by an
LF RFID Reader. The behavior of the tag changes an incident RF field in a
way that a reader can detect a unique ID. This ID may be a single bit in the
case of an EAS tag or up to 10s of bits for animal tags.

The next frequency range spans from 1.75-13.56 MHz. This frequency
range is called HF, or High Frequency, and includes tags for use in
building access, public transportation, and electronic payment systems to
name a few. The range of these systems is a few inches to a few feet,
depending on the application. HF tags also work relatively well around
metals and liquids. HF tags are usually used for proximity applications, for
example, the gesture of moving one’s phone or wallet is used to provide
access or payment.

The next frequency range is UHF or Ultra High Frequency. UHF RFID
spans the 433, 840-960 MHz and the 2.4 GHz range. At this frequency, the
RF that is produced allows for relatively efficient wave-like propagation;
similar to a radio station, but with reasonable amounts of power
consumption for handhelds, laptops, trucks, printers, etc. UHF RFID tags
contain a small silicon chip and an antenna paired onto or into an object.
This allows one to create tags which can be read from inches to 10s of feet
in a passive configuration, and 100s to 1000s of feet if used semi-passively
(the tag still changes the RF that comes back to the reader rather than
transmitting, but gets a battery to help it out) or actively (an active
transmitter).

UHF RFID tags can also be produced relatively inexpensively; the

antennas can be etched with chemicals or printed with a printer that can
print metals such as copper or aluminum. The lower cost and long range of
UHF RFID means that tags can be placed just about anywhere and
interrogators (or RFID readers) can read them. This allows computers
attached to these interrogators to see the world around them through the
RF lens.
 Which RFID Frequency is
Right for Your
Application?
LF, HF, and UHF
Similar to how a radio must be tuned to different frequencies to hear
different channels, RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same
frequency in order to communicate. There are several different frequencies
an RFID system can use. Generally, the most common are

 Low frequency, or LF, (125 – 134 kHz)

 High frequency, or HF, (13.56 MHz)
 Ultra-high frequency, or UHF, (433, and 860-960 MHz)
Radio waves behave differently at the various frequencies, so it is
imperative to select the right frequency for your application.

For example, low-frequency tags have a long wave-length and are better
able to penetrate thin metallic substances. Additionally, LF RFID
systems are ideal for reading objects with high-water content, such as fruit
or beverages, but the read range is limited to centimeters or inches.
Typical LF RFID applications include access control and animal tagging.

High-frequency tags work fairly well on objects made of metal and can
work around goods with medium to high water content. Typically, HF RFID
systems work in ranges of inches, but they can have a maximum read
range of about three feet (1 meter). Typical HF RFID applications include
tracking library books, patient flow tracking, and transit tickets.

UHF frequencies typically offer much better read range (inches to 50+ ft.
depending on the RFID system setup) and can transfer data faster (i.e.
read many more tags per second) than low- and high-frequencies.
However, because UHF radio waves have a shorter wavelength, their
signal is more likely to be attenuated (or weakened) and they cannot pass
through metal or water. Due to their high data transfer rate, UHF RFID
tags are well suited for many items at once, such as boxes of goods as
they pass through a dock door into a warehouse or racers as they cross a
finish line. Also, due to the longer read range, other common UHF RFID
applications include electronic toll collection and parking access control.

Country of Deployment
Different countries allocate different bands of the radio spectrum for RFID,
so no single technology optimally satisfies all the requirements of existing
and potential markets. The industry has worked diligently to standardize
three main RF bands – low frequency, high frequency, and ultra-high
frequency. Most countries have assigned the 125 or 134 kHz areas of the
spectrum for low-frequency RFID systems, and 13.56 MHz is generally
used around the world for high-frequency RFID systems.

UHF RFID systems have only been around since the mid-1990s and
countries have not agreed on a single area of the UHF spectrum for
RFID. Accordingly, different countries have different bandwidth and power
restrictions for UHF RFID systems. Across the European Union, UHF
RFID ranges from 865 to 868 MHz with RFID readers able to transmit at
maximum power (2 watts ERP) at the center of that bandwidth (865.6 to
867.6 MHz).

In North America, the UHF RFID frequency ranges from 902 to 928 MHz
with readers able to transmit at maximum power (1 watt ERP) for most of
that bandwidth. Most other countries have either adopted the European
Union or North America standard, or they are using a subset of one of the
two bandwidths. Many non-RFID devices use the UHF spectrum, so it may
take years for all governments to agree on a single UHF band for RFID.

If you have any questions regarding frequency or would like to know

the UHF band allocation for your country, please leave a comment
below or contact us directly.
 RFID Basics: How RFID
Tags Work
RFID, or Radio Frequency Identification, is a technology where information
stored on an integrated circuit, or chip, can be read remotely, without
physical contact using energy in the RF spectrum. An RFID system
consists of a reader, or interrogator, which emits an RF signal via
an antenna. The chip receives the energy via an attached antenna (termed
an RFID tag) and modulates the RF signal in order to respond through its
antenna so that information can be transferred to the reader.

Frequencies

There are several different frequency ranges used in RFID including Low
Frequency (LF, 125 kHz), High Frequency (HF, 13.56 MHz), Ultra High
Frequency (UHF, 433 MHz, 860-960 MHz) and Microwave (2.45 GHz, 5.8
GHz). These bands, in general, do not require a license if the transmitted
power is limited. Some bands can be used globally (HF) while others are
specific to certain regions (UHF in US, EU, and Japan).

Capacitive vs. Inductive

There are two modes of communication used in RFID (termed coupling),

inductive coupling and capacitive coupling. Inductive coupling involves the
reader emitting a magnetic field. When a tag enters the field, the chip will
vary its antennas response which will result in a perturbation of the
magnetic field which can be detected by the reader. The strength of a
magnetic field drops sharply with distance from the emitter, hence
inductive systems are inherently short range. This is the mode of operation
at HF. Capacitive coupling involves the reader emitting a propagating
electromagnetic wave. When this wave impinges on a tag, the chip will
modify the antenna radar cross section in such a way that the reflected
signal containing the information on the chip can be detected by the
reader. This is the primary mode of operation at UHF and in the microwave
region.

Active vs. Passive

RFID tags are termed active or passive based on how they are powered.
Active tags are battery powered and will actually actively transmit a signal.
Active tags have the longest read range (~100 meters) and are the most
expensive due to the battery and transmitter cost. Passive tags have no
on-tag power supply. The energy to activate the chip is derived solely from
incoming wave from the RFID reader. The read range is limited by the
transmitted power density necessary to achieve sufficient voltage for the
chip to activate. Passive tags are significantly less expensive than active
tags and, in general, will have significantly less range. A third class of tags
are semi-active, or battery assisted passive (BAP) tags. These tags include
a battery so the chip will always have sufficient energy to turn on but they
do not have an active transmitter. Since, in general, the limiting factor on
the read range of a passive tag is getting sufficient power to the chip, BAP
tags have greater range than passive tags although at a higher cost and
limited life due to the battery.

Read on Metal

At UHF frequencies, most RFID tags

are a variation on a standard dipole antenna design. The antenna is
designed to provide a good “match” to the microchip. This enables a
smooth flow of energy captured by the antenna to the chip enabling it to
turn on. Unfortunately, dipole antenna performance is greatly affected by
the electromagnetic properties of materials in the vicinity. This problem
becomes acute when metal is nearby. The presence of metal will change
the antenna’s properties such that there is no longer a good “match” and
power will not flow to the chip and the tag can not be read. To overcome
this obstacle companies, such as companies that produce Custom
Tags, have developed special “backings” to separate RFID tags from metal
surfaces. RFID tag technology has evolved to the point where the read
range of on metal RFID tags rivals that of their non-metal-mount
counterparts.

Operating Principles:
Coupling
Understanding the way that an RFID system communicates, at least on a
basic level, is a necessity—especially for deployment. RFID knowledge,
together with extensive testing, is the key to a successful RFID
implementation. Tag and reader communications rely on two scientific
principles: physics and electromagnetism. In RFID systems, readers and
tags communicate mostly through the method of electromagnetic coupling.

Click to view larger image

In order for an RFID tag to communicate with an RFID reader/antenna, the
tag circuit and reader circuit generally must couple in some way. Coupling
is a transfer of energy between two electronic items or two circuits. Two
main types of coupling are present in RFID systems: capacitive and
inductive. The way that the two circuits couple can determine the read
range and frequency of the system. Defined below are coupling techniques
along with some frequently used terms in the industry relating to
communication.

Capacitive Coupling – flush to 1-2 cm – systems that use capacitive

coupling use electric currents instead of the magnetic field in order to
couple. Contact to a few centimeters of read range is normal for (LF)
or Low Frequency communication because of the need to produce an
electric field using electrodes. Because this type of coupling is only
effective at such a small proximity, it is not used by very many RFID
systems on the market today. One application example is access
control/smart cards.

Close Coupling – Close coupling can employ electric or magnetic

coupling depending on the reader and tag. Readers employed for
close coupling using a magnetic fieldhave a winding primary coil and
when the tag is in close proximity (0.1 cm – 1 cm) the secondary
winding coil of the tag combines with the primary coil via their shared
magnetic field in order to communicate. Readers and tags that use
electric-field coupling are constructed so that the coupling surfaces
when brought together, and inserted parallel, form an electric current
for communication.

Inductive Coupling – 1 cm to 1 m – Inductive coupling relies on the

magnetic field of the reader, which means that this coupling only occurs
in the near-field. The size of the near-field is dependent on the reader,
but can be generally defined as touch up to a meter. Inductive coupling
is seen in LF, HF, and UHF applications that include coils/antennas in
the tag infrastructure. Increasing the amount of loops of wire (coils) in a
tag that uses inductive coupling increases the amount of current that
would be generated in the tag. In turn, this would increase the power of
the transmitted signal from the tag back to the reader. Some example
applications include NFC Smart Posters, certain access control
applications, and any UHF application with a read range under 1 meter
in length.
 Magnetic Coupling – the term magnetic coupling refers to any
coupling that occurs using the reader and tag’s magnetic field (see
inductive coupling).

Radiative Coupling (backscatter) – 1 m to +4m – Using backscatter to

communicate between readers and tags is not a true method of
coupling; it is actually a communication method involving
electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic waves are sent through the air
from the reader antenna to the tag antenna. The energy is received by
the tag antenna and a small amount energy is then reflected back to the
reader. Most UHF systems use backscatter in order to communicate
between tag and reader. One common exception is when the tag and
reader are in close proximity. When in close proximity, UHF RFID
systems will elect to couple magnetically/inductively. Race timing, asset
tracking, and file tracking are three applications that use backscatter for
reader tag communication.

To learn more about reader and tag communications, checkout our blog
post on RF Physics, and as always please comment below or contact
us with any questions.
 RF Physics: How Does
Energy Flow in an RFID
System?
RF Physics & RFID: A Brief
Overview
RFID systems, like all systems involving energy, are governed by the laws
of physics. Physics is the study of matter and its motion through space and
time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. To delve
deeper, RFID systems also are subjected to fundamental electromagnetic
principles. These principles speak to the transfer of energy and the
electromagnetic spectrum, are defined in Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic induction and Lenz’s Law. In addition, governments and
military departments regulate the use of the electromagnetic spectrum
(frequency and power of transmission) in various parts of the world, which
leads to different standards and regulations governing RFID systems.

Every aspect of an RFID system is designed using the laws and standards
as stated above in order to successfully exchange information using an
electromagnetic field and modulated energy. Each part of the process –
reader to cable, cable to antenna, and antenna to tag (and back) ensures
effective energy transfer between the segments.

Each step in the energy flow process of a typical UHF RFID system is
simply defined below.

Energy Flow: Reader to Cable

Energy flows out of an electrical outlet as AC power (Alternating Current
power) which means electrons periodically reverse directions as they are
traveling, enabling the energy to be transmitted longer distances relative to
DC power (Direct Current power). A typical RFID reader power supply
included with an RFID reader is an AC to DC power converter, changing
the alternating current from the outlet to a direct current (which is more
suitable for the reader electronics).

Next, the direct current runs through an Oscillator and Phase Locked Loop
(PLL) module which then converts the direct current from the power supply
to an alternating current at a variable frequency. The variable frequency is
determined by a frequency hopping algorithm inside the RFID reader,
which is based upon the frequency range set during the manufacturing
stage.

For example, in the United States, each reader is required to employ a

frequency hopping algorithm due to regulations stating that a single reader
cannot transmit on a specific frequency for more than 400 milliseconds or
0.4 seconds in order to prevent crowding specific frequencies. While using
an RF reader set for the US FCC frequency range, the reader will ‘hop’
every 0.4 seconds in a predetermined pattern such as 902.5 MHz (0.4 s),
903.5 MHz (0.4 s), 927 MHz (0.4 s), and so on. If a reader were to stay on
one frequency for longer than 0.4 seconds there could be interference
between neighboring radios.

After the value of the variable frequency has been set, the resulting signal
is then amplified using the RF amplifier and modulated by the information
that the reader is attempting to send to the RFID tag. An RF amplifier
determines the power of the signal to be transmitted by the RFID reader
(i.e. its transmit power) and amplifies the RF signal to that desired power
level. According to US FCC regulations, the power signal sent from the
reader cannot exceed 1 watt (30 dBm). However, because the power from
the antenna includes attenuation due to cable loss, some RFID readers are
able to transmit power levels of over 30 dBm (for example, 31.5 dBm). The
attenuation of the cable then negates the extra transmit power enabling the
reader not to be in violation of FCC standard 15.247. When using reader
transmit power levels of > 30 dBm, operators need to ensure that the cable
being used will provide the required attenuation so that the power input
into the antenna does not exceed 1 Watt. (Check out the GS1 document,
for more specifics on regulations for UHF RFID in other countries.)

The amplified signal is then passed through an RF Bandpass Filter that

eliminates any additional frequencies that are outside of the allowed
transmission band. After passing through the Bandpass Filter, the signal is
then output to the antenna port and, subsequently, to the coaxial cable
through a directional coupler.

Energy Flow: Cable to

Antenna
The signal is then conducted through a coaxial cable into the RFID
Antenna. Of note, power is lost in this process due to the attenuation of the
signal as it travels along the cable. The amount of power lost depends on
the length of the cable and its insulation rating. Lower loss cables are
usually thicker and shorter in length. [Read more about Getting the Most
from Your RFID Cable.]

When the coaxial cable is properly connected to the antenna port, the
center pin of the cable connector is connected to the radiating element of
the antenna. The signal (or AC current) flows from the center pin, to the
radiating element, and then through the medium to the grounding element
(see diagram below). The radiating element in conjunction with the ground
plane focuses the energy based on the gain parameters of the antenna in
order to build the electromagnetic field.

When the electromagnetic field is built, the radiating element releases the
electromagnetic waves, which propagate out from the antenna. The shape
and form of the radiated energy is called the radiation pattern of the
antenna.
The beamwidth of the antenna can be calculated from the radiation pattern
of the antenna. Beamwidth is the angle between the half power points of
the main lobe of the radiation pattern. The radiation pattern, beamwidth,
and gain are all affected by the size of the grounding plate as well as the
size of the radiating plate.

*The
diagram above represents the basic components required for any UHF RFID antenna. Depending
on the antenna specifications, the size and shape of the various sub-components may change.

Energy Flow: Antenna to Tag

(and Back)
The propagated waves travel in space to a distance vertically and
horizontally based on the specific gain and beamwidth parameters of the
antenna.

The RFID tags in the field receive the energy, or RF waves, using their
own antennas. The energy received travels through the RFID tag’s
antenna and a portion of it is used to activate the chip (i.e. the Integrated
Circuit, or IC) and prepare for transmission of data based on commands
received from the RFID reader.

When the chip is turned on, it modulates the energy with the information
stored in the tag (pertinent to the reader’s request) and “reflects” the
remaining energy back. This information could be EPC memory, User
Memory, or anything programmed on the tag. This reflection of energy
back to the antenna is known as backscatter radiation.

The backscatter radiation travels through the air, into the RFID antenna’s
field, and back through the coaxial cable into the antenna port on the RFID
reader. The directional coupler picks up the received signal and passes it
through the bandpass filter, a mixer, and a baseband amplifier to a
decoding circuit to recover the tag’s information.

If you have any questions about the physics of an RFID system, please
comment below or contact us for more information.
 Active RFID vs. Passive
RFID: What’s the
Difference?
Short Answer:
Passive RFID systems use tags with no internal power source and
instead are powered by the electromagnetic energy transmitted from an
RFID reader. Passive RFID tags are used for applications such as access
control, file tracking, race timing, supply chain management, smart labels,
and more. The lower price point per tag makes employing passive RFID
systems economical for many industries.

Active RFID systems use battery-powered RFID tags that continuously

broadcast their own signal. Active RFID tags are commonly used as
“beacons” to accurately track the real-time location of assets or in high-
speed environments such as tolling. Active tags provide a much longer
read range than passive tags, but they are also much more expensive.

Long Answer:

Passive RFID
Generally speaking, three main parts make up in a passive RFID system –
an RFID reader or interrogator, an RFID antenna, and RFID tags. Unlike
active RFID tags, passive RFID tags only have two main components – the
tag’s antenna and the microchip or integrated circuit (IC).

As the name implies, passive tags wait for a signal from an RFID reader.
The reader sends energy to an antenna which converts that energy into an
RF wave that is sent into the read zone. Once the tag is read within the
read zone, the RFID tag’s internal antenna draws in energy from the RF
waves. The energy moves from the tag’s antenna to the IC and powers the
chip which generates a signal back to the RF system. This is called
backscatter. The backscatter, or change in the electromagnetic or RF
wave, is detected by the reader (via the antenna), which interprets the
information.

As mentioned above, passive RFID tags have no internal power source,

and a standard passive RFID tag consists only of an IC and internal
antenna; this basic structure is commonly referred to as an RFID inlay.
Countless other types of passive RFID tags exist on the market, but all
tags generally fall into two categories – inlays or hard tags. Hard RFID tags
are durable and made of plastic, metal, ceramic and even rubber. They
come in all shapes and sizes and are typically designed for a unique
function, material, or application.

A few different groups work to further divide passive hard tags; however,
some tags will exist within two or more groups.

High Temperature – Certain industries, like healthcare, track the number

of cycles that instruments undergo in punishing autoclaves. Specific
passive RFID tags are designed to withstand extreme temperatures and
accommodate for those types of applications, among others.

Rugged – Applications in outdoor environments or tough warehouses need

a tag that can withstand snow and ice, dust and debris, or even the
crushing forces felt under a tractor wheel. For these applications, a highly
rugged passive tag is needed to make the application successful.

Size – Some applications have specific size constraints when tracking

small or large items. Size is one of the more important questions to answer
when choosing an RFID tag because there are many different sizes
available.

Materials – If an application requires tracking metal assets, UHF metal-

mount tags may be the only option. These tags are specifically designed to
mitigate the problems UHF RFID faces around metal.
Embeddable – If tagging an item becomes a problem for specific
applications due to significant wear and tear, embeddable tags can fit in
small crevices and be covered in epoxy so the RFID tag is out of harm’s
way.

A roll of Passive RFID inlays

Inlays are usually the cheapest RFID tags costing as low as $0.12 per tag
in high volumes, but the price does not affect the performance. These
inlays are grouped into three main types:

Dry Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material or

substrate called a web. These inlays look like they have been laminated
and come standard with no adhesive.

Wet Inlays – An RFID microchip (IC) and antenna attached to a material,

usually PET or PVT, with an adhesive backing. Most of the time these
inlays are clear and can be peeled off their roll and immediately stuck on
an item.

Paper Face Tags – These are essentially wet inlays with a white paper or
poly face. These are ideal for applications that need printed numbers or
logos on the front for identification.

Passive RFID tags do not all operate at the same frequency. There are
three main frequencies within which passive RFID tags operate. The
frequency range, along with other factors, strongly determines the read
range, attachment materials, and application options.
  125 – 134 KHz – Low Frequency (LF) – An extremely long
wavelength with usually a short read range of about 1 – 10
centimeters. This frequency is typically used with animal tracking
because it is not affected much by water or metal.
 13.56 MHz – High Frequency (HF) & Near-Field Communication
(NFC) – A medium wavelength with a typical read range of about 1
centimeter up to 1 meter. This frequency is used with data
transmissions, access control applications, DVD kiosks, and passport
security – applications that do not require a long read range.
 865 – 960 MHz – Ultra High Frequency (UHF) – A short, high-energy
wavelength of about a one meter which translates to long read range.
Passive UHF tags can be read from an average distance of about 5 –
6 meters, but larger UHF tags can achieve up to 30+ meters of read
range in ideal conditions. This frequency is typically used with race
timing, IT asset tracking, file tracking, and laundry management as all
these applications typically need more than a meter of read range.

As a general rule, higher frequencies will have shorter, higher-energy

wavelengths and, in turn, longer read ranges. Moreover, the higher the
frequency, generally speaking, the more issues an RFID system will have
around non-RFID-friendly materials like water and metal.

Pros of Passive RFID:

 Smaller tags
 Much cheaper tags
 Thinner/more flexible tags
 Higher range of tag options
 Tags can last a lifetime without a battery (depending on the wear and
tear)

Active RFID
There are two main frequencies used by active systems – 433 MHz and
915 MHz. User preference, tag selection, or environmental considerations
usually dictate which frequency to use for most applications. Companies
generally favor RFID systems that operate on the 433 MHz because it has
a longer wavelength enabling it to work a little better with non-RF friendly
materials like metal and water.
Active RFID systems have three essential parts – a reader or interrogator,
antenna, and a tag. Active RFID tags possess their own power source – an
internal battery that enables them to have extremely long read ranges as
well as large memory banks.

Example of an extremely rugged Active RFID tag

Typically, active RFID tags are powered by a battery that will last between
3 – 5 years, but when the battery fails, the active tag will need to be
replaced. As the active tag market matures, replaceable batteries will be a
cost saving option. The system’s functionality depends entirely on the type
of tag chosen for the application.

Essentially, two different types of active RFID tags are available –

transponders and beacons.

Transponders – In a system that uses an active transponder tag, the

reader (like passive systems) will send a signal first, and then the active
transponder will send a signal back with the relevant information.
Transponder tags are very efficient because they conserve battery life
when the tag is out of range of the reader. Active RFID transponders are
commonly used in secure access control and in toll booth payment
systems.

Beacons – In a system that uses an active beacon tag, the tag will not wait
to hear the reader’s signal. Instead, true to its name, the tag will ‘beacon’,
or send out its specific information every 3 – 5 seconds. Beacon tags are
very common in the oil and gas industry, as well as mining and cargo
tracking applications. Active tag’s beacons can be read hundreds of
meters away, but, in order to conserve battery life, they may be set to a
lower transmit power in order to reach around 100 meters read range.

Tasked with weathering harsh environmental conditions such as extreme

temperatures and moisture, most active RFID tags are encased in a
rugged shell. Because of the size of the enclosed battery, circuitry, and
bulk of a durable exterior, active RFID tags are usually much larger than
passive tags. Also, some active tags may have on-board sensors that track
environmental parameters. These sensors can track moisture levels,
temperature, and other key identifiers that a company can use for their
application.

An example of a hardshell Active RFID tag

All these additional features translate to increased costs for the customer,
but the return on investment of a system may far outweigh the initial costs.
The prices of active RFID tags range anywhere from $20 to $100+
depending on the tag’s ability to withstand harsh conditions and other key
functional features of the tag. Given the required investment of an active
RFID system, active tags are usually reserved for tracking high worth
assets or for items where accurate location tracking is necessary to the
success of the system. A few examples of these type of assets are pipes,
cargo containers, and machinery.

While new applications for active RFID systems appear daily, these
systems are usually used in the oil and gas industry, shipping and logistics,
construction, mining, and high-value manufacturing.

Pros of Active RFID Tags:

 Extremely Long Read Range

 Increased tag abilities with partnered technologies (GPS, sensors,
etc.)
 Extremely Rugged tag options
Size comparison between passive and active RFID tags

While both active and passive RFID technologies use radio frequencies to
communicate information, each is very different, and likewise, possess
different qualities well suited for varying applications.
 Which RFID Frequency is
Right for Your
Application?
LF, HF, and UHF
Similar to how a radio must be tuned to different frequencies to hear
different channels, RFID tags and readers have to be tuned to the same
frequency in order to communicate. There are several different frequencies
an RFID system can use. Generally, the most common are

 Low frequency, or LF, (125 – 134 kHz)

 High frequency, or HF, (13.56 MHz)
 Ultra-high frequency, or UHF, (433, and 860-960 MHz)

Radio waves behave differently at the various frequencies, so it is

imperative to select the right frequency for your application.
For example, low-frequency tags have a long wave-length and are better
able to penetrate thin metallic substances. Additionally, LF RFID
systems are ideal for reading objects with high-water content, such as fruit
or beverages, but the read range is limited to centimeters or inches.
Typical LF RFID applications include access control and animal tagging.

High-frequency tags work fairly well on objects made of metal and can
work around goods with medium to high water content. Typically, HF RFID
systems work in ranges of inches, but they can have a maximum read
range of about three feet (1 meter). Typical HF RFID applications include
tracking library books, patient flow tracking, and transit tickets.

UHF frequencies typically offer much better read range (inches to 50+ ft.
depending on the RFID system setup) and can transfer data faster (i.e.
read many more tags per second) than low- and high-frequencies.
However, because UHF radio waves have a shorter wavelength, their
signal is more likely to be attenuated (or weakened) and they cannot pass
through metal or water. Due to their high data transfer rate, UHF RFID
tags are well suited for many items at once, such as boxes of goods as
they pass through a dock door into a warehouse or racers as they cross a
finish line. Also, due to the longer read range, other common UHF RFID
applications include electronic toll collection and parking access control.

Country of Deployment
Different countries allocate different bands of the radio spectrum for RFID,
so no single technology optimally satisfies all the requirements of existing
and potential markets. The industry has worked diligently to standardize
three main RF bands – low frequency, high frequency, and ultra-high
frequency. Most countries have assigned the 125 or 134 kHz areas of the
spectrum for low-frequency RFID systems, and 13.56 MHz is generally
used around the world for high-frequency RFID systems.

UHF RFID systems have only been around since the mid-1990s and
countries have not agreed on a single area of the UHF spectrum for
RFID. Accordingly, different countries have different bandwidth and power
restrictions for UHF RFID systems. Across the European Union, UHF
RFID ranges from 865 to 868 MHz with RFID readers able to transmit at
maximum power (2 watts ERP) at the center of that bandwidth (865.6 to
867.6 MHz).

In North America, the UHF RFID frequency ranges from 902 to 928 MHz
with readers able to transmit at maximum power (1 watt ERP) for most of
that bandwidth. Most other countries have either adopted the European
Union or North America standard, or they are using a subset of one of the
two bandwidths. Many non-RFID devices use the UHF spectrum, so it may
take years for all governments to agree on a single UHF band for RFID.

UHF RFID Frequency

Regulations
UHF RFID Frequencies vary in each country based on each country’s
regulations. Each country adopts an UHF RFID frequency that best fits
within that country. These frequency ranges and standards were first put in
place by a group of organizations – the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC), ASTM International, and EPC Global. These frequency bands are
now known as the ISM bands, or the Industrial Scientific and Medical
Bands.

UHF RFID technology uses two main frequency ranges — 902-928 MHz
and 865-868 MHz; however, a few countries have adopted either multiple
bands or unique ranges on the ISM standard. One such country is Brazil
who has adopted two uncommon frequency ranges within the 902-928
MHz range — one being 902-907.5 MHz and the other being 915-928
MHz. In order for UHF RFID equipment to be in compliance with Brazil’s
regulations, the RFID reader needs to be set to broadcast within Brazil’s
specific frequency ranges. This means that if you bring a UHF RFID reader
to Brazil and operate using the full 902-928 MHz frequency range, you
are in violation of local governmental regulations.
 What is Frequency
Hopping?
Preface
There are many issues that can arise during the testing phase of an RFID
system. One of the most common issues people face is called reader
collision. Reader collision occurs when two readers transmit the same
frequency at the same time, causing interference in one another’s read
zones. RFID readers utilize “Dense Reader Mode” to coordinate with other
readers so no two readers interfere with each other. Dense Reader Mode
uses a technique known as “Frequency Hopping” in order to achieve this.
This is extremely useful for environments that have multiple readers
located closely within a facility.

Frequency Hopping
Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) is a method used to rapidly
switch transmitting radio signals among several frequency channels.

The FCC has certain regulations in place with which RFID readers must
comply in order to transmit 1 W of output power. The FCC allows high
output power if the system:

 Uses FHSS
 Supports hopping across 50 channels (500 kHz wide) between the
operating frequencies of 902 – 928 MHz
 Transmits no longer than 0.4 seconds per channel

Frequency hopping is a technique mainly used to keep two or more RFID

readers from interfering with each other while reading RFID tags in the
same area. Each reader initiates its operating program, and, once it
receives a frequency hop trigger signal, a frequency hopping sequence is
then selected from the available operating frequencies. The reader then
prompts the RF module to switch to a frequency channel described in the
hopping sequence and stays there for 0.4 seconds. Once completed, the
reader will stop transmitting and store the channel it was using. The reader
will then continue to use the same sequence if a new trigger signal arrives
in less than 30 seconds. Because of this rapid hopping among various
frequencies, multiple readers and tags are allowed to communicate with
one another with minimal, if any, reader collision.

The nature of this technique allows for very minimal interference since the
probability of two readers transmitting at the exact same frequency is very
low. This comes in handy when using multiple readers that have
overlapping read zones. The technique can be better illustrated in Figure 1
shown below, where three readers are able to transmit signals within a
certain range of frequencies without any reader collision.

For more information on Frequency Hopping or RFID in general – comment

below or contact us!

Sources:

1 Texas Instruments Application Report 2015. Asynchronous Channel

Hopping for FCC 15.247
Compliance. http://www.ti.com/lit/an/swra482/swra482.pdf

Frequency ranges also are subject to change. Japan, who previously used
two very unique frequency ranges — 952-956.4 MHz and 952-957.6
MHz — has now changed to a frequency range within the 902-928 MHz
range. Japan’s frequency range is currently 916.7-920.9 MHz (although
925-957.6 MHz will still be effective until March 31, 2018).

The map above shows the most common UHF frequencies for each
country, but some countries have not adopted any frequency range yet. An
example of a country that has not adopted a set frequency range would be
Egypt who is currently working on getting that into place (as of the time of
this article’s original published date).
 RFID vs. NFC: What’s the
Difference?
If you follow developments in the tech industry on a semi-regular basis,
you’re likely familiar with the terms near-field communication (NFC) and
radio frequency identification (RFID). Recently, you may have seen RFID
in the news, or you may have been told that your cell phone is an NFC
device. In any case, this article will answer a few questions you may have
about RFID and NFC.

See the full size infographic.

Originally published on April 22, 2013 and updated on October 11, 2013:
To help illustrate the differences between NFC and RFID, we created this
neat infographic: Click here to download.

What are the differences

between NFC and RFID, or are
they even different at all?
Short Answer:
RFID is the process by which items are uniquely identified using radio
waves, and NFC is a specialized subset within the family of RFID
technology. Specifically, NFC is a branch of High-Frequency (HF) RFID,
and both operate at the 13.56 MHz frequency. NFC is designed to be a
secure form of data exchange, and an NFC device is capable of being both
an NFC reader and an NFC tag. This unique feature allows NFC devices to
communicate peer-to-peer.

Long Answer:
By definition, RFID is the method of uniquely identifying items using radio
waves. At a minimum, an RFID system comprises a tag, a reader, and an
antenna. The reader sends an interrogating signal to the tag via the
antenna, and the tag responds with its unique information. RFID tags are
either Active or Passive.

Active RFID tags contain their own power source giving them the ability to
broadcast with a read range of up to 100 meters. Their long read range
makes active RFID tags ideal for many industries where asset location and
other improvements in logistics are important.

Passive RFID tags do not have their own power source. Instead, they are
powered by the electromagnetic energy transmitted from the RFID reader.
Because the radio waves must be strong enough to power the tags,
passive RFID tags have a read range from near contact and up to 25
meters.

Passive RFID tags primarily operate at three frequency ranges:

 Low Frequency (LF) 125 -134 kHz

 High Frequency (HF)13.56 MHz
 Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 856 MHz to 960 MHz

Near-field communication devices operate at the same frequency (13.56

MHz) as HF RFID readers and tags. The standards and protocols of the
NFC format is based on RFID standards outlined in ISO/IEC 14443,
FeliCa, and the basis for parts of ISO/IEC 18092. These standards deal
with the use of RFID in proximity cards.
As a finely honed version of HF RFID, near-field communication devices
have taken advantage of the short read range limitations of its radio
frequency. Because NFC devices must be in close proximity to each other,
usually no more than a few centimeters, it has become a popular choice for
secure communication between consumer devices such as smartphones.

Peer-to-peer communication is a feature that sets NFC apart from typical

RFID devices. An NFC device is able to act both as a reader and as a tag.
This unique ability has made NFC a popular choice for contactless
payment, a key driver in the decision by influential players in the mobile
industry to include NFC in newer smartphones. Also, NFC smartphones
pass along information from one smartphone to the other by tapping the
two devices together, which turns sharing data such as contact info or
photographs into a simple task. Recently, you may have seen advertising
campaigns that used smart posters to pass information along to the
consumers.

Also, NFC devices can read passive NFC tags, and some NFC devices are
able to read passive HF RFID tags that are compliant with ISO 15693. The
data on these tags can contain commands for the device such as opening
a specific mobile application. You may start seeing HF RFID tags and NFC
tags more frequently in advertisements, posters, and signs as it’s an
efficient method to pass along information to consumers.

At the end of the day, NFC builds upon the standards of HF RFID and
turns the limitations of its operating frequency into a unique feature of
near-field communication.

Do you have an NFC enabled smartphone? Leave a comment below telling

us if you have or haven’t used your phone’s NFC capabilities. If you’re
interested in purchasing NFC tags, atlasRFIDstore now carries several
varieties.
 RFID Tag Antennas
RFID tag antennas are designed for a unique purpose, and their design
can actually reveal some information about the tag itself. Below are a few
things you can usually learn from looking at an RFID tag:

 Its frequency: You can discover whether the tag is Low Frequency,
High Frequency, or Ultra-High Frequency, and then have a general
idea of the tag’s read range.
 If the tag is a Far-Field tag and if it has additional Near-
Field capabilities.
 If it is a UHF Dipole – the type of dipole antenna used: Fat,
Meandered, or Tip-Loaded.

Frequency
Generally, if you know what to look for it is pretty easy to detect the
frequency at which the tag operates just by examining the tag. That is
because the correlation between the tag antenna design and the way the
tag talks to the RFID reader/antenna will reveal the frequency. Below, the
three main frequency types are outlined, including information about each
and their typical antenna design:

 Low Frequency (LF)

 Frequency: 125 – 135 kHz – generally, 124 kHz, 125 kHz, or
135 kHz
 Read Range: Touch to 45.7 cm (18 in) under ideal conditions
 Coupling Technique: Inductive coupling – reader’s antenna
generates a magnetic field to activate an electric current in the
tag’s antenna
 Antenna Design: Typically, circularly coiled tag antenna
 High Frequency (HF)
 Frequency: 13.553 – 13.567 MHz – generally, 13.56 MHz
 Read Range: Touch to around 1.5 m (5 ft.) under ideal
conditions
 Coupling Technique: Inductive coupling – reader’s antenna
generates a magnetic field to activate an electric current in the
tag’s antenna
 Antenna Design: typically, rectangular or circular-shaped, small
tag antenna
 Ultra- High Frequency (UHF)
 Frequency: 400 – 1000 MHz – generally, 860 – 960 MHz
 Read Range: Up to 35 m (115 ft.) under ideal conditions
 Coupling Technique: Backscatter coupling – reader’s antenna
generates RF energy to activate the RFID tag, which modulates
the information and reflects the remaining energy back to the
reader antenna.
 Antenna Design: Typically, dipole-shaped tag antenna
 Near-Field Capabilities: If it has a small loop-shaped antenna in
the middle, it usually has near-field capabilities.
UHF Structure & Materials
Most UHF tag antennas are designed with a dipole-type structure. This
means they generally are long and thin visually, and operate similar to a
magnet. The similarity is apparent because they have two ‘open’ ends, or
poles, for the energy to build up and, consequently, allow a current flow to
the Integrated Circuit (IC), or chip.

The most well-known RFID tags on the market that are not structured like a
typical dipole antenna are tags similar to the SMARTRAC Frog and
the Alien Spider. These tags are square-shaped in order to best display
their omni-directional properties and are sometimes called “dual-dipole”
tags.

Tag antennas are made from a metal wire or metallic sheet in order to
provide an adequate conductor for the RF energy. Then, depending on the
type of tag, other types of materials like PET, plastic, paper, and polyester
are used to provide the base around the tag antenna.

Terms to Know
AC – an electrical current that sometimes changes its direction, usually 50
to 60 times per second.

DC – an electrical current that flows constantly in one direction.

Resistance – the property of a particular material to resist the flow of

electrons. Occurs in AC and DC circuits.

Inductance – the property of an electric conductor that causes an

electromotive force to be generated by a change in the current flow.

Capacitance – the ability of a body to store electric charge.

Resonance – a state achieved when the inductance and capacitance
cancel each other out.

Reactance – the property of a particular material to resist the change in

flow of electrons, only in AC circuits. Below are two different types of
reactance:

Inductive Reactance – the ability to store energy in the form of a magnetic

field. Below is the equation:

ω (Angular Frequency) = 2πF

XL = 2πFL = ωL

Capacitive Reactance – the ability to store energy in the form of an

electric field. Below is the equation:

ω (Angular Frequency) = 2πF

XC = 1 ÷ (2πFC) = 1 ÷ (ωC)

Impedance – the combination of resistance and reactance.

UHF Dipole Lengths

The length of a UHF dipole antenna is one way to effectively classify that
type of dipole. Three common dipole lengths exist: Half-Dipole, Modified
Half-Dipole, and Short-Dipole. In order to distinguish the difference, first
the wavelength typically associated for UHF RFID tags must be found:
Half-Dipole – A Half-Dipole’s length is equal to one-half of the wavelength.
With a UHF tag, a typical size for a half-dipole is around 16.4 centimeters
(164 mm) or anywhere between 16 and 17 cm. These are typically not
used in RFID applications because the tags would be too long and tend to
have resistance problems.

Modified Half–Dipole – A Modified Half-Dipole’s length is usually around

9.2 cm (92 mm). This length is convenient because most printer labels are
around 10.6 cm (106.2 mm) so the tag can easily fit on or in them.
Because a length shorter than a half-wave dipole has a negative
reactance, several things have to be modified to make this shorter antenna
work. These tag antennas can also be referred to as “Dipoles” or
“Resonant Antennas”.

Short Dipole – A Dipole that is typically 1/10 of the wavelength in size is

referred to as a Short Dipole. These are much smaller than Half-Dipoles
and have to be modified greatly in order to work well because of their size.

Dipole Types
Because Modified Half-Dipoles are smaller than half of a typical UHF
wavelength, they have a negative inductance and must be modified with
additional capacitance to counter balance; or, inductance can be added,
lowering their resonance to a lower frequency. Modifying these antennas is
usually performed one or two of the following ways:
Fat – “Fat” dipoles, also called “Broadband” dipoles, are characterized by
having the maximum amount of metal on the tag face. Increasing the
amount of metal on the tag is achieved by etching or silver ink printing. By
increasing the wire thickness, inductance is reduced, and the increased
metal surface creates a large capacitance. Because these tags have a lot
of metal, they are often best used on high dielectric surfaces like glass,
wood, and plastic.

One of the most popular fat or broadband UHF tags on the market
is Alien’s “G”. The Avery Dennison AD-661r6 is also a fat tag.

Meanders – Most people associate meanders with UHF RFID tags even if
they do not know why the meanders are on the tag. Meanders are the
typical product of folding the wire back and forth, creating peaks and
troughs along the wire. These meanders are lengthening the actual wire
without adding length to the tag. This means a wire length of a half-
wavelength dipole (16.4+ cm) is possible while still being able to fit on a
typical printed label (10.2 cm). The meanders lower the resonance and
allow the tag to resonate at the preferred frequency.
Some of the most common examples of tags with meanders are the Alien
Squiggle, the SMARTRAC ShortDipole, and the Avery Dennison AD-321r6.

Tip Loading – Tip Loading looks similar to a fat dipole and is usually used
in conjunction with meanders in order to drop the resonance. Tip loading is
adding metal through etching or silver printing to the ends of the dipole
only. Adding wide metal ends to a dipole allows additional storing capacity
for electric charges, which compensates for the reduced inductance
because of the length.

A few common examples of this is the Alien Short, SMARTRAC DogBone,

and the Avery Dennison AD-237R6.

For more information about RFID Tag Antennas, please contact us.

Sources:

Wikipedia. Capacitance and Inductance.

Laheurte, Jean-Marc; Ripoll, Christian; Paret, Dominique; Loussert,

Christophe. UHF RFID Technologies for Identification and Traceability.
Wiley 2014
 UHF RFID Tag
Communications:
Protocols and Standards
The International Standards Organization (ISO)
and EPCglobal are two organizations that work together
to approve standards and protocols in order to provide
universal specifications for RFID equipment. By creating
global standards, these organizations enable the
possibility of worldwide adoption of UHF RFID. Once
ratified, protocols define communication methods
approved with the air interface in conjunction with the
operating frequency, channel bandwidth, frequency hop
rate, etc.

The EPCglobal and ISO standards that are familiar today are largely due to
the strides made by the Auto-ID Center from 1999 to 2003. The Auto-ID
Center was, a non-profit organization made up of leaders in the RFID
industry, and backed by large corporations like Walmart. In 1999 the Auto-
ID Center created the first EPC standards as well as their own air interface
protocol, both instrumental in attempting to commercialize UHF RFID. The
other reason that the Auto-ID Center was so important is because it
transitioned into two separate organizations: EPCglobal took over the
commercialization of EPC technologies, while Auto-ID Labs continued the
research and development role of the Auto-ID Center.1

EPCglobal & the International

Standards Organization
Most RFID tags and barcodes that contain an electronic product code are
governed by standards and guidelines created by EPCglobal. EPCglobal
created the standard format for the EPC (Electronic Product Code)
number, which includes a header, unique EPC identifier, and a filter value.
The organization also developed the standards for Class 1 Gen 2 tags,
which were ratified by the ISO to become ISO 18000-6C. Below is a chart
of all the tag classes currently recognized by EPCglobal.

Click to view larger image

All of the classes set by EPCglobal are approved by the ISO and the World
Trade Organization (WTO). UHF RFID tags use the air interface protocol
ISO 18000, a protocol developed to describe reader and tag
communication specifications implemented to encourage universal
adoption. The importance of this lies in the regulations put in place under
the protocol describing the approved communication methods between tag
and reader. Below is a chart that lays out the 7 parts of protocol 18000 and
what type of technology they affect.
 Click to view larger image

ISO 18000-6C
ISO 18000-6C describes the communication standards set for UHF Class 1
Gen 2 ITF or Interrogator-Talks-First RFID readers and tags. ITF RFID
systems are characterized by the tag modulating its information and
backscattering to the reader (or interrogator) only after the reader sends
the command.

ISO 18000-6C also defines three other parts of reader-tag communication:

how the information is coded, how it is modulated, and the anti-collision
protocols used. ISO 18000-6C states that UHF Passive systems are ITF
and use Pulse Interval Encoding, Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK), and Q-
algorithm (a form of slotted ALOHA).

 Encoding or Bit-Coding
 Pulse Interval Encoding (PIE) – Reader to Tag Communications
 Miller Encoded Subcarrier or Bi-Phase Space Coding (FM0) –
Tag to Reader Communications
 Modulation
 Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)
 Anti-Collision
 Q-Algorithm
Bit-Coding & Modulation
Pulse Interval Encoding (PIE) is used in Class 1 Gen 2 (ISO-18000-6C)
equipment for the reader to tag communication and describes the way a
message is encoded in preparation to be sent from the reader to the tag.
PIE, similar to Morse Code, uses long and short pauses to represent a “1”
or a “0”. A longer pause indicates a “1” while a shorter pause indicates a
“0”. PIE, in ISO-18000-6C, works in conjunction with Amplitude Shift
Keying (ASK), which describes how the information is modulated. ASK
works by changing the amplitude of the wave in order to represent digital
data. Below is a graphic showing a signal that was encoding using PIE and
modulated with ASK.

Click to view larger image

Miller Encoded Subcarrier or Miller ES is part of the Miller Family of bi t
coding. The Miller family of bit coding is characterized by transitions
instead of pauses like those seen in Pulse Interval Encoding. To indicate a
“1”, there is a transition in the middle of the bit and to indicate a “0” there is
no transition. It is important to note though that if there are two zeros in a
row, there is a transition in between.
 Click to view larger image
Bi-Phase Space coding or FM0 is part of the Bi-Phase family of bit coding.
FM0 bit coding is characterized with transitions, similar to Miller ES. To
indicate a “0” with FM0 coding there are three transitions: one in the start,
one in the middle, and one at the end. To indicate a “1” there is just one
transition at the start.

Click to view larger image

Anti-Collision
Anti-collision protocols are used to prevent collisions from happening
during inventory counts. If two tags respond at the same time to a reader,
the reader is not able to read either due to the collision. If anti-collision
algorithms are not employed by the reader, reading RFID tags in a room
with 2 or more tags would be almost impossible. The Q algorithm,
sometimes called Q-protocol or adaptive Q algorithm, is active on Class 1
Gen 2 UHF RFID readers and tags. This is a derivative of a prior algorithm
called Slotted ALOHA.
These algorithms are based on the principle that during an inventory count,
the interrogator breaks up the inventory into rounds (also called frames)
and then asks the tags to pick a number between a certain set, 0-15 for
example. The interrogator then starts to count down from the highest
number of the set and each number it counts is considered a ‘slot’. The
tags, meanwhile, select a random 16-bit number and use the last digit(s)
as its Q-value or number between 0-15. When the tag hears the reader
respond with its selected random number or Q-value, it responds with its
16-bit random number.

Three outcomes can arise in each slot: tag reply, collision, or no reply. If
there is a single tag that replies, the reader accepts the reply by sending
an ACK command and repeating the random 16-bit number. When the tag
receives the ACK command, it sends the reader its EPC number and is
considered inventoried. If there are collisions or no tag replies, the
interrogator will complete an additional inventory round until all EPCs are
inventoried. This is a very simplistic way to understand slotted ALOHA-type
algorithms; for more in-depth knowledge please consult A Novel Q-
algorithm for EPCglobal Class-1 Generation-2 Anti-collision Protocol 2.

For more information on EPCglobal and ISO standards and protocols and
how they affect RFID hardware and tags, contact us or comment below.

1RFID Journal. Frequently Asked

Questions. https://www.rfidjournal.com/faq/show?98(Full details to come
for citing)

A Novel Q-Algorithm for EPCglobal Class-1 Generation-2 Anti-collision

2

Protocol. Wen-Tzu Chen and Wen- Bin

Kao. http://waset.org/publications/14783/a-novel-q-algorithm-for-epc-
global-class-1-generation-2-anti-collision-protocol

RFID at Ultra and Super High Frequencies. Dominique Paret.

 Explaining Backscatter –
From Basic to Advanced
Principles
This article walks through the basics and advanced principles related to
how UHF RFID Passive tags communicate via backscatter. Before reading,
it is important to know about the types of coupling and when each one is
used. If you do not know what coupling is and how it works, please refer to
“Principles of Coupling” before reading this article.

101 – Basics
Backscatter is a method of communication in which an RFID tag without a
battery (or any internal power source) receives energy from an RFID
reader’s transmission and uses that same energy to send back a reply.
The tag receives the energy via electromagnetic waves propagated from
the reader/antenna. Once the waves reach the tag, the energy travels
through the tag’s internal antenna, and activates the chip, or integrated
circuit (IC). The remaining energy is modulated with the chip’s data and
flows back via the tag’s antenna to the reader’s antenna in the form of
electromagnetic waves.

The best way to understand the principle of backscatter is to imagine two

individuals communicating by use of a flashlight and a mirror. In this
situation, the flashlight represents the RFID reader, and the mirror
represents the RFID tag. The flashlight sends signals to the mirror by
turning the beam on and off. While the mirror has no power of its own, it
can still communicate in response to the flashlight by reflecting some of the
flashlight’s initial signal back. The same basic principle applies to the
relationship between an RFID reader and tag – except that when the RFID
tag returns the signal back, there are many more options than just all or
none (especially when factoring in the ability to filter tag reads using
software). (CITE)
Before moving on to the 202 section, you may want to checkout the
precursor article below that describes the Operating Principles of Coupling.

202 – Advanced
When diving deeper into backscatter, it is impossible to leave out the
presence and use of an electric field versus exclusively using a magnetic
field. The three most used frequencies for RFID are Low-Frequency (LF),
High-Frequency (HF), and Ultra-High Frequency (UHF); but only one of the
three, UHF, uses backscatter and, consequently, an electromagnetic field.
Extending much further than a magnetic field, an electromagnetic field
enables longer read range typically associated with UHF RFID.

Below is a side-by-side comparison of Backscatter Coupling and Magnetic

Coupling.

It is important to note that backscatter is a bi-directional communication

method – i.e. energy is sent from reader to tag, and then back from tag to
reader. Because the same energy is used communicating reader to tag
(forward link) and communicating tag to reader (reverse link) we will first
talk about the forward link.
Forward Link (UHF)
The forward link is the interrogation signal sent out by the reader to
energize RFID tags in the field in order to receive a response. The reader
modulates an RF signal between 860-960 MHz using DSB-ASK, SSB-ASK,
or PR-ASK with PIE encoding. The choice of the frequency is determined
by regional radio regulations.

 ASK stands for Amplitude Shift Keying, the most used Keying method
for the Forward Link. Amplitude Shift Keying represents a 1 or 0 by
shifting the amplitude.
 DSB-ASK stands for Double Sideband ASK which is the most
common method of ASK modulation
 SSB-ASK stands for Single Sideband ASK which is used primarily to
limit the width of the spectrum occupied.
 PR-ASK stands for Phase Reversal ASK which is also used with
different channel widths.
 PIE encoding, or Pulse Interval Encoding is the most common
encoding method for the Forward Link.

See source citation below.

Below are representations of encoding & modulation types used for the
Forward Link.
 These are three modulation types most
often used during the Forward Link. The graphs show how they
communicate data by changing the amplitude of the wave.
 This is
the encoding type used during the Forward Link. As indicated above, this shows how data is
encoded with either a 1 or a 0.
In reference to the graph above, for a binary data of 0, you send a short
high pulse followed by a low pulse, and for a data of 1, you send a long
high pulse followed by a low pulse. It is done so that the tag does not lose
energy in the middle of the communication exchange. If we simply use low
voltage for 0 and a high voltage for 1, then a tag ID of say 5000 0000 0000
will receive a whole set of trailing zeroes – i.e. low voltage when the reader
is addressing the tag and it might go back to sleep.

See source citation below.

Reverse Link (UHF)

The reverse link is the response signal sent from the tags in the field back
to the reader. The tags send back data by switching the reflection
coefficient of its antenna between high and low states. The backscatter
modulation by the tag will use a fixed modulation format and can be either
ASK or PSK. The RFID tags also encode the backscattered data using
either FM0 baseband or Miller modulation of a subcarrier at the data rate of
transmission. The response back from the tag is detected and decoded at
the reader end.

 PSK or Phase Shift Keying can be used in place of ASK in the

Reverse Link. Phase Shift Keying represents 0 or a 1 by changes in
the phase of the carrier frequency.
 FM0 Baseband, also called Bi-Phase Space Coding, can be used
instead of PIE during the Reverse Link
  Miller Encoded Subcarrier can also be used instead of PIE during the
Reverse Link

This is the most common modulation

type when using ASK during the Reverse Link of communication. This
graph shows how data is communicated by changing the amplitude of the
wave.
For more information on RFID, comment below or contact us!

Below are the main sources for this article.

 Paret, Dominique. RFID at Ultra and Super High Frequencies Theory

and Application. Copyright 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. To find an
online version:
– https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9780470682135
 Thompson, Dale R. RFID Modulation, Encoding, and Data Rates.
Copyright
2008. http://rfidsecurity.uark.edu/downloads/slides/mod04_lesson04_s
lides.pdf
 Special thanks to Subbu Nambi, RF Engineer at Jovix