A project work on

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF A HELICOPTER AND ITS’ SYSTEMS

Undergone at
RWRDC, HAL
Under the guidance of
Mr. Chintamani Pradhan
Chief Manager (Design)
And

Mr. S Basavraju Mr. S Ravi Kumar

Senior Manager (Design) Manager (Design)

Submitted By:
Shaurya Gupta (1NT16AE040)
Bhawani Shankar Mishra (1NT16AE005)
Bhaskar (1NT16AE004)
Mahashana (1NT16AE024)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ( HAL ) for giving us the

opportunity to do internship training at Rotary Wing Research and Design Center,
and to visit the manufacturing facilities, to thoroughly understand the design,
manufacturing and validation process for a new Helicopter, namely LCH/LUH and
ALH.

We would like to thank Mr. Chintamani Pradhan, for referring us for the internship
training in transmission group at RWRDC.

Finally, we would like to thank all the employees, especially Mr. S Basavraju and
Mr. S Ravi Kumar at RWRDC, who guided us during the days of our internship
training, and gave us their valuable time and knowledge.

Sincerely,

Shaurya Gupta
Mahashana
Bhavani Shankar Mishra
Bhaskar
 CONTENTS

1. HAL: A brief overview

2. Helicopter Aerodynamics
2.1 Rotary Wing Planform
2.2 Angle of Attack
2.3 Centrifugal Force
2.4 Rotational Velocities
2.5 Hovering
2.6 Ground Effect
2.7 Translational Lift
2.8 Transverse Flow Effect
2.9 Dis-Symmetry of Lift
3. Structure
3.1 Airframe
3.2 Fuselage
3.3 Landing Gear
3.4 Tail
3.5 Designing Stages
3.5.1 NMG
3.5.2 Conceptual Design
3.5.3 Preliminary Design Phase
3.5.4 Feasibility Study
3.5.5 Detail Design Phase
3.5.6 Mockup
3.5.7 Testing
3.5.8 Prototype
3.5.9 Series Manufacturing
3.6 Structural Loads Calculation
4. Rotor System
4.1 Hinge less Rotor
4.2 Teetering Rotor
4.3 Articulated Rotor
4.4 Swash Plate Assembly
4.5 Tail Rotor
4.6 NOTAR
4.7 Tip Jets
4.8 Blade Design
4.9 Limitations and Hazards
4.10 Abrasion Resistance
5. Dynamics
5.1 Rotor Track and Balance
5.2 ALH ARIS System
5.3 Working Principle
5.4 Design Parameters
6. Power Plant
6.1 Turbo Shaft Engine
6.2 Power Plant Selection Criteria
6.3 Engine Mounts
6.4 Engine Fire Wall
6.5 Drainage System
6.6 Engine Lubrication and cooling
6.7 Engine Cowling
6.8 Air Intake
6.9 Engine Exhaust
6.10 Salient Features of Exhaust
7. Fuel Systems
7.1 Fuel Supply System
7.2 Fuel Control System
7.3 Fuel Injection
8. Transmission System
8.1 Main Rotor Transmission
8.2 Gearbox
8.3 Tail Drive Shaft
8.4 Flexible Coupling
8.5 MGB Lubrication System
8.6 Free Wheeling Mechanism
8.7 Swash Plates
8.8 Cyclic Blade Control
9. Hydraulics and Control System
9.1 Introduction
9.2 System Trade-offs
9.3 Selection of pressure, flow rate and type of oil
9.4 Preliminary Designs
9.5 System Pressure control
9.6 System Design
9.7 Detail Design
9.8 Contamination Control
9.9 System Flight Testing
10.Landing Gear
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Skid Type Landing Gear
10.3 Wheel Type Landing Gear
10.4 Classification of Landing Gear
10.5 Retraction System
10.6 Steering System
11. Weight and CG Balance
11.1 Limitations to Weight
11.2 CG Aft of Aft Limit
11.3 Lateral Balance
11.4 Weight Balance and Calculations for CG
11.5 Reference Datum
11.6 CG Envelope
12. Flight Safety and Certification
12.1 Helicopter Safety
12.2 Airworthiness
12.3 Design Validation
12.4 Testing
12.5 Ground Testing
12.6 Shake Test
12.7 Flight Testing
12.8 Evaluation of Systems during Flight Testing and FMEA

13. Conclusion

14. Reference
 HAL: - A brief Overview

The history and growth of the Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is synonymous with the growth of
Aeronautical industry in India for more than 77 years. The Company which had its origin as the
Hindustan Aircraft Limited was incorporated on 23 Dec 1940 at Bangalore by Shri
WalchandHirachanda farsighted visionary in association with the Government of Mysore with
the aim of manufacturing aircraft in India. In March 1941, the Government of India became one
of the shareholders in the Company took over its management in 1942. In collaboration with the
Inter Continental Aircraft Company of USA, Hindustan Aircraft Company commenced its
business of manufacturing of Harlow Trainer, Curtiss Hawk Fighter and Vultee Bomber Aircraft.
In Dec 1945, the company was placed under the administrative control of Min. of Industry &
Supply. In January 1951, Hindustan Aircraft Private Limited was placed under the
Administrative control of Ministry of Defence. The Company had built aircraft and engines of
foreign design under licence, such as Prentice, Vampire and Gnat aircraft. It also undertook the
design and development of aircraft indigenously.
In August 1951, the HT-2 Trainer aircraft, designed and produced by the company under the able
leadership of Dr.V.M.Ghatge flew for the first time. Over 150 Trainers were manufactured and
supplied to the Indian Air Force and other customers. With the gradual building up of its design
capability, the company successfully designed and developed four other aircraft i.e. two seater
'Pushpak' suitable for flying clubs, 'Krishak' for Air Observatory Post(AOP) role, HF-24 Jet
Fighter '(Marut)' and the HJT-16 Basic Jet Trainer '(Kiran)'. Meanwhile, in August 1963,
Aeronautics India Limited (AIL) was incorporated as a Company wholly owned by the
Government of India to undertake the manufacture of the MiG-21 aircraft under licence. In
June 1964, the Aircraft Manufacturing Depot which was set up in 1960 as an Air Force unit to
produce the Airframe for the HS-748 transport aircraft was transferred to AIL. Soon thereafter,
the Government decided to amalgamate Hindustan Aircraft Limited, with AIL so as to conserve
resources in the field of aviation where the technical talent in the country was limited and to
enable the activities of all the aircraft manufacturing units to be planned and co-ordinated in the
most efficient and economical manner. Amalgamation of the two companies i.e. Hindustan
Aircraft Limited and Aeronautics India Limited was brought about on 1st Oct 1964 by an
Amalgamation order issued by the Government of India and the Company after the
amalgamation was named as "Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL)" with its principal business
being design, development, manufacture, repair and overhaul of aircraft, helicopter, engines and
related systems like avionics, instruments and accessories.
Research and Development Centres: -
The Company has a comprehensive Design Organisation. Out of 31 types of aircraft produced
so far, 17 have been of indigenous design. The Company has long experience in design and
manufacture of a diversified range of aircraft and its systems.

HAL Today (March 2018)

The programs under progress at HAL are production of SU-30 MKI, Hawk-AJT, Light Combat
Aircraft (LCA), DO-228 Aircraft, Dhruv-ALH and Cheetal Helicopters, Repair Overhaul of
Jaguar, Kiran MkI/IA/II, Mirage, HS-748, AN-32, MiG 21, Su-30MKI, DO-228 aircraft and
ALH, Cheetah / Chetak helicopters.

The Company takes up maintenance and overhaul services to cover the life cycle requirement of
all the old and new products. Presently, 13 types of aircraft/ helicopters and 17 types of engines
are being overhauled. In addition, facilities exist for repair/ overhaul of various accessories and
avionics fitted on aircraft of Russian, Western and Indigenous designs.

HAL is meeting the requirements of structures for Satellite Launch Vehicles and Satellites of
ISRO through its dedicated Aerospace Division (ASD). HAL(ASD) has been the mainstay
partner of ISRO for five decades and has supported throughout in the journey by providing
hardware for satellites, SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLVMKII and GSLV MKIII (LVM3).The
division also integrates the L-40 booster rockets of GSLV MKII and delivers it directly to the
launch facility.

HAL (ASD) has contributed in a major way towards all the prestigious space missions of our
country like Chandrayaan-1, Mars Orbiter, GSLV D5 and GSLV MKIII D1. The structures for
the upcoming Chandrayaan-2 mission and Human Space Program are already delivered.

HAL(ASD) is establishing a comprehensive manufacturing facility for cryogenic & semi

cryogenic engines and for carrying out total Integration of the PS2/GS2 stage of PSLV/GSLV
MKII vehicle for ISRO.
Rotary Wing Research and Design Center
The Rotary Wing R&D Centre at Bengaluru was established in 1970 as Helicopter Design
Bureau and later in 1998 it was renamed as “RWR&DC”. It was formed with the objective of
researching, innovating and creating designs for helicopters. The Rotary Wing Research &
Design Centre (RWR&DC) with modern facilities and state-of-the-art technologies spearheads
HAL’s thrust towards excellence in the field of helicopter design.

Expertise in the design and development of Rotary Wing aircraft has been built up over the last
three decades by progressive induction of qualified designers, optimal design, prototype
development, ground testing and flight testing.

The design Centre is engaged in design, development, prototype manufacturing, ground & flight
testing and Certification of Civil and Military helicopters. The objective of the Centre is to
research, innovate and create designs for rotary wing aircraft to meet indigenous and global
requirements.

The Centre holds recognition and approval from CEMILAC and DGCA for research, design and
manufacture of Military and Civil helicopters. Rotary Wing R&D Centre is AS 9100C and ISO
14001:2004 certified organization.

The Centre has designed & developed indigenous helicopters, such as, the Advanced Light
Helicopter (Dhruv & Rudra), Light Combat Helicopter (LCH) and Light Utility Helicopter
(LUH) for military customers. The ALH Dhruv is certified for civil applications also.
 Helicopter Aerodynamics

Rotary Wing Planform

Common terms used to describe the helicopter rotor system are shown here. Although there is
some variation in systems between different aircraft, the terms shown are generally accepted by
most manufacturers. The system shown here is fully articulated:

Figure Fully Articulated Rotor System

Semi rigid types do not have a vertical or horizontal hinge pin. Instead, the rotor can teeter or
flap by a trunnion bearing that connects the yoke to the mast:

Figure Semi grid Rotor System

The chord is the longitudinal dimension of an aero foil section, measured from the leading edge
to the trailing edge.

The span is the length of the rotor blade from the point of rotation to the tip of the blade.

The vertical hinge pin (drag hinge) is the axis which permits fore and aft blade movement
independent of the other blades in the system.

The horizontal hinge pin is the axis which permits up and down movement of the blade
independent of the other blades in the system.

The trunnion is splined to the mast and has two bearings through which it is secured to the yoke.
The blades are mounted to the yoke and are free to teeter (flap) around the trunnion bearings.
The yoke is the structural member to which the blades are attached and which fastens the rotor
blades to the mast through the trunnion and trunnion bearings.

The blade grip retainer bearing is the bearing which permits rotation of the blade about its span
wise axis so blade pitch can be changed (blade feathering)

Blade Twist is a characteristic built into the rotor blade so angle of incidence is less near the tip
than at the root. Blade twist helps distribute the lift evenly along the blade by an increased angle
of incidence near the root where blade speed is slower. Outboard portions of the blade that travel
faster normally have lower angles of incidence, so less lift is concentrated near the blade tip

Angle of Attack

Angle of attack is an aerodynamic angle and is illustrated here:

Figure Angle of Attack

It is defined as the angle between the aero foil chord and its direction of motion relative to the air
(resultant relative wind). Several factors may cause rotor blade angle of attack to change. Some
are controlled by the pilot and some occur automatically due to the rotor system design. Pilots
can adjust angle of attack by moving the cyclic and collective pitch controls. However, even
when these controls are held stationary, the angle of attack constantly changes as the blade
moves around the circumference of the rotor disk. Other factors affecting angle of attack, over
which the pilot has little control, are blade flapping, blade flexing, and gusty wind or turbulent
air conditions. Angle of attack is one of the primary factors that determines amount of lift and
drag produced by an aero foil.

Angle of Incidence

Angle of attack should not be confused with angle of incidence (blade pitch angle). Angle of
incidence is the angle between the blade chord line and the plane of rotation of the rotor system.
It is a mechanical angle rather than an aerodynamic angle:
Figure Angle of Incidence

In the absence of induced flow and or aircraft airspeed, angle of attack and angle of incidence are
the same. Whenever relative wind is modified by induced flow or aircraft airspeed, then angle of
attack is different than angle of incidence

Centrifugal Force

Helicopter rotor systems depend primarily on rotation to produce relative wind which develops
the aerodynamic force required for flight. Because of its rotation and weight, the rotor system is
subject to forces and moments peculiar to all rotating masses. One of the forces produced is
centrifugal force. It is defined as the force that tends to make rotating bodies move away from
the centre of rotation. Another force produced in the rotor system is centripetal force. It is the
force that counteracts centrifugal force by keeping an object a certain radius from the axis of
rotation.

The rotating blades of a helicopter produce very high centrifugal loads on the rotor head and
blade attachment assemblies. As a matter of interest, centrifugal loads may be from 6 to 12 tons
at the blade root of two to four passenger helicopters. Larger helicopters may develop up to 40
tons of centrifugal load on each blade root. In rotary-wing aircraft, centrifugal force is the
dominant force affecting the rotor system. All other forces act to modify this force.

When the rotor blades are at rest, they droop due to their weight and span. In fully articulated
systems, they rest against a static or droop stop which prevents the blade from descending so low
it will strike the aircraft (or ground!). When the rotor system begins to turn, the blade starts to
rise from the static position because of the centrifugal force. At operating speed, the blades
extend straight out even though they are at flat pitch and are not producing lift.

As the helicopter develops lift during take off and flight, the blades rise above the "straight out"
position and assume a coned position. Amount of coning depends on RPM, gross weight, and G-
Forces experienced during flight. If RPM is held constant, coning increases as gross weight and
G-force increase. If gross weight and G-forces are constant, decreasing RPM will cause
increased coning. Excessive coning can occur if RPM gets too low, gross weight is too high, or if
excessive G-forces are experienced. Excessive coning can cause undesirable stresses on the
blade and a decrease of total lift because of a decrease in effective disk area:

Figure Loss of Disc Area due to Coning

Notice that the effective diameter of the rotor disk with increased coning is less than the diameter
of the other disk with less coning. A smaller disk diameter has less potential to produce lift.

Centrifugal force and lift effects on the blade can be illustrated best by a vector. First look at a
rotor shaft and blade just rotating:

Figure Centrifugal Force

Now look at the same rotor shaft and blade when a vertical force is pushing up on the tip of the
blade:
Figure Lift & Centrifugal force

The vertical force is lift produced when the blades assume a positive angle of attack. The
horizontal force is caused by the centrifugal force due to rotation. Since one end of the blade is
attached to the rotor shaft, it is not free to move. The other end can move and will assume a
position that is the resultant of the forces acting on it:

Figure Resultant of Lift & Centrifugal Force

Rotational Velocities

During hovering, airflow over the rotor blades is produced by rotation of the rotor system. Here
is a picture showing a typical helicopter rotor system:

Blade speed at Hover

Blade speed near the main rotor shaft is much less because the distance travelled at the smaller
radius is relatively small. At point "A", half way from the rotor shaft to the blade tip, the blade
speed is only TBS knots which are one-half the tip speed. Speed at any point on the blades varies
with the radius or distance from the center of the main rotor shaft. An extreme airspeed
differential between the blade tip and root is the result. The lift differential between the blade
root and tip is even larger because lift varies as the square of the speed. Therefore, when speed is
doubled, lift is increased four times. This means that the lift at point "A" would be only one-
fourth as much as lift at the blade tip (assuming the aero foil shape and angle of attack are the
same at both points).

Because of the potential lift differential along the blade resulting primarily from speed variation,
blades are designed with a twist. Blade twist provides a higher pitch angle at the root where
speed is low and lower pitch angles nearer the tip where speed is higher. This design helps
distribute the lift more evenly along the blade. It increases both the induced air velocity and the
blade loading near the inboard section of the blade. This picture compares the lift of a twisted
and untwisted blade:

Hovering

Hovering is the term applied when a helicopter maintains a constant position at a selected point,
usually a few feet above the ground (but not always, helicopters can hover high in the air, given
enough power). For a helicopter to hover, the main rotor must supply lift equal to the total
weight of the helicopter. With the blades rotating at high velocity, an increase of blade pitch
(angle of attack) would induce the necessary lift for a hover. The forces of lift and weight reach a
state of balance during a stationary hover.

Hovering is an element of vertical flight. Assuming a no-wind condition, the tip-path plane of the
blades will remain horizontal. If the angle of attack of the blades is increased while their velocity
remains constant, additional vertical thrust is obtained. Thus, by upsetting the vertical balance of
forces, helicopters can climb or descend vertically.
Airflow during hovering

At a hover, the rotor tip vortex (air swirl at the tip of the rotor blades) reduces the effectiveness
of the outer blade portions. Also, the vortexes of the preceding blade severely affect the lift of
the following blades. If the vortex made by one passing blade remains a vicious swirl for some
number of seconds, then two blades operating at 350 RPM create 700 long lasting vortex patterns
per minute. This continuous creation of new vortexes and ingestion of existing vortexes is a
primary cause of high-power requirements for hovering.

Figure Rotor tip vortex at Hover

During hover, the rotor blades move large volumes of air in a downward direction. This pumping
process uses lots of horsepower and accelerates the air to relatively high velocities. Air velocity
under the helicopter may reach 60 to 100 knots, depending on the size of the rotor and the gross
weight of the helicopter. The air flow pattern of a hovering helicopter is

illustrated here:

Ground effect

The high-power requirement needed to hover out of ground effect is reduced when operating in
ground effect. Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when
operating near (within 1/2 rotor diameter) of the ground. It is due to the interference of the
surface with the airflow pattern of the rotor system, and it is more pronounced the nearer the
ground is approached. Increased blade efficiency while operating in ground effect is due to two
separate and distinct phenomena.

First and most important is the reduction of the velocity of the induced airflow. Since the ground
interrupts the airflow under the helicopter, the entire flow is altered. This reduces downward
velocity of the induced flow. The result is less induced drag and a more vertical lift vector. The
lift needed to sustain a hover can be produced with a reduced angle of attack and less power
because of the more vertical lift vector:

Figure In Ground effect Hover

The second phenomena are reduction of the rotor tip vortex:

IN-GROUND-EFFECT-HOVER

When operating in ground effect, the downward and outward airflow pattern tends to restrict
vortex generation. This makes the outboard portion of the rotor blade more efficient and reduces
overall system turbulence caused by ingestion and recirculation of the vortex swirl Rotor
efficiency is increased by ground effect up to a height of about one rotor diameter for most
helicopters. This figure illustrates the percent increase in rotor thrust experienced at various rotor
heights:

Figure increased lift capability in ground effect

At a rotor height of one-half rotor diameter, the thrust is increased about 7 percent. At rotor
heights above one rotor diameter, the thrust increase is small and decreases to zero at a height of
about 1 1/4 rotor diameters.
Maximum ground effect is accomplished when hovering over smooth paved surfaces. While
hovering over tall grass, rough terrain, revetments, or water, ground effect may be seriously
reduced. This phenomenon is due to the partial breakdown and cancellation of ground effect and
the return of large vortex patterns with increased downwash angles.

Two identical aero foils with equal blade pitch angles are compared in the following figure:

The top aero foil is out-of-ground-effect while the bottom aero foil is in-ground-effect. The aero
foil that is in-ground-effect is more efficient because it operates at a larger angle of attack and
produces a more vertical lift vector. Its increased efficiency results from a smaller downward
induced wind velocity which increases angle of attack. The aero foil operating out-of-ground-
effect is less efficient because of increased induced wind velocity which reduces angle of attack.

If a helicopter hovering out of -ground-effect descends into a ground-effect hover, blade

efficiency increases because of the more favorable induced flow. As efficiency of the rotor
system increases, the pilot reduces blade pitch angle to remain in the ground-effect hover.
Translational lift

The efficiency of the hovering rotor system is improved with each knot of incoming wind gained
by horizontal movement or surface wind. As the incoming wind enters the rotor system,
turbulence and vortexes are left behind and the flow of air becomes more horizontal. All these
changes improve the efficiency of the rotor system and improve aircraft performance.

Improved rotor efficiency resulting from directional flight is called translational lift. The
following picture shows an airflow pattern at airspeeds between 1-5 knots:

Figure Translational lift at 1 to 5 knots

Note how the downwind vortex is beginning to dissipate and induced flow down through the rear
of the rotor disk is more horizontal than at a hover.

This next picture shows the airflow pattern at a speed of 10-15 knots. Airflow is much more
horizontal than at a hover. The leading edge of the downwash pattern is being overrun and is
well back under the helicopter nose. At about 16 to 24 knots (depending upon the size, blade
area, and RPM of the rotor system) the rotor completely outruns the recirculation of old vortexes,
and begins to work in relatively clean air
The air passing through the rotor system is nearly horizontal, depending on helicopter
forward air speed.

As the helicopter speed increases, translational lift becomes more effective and causes the
nose to rise, or pitch up (sometimes called blowback). This tendency is caused by the
combined effects of dissymmetry of lift and transverse flow. Pilots must correct for this
tendency in order to maintain a constant rotor disk attitude that will move the helicopter
through the speed range where blowback occurs. If the nose is permitted to pitch up while
passing through this speed range, the aircraft may also tend to roll to the right

When the single main rotor helicopter transitions from hover to forward flight, the tail rotor
becomes more aerodynamically efficient. Efficiency increases because the tail rotor works in
progressively less turbulent air as speed increases. As tail rotor efficiency improves, more
thrust is produced. This causes the aircraft nose to yaw left if the main rotor turns counter
clockwise. During a take-off where power is constant, the pilot must apply right pedal as
speed increases to correct for the left yaw tendency.

Transverse Flow Effect

In forward flight, air passing through the rear portion of the rotor disk has a greater
downwash angle than air passing through the forward portion:
Transverse flow effect

The downward flow at the rear of the rotor disk causes a reduced angle of attack, resulting in
less lift. Increased angle of attack and more lift is produced at the front portion of the disk
because airflow is more horizontal. These differences between the fore and aft parts of the
rotor disk are called transverse flow effect. They cause unequal drag in the fore and aft parts
of the disk resulting in vibrations that are easily recognizable by the pilot. The vibrations are
more noticeable for most helicopters between 10 and 20 knots.

Dissymmetry of Lift

Dissymmetry of lift is the difference in lift that exists between the advancing half of the rotor
disk and the retreating half. It is caused by the fact that in directional flight the aircraft
relative wind is added to the rotational relative wind on the advancing blade, and subtracted
on the retreating blade. The blade passing the tail and advancing around the right side of the
helicopter has an increasing airspeed which reaches maximum at the 34 o'clock position. As
the blade continues, the airspeed reduces to essentially rotational airspeed over the nose of
the helicopter. Leaving the nose, the blade airspeed progressively decreases and reaches
minimum airspeed at the 9 o'clock position. The blade airspeed then increases progressively
and again reaches rotational airspeed as it passes over the tail. Note the shaded circle in the
picture labelled "REVERSE FLOW":

Figure Dissymmetry of lift

Blade airspeed at the outboard edge of the shaded circle is 0 knots. Within the reverse flow
area, the air moves over the blade backwards from trailing edge to leading edge. From the
reverse flow area out to the blade tip, the blade airspeed progressively increases up to 294
knots.

At an aircraft airspeed of 100 knots, a 200-knot blade airspeed differential exists between the
advancing and retreating blades. Since lift increases as the square of the airspeed, a potential
lift variation exists between the advancing and retreating sides of the rotor disk. This lift
differential must be compensated for, or the helicopter would not be controllable.

To compare the lift of the advancing half of the disk area to the lift of the retreating half, the
lift equation can be used. In forward flight, two factors in the lift formula, density ratio and
blade area, are the same for both the advancing and retreating blades. The aero foil shape is
fixed for a given blade. The only remaining variables are changes in blade angle of attack and
blade airspeed. These two variables must compensate for each other during forward flight to
overcome dissymmetry of lift.

Two factors, rotor RPM and aircraft airspeed, control blade airspeed during flight. Both
factors are variable to some degree, but must remain within certain operating limits. Angle of
attack remains as the one variable that may be used by the pilot to compensate for
dissymmetry of lift. The pitch angle of the rotor blades can be varied throughout their range,
from flat pitch to the stalling pitch angle, to change angle of attack and to compensate for lift
differential.

The following picture shows the relationship between blade pitch angle and blade airspeed
during forward flight:
Note that blade pitch angle is lower on the advancing side of the disk to compensate for
increased blade airspeed on that side. Blade pitch angle is increased on the retreating blade
side to compensate for decreased blade airspeed on that side. These changes in blade pitch are
introduced either through the blade feathering mechanism or blade flapping. When made with
the blade feathering mechanism, the changes are called cyclic feathering. Pitch changes are
made to individual blades independent of the others in the system and are controlled by the
pilot's cyclic pitch control
 STRUCTURE
Structure designing and manufacturing is the base stage for the designing and development of
a helicopter. By defining the structure, the basic parameters are defined for developing an
aircraft. All the other equipment are designed based on structure’s design. it should be
designed in such a way it should fulfil all the requirement. The design of the structure is
based on the four basic parameters they’re geometry, material, load and boundary condition.
While designing the aircraft these basic parameters should be taken into consideration. The
airframe, or fundamental structure, of a helicopter can be made of either metal or organic
composite materials, or some combination of the two. Higher performance requirements will
incline the designer to favour composites with higher strength-to-weight ratio, often epoxy (a
resin) reinforced with glass, aramid (a strong, flexible nylon fibre), or carbon fibre. Typically,
a composite component consists of many layers of fibre-impregnated resins, bonded to form a
smooth panel. Tubular and sheet metal substructures are usually made of aluminium, though
stainless steel or titanium are sometimes used in areas subject to higher stress or heat. To
facilitate bending during the manufacturing process, the structural tubing is often filled with
molten sodium silicate. A helicopter's rotary wing blades are usually made of fibre-reinforced
resin, which may be adhesively bonded with an external sheet metal layer to protect edges.
The helicopter's windscreen and windows are formed of polycarbonate sheeting. The basic
components are:-

Airframe
The airframe, or fundamental structure, of a helicopter can be made of either metal or wood
composite materials, or some combination of the two. Typically, a composite component
consists of many layers of fibre-impregnated resins, bonded to form a smooth panel. Tubular
and sheet metal substructures are usually made of aluminium, though stainless steel or
titanium are sometimes used in areas subject to higher stress or heat. Airframe design
encompasses engineering, aerodynamics, materials technology, and manufacturing methods
to achieve favourable balances of performance, reliability, and cost.
Fuselage
As with fixed-wing aircraft, helicopter fuselages and tail booms are often truss-type or semi
monocoque structures of stress-skin design. Steel and aluminium tubing, formed aluminium,
and aluminium skin are commonly used. Modern helicopter fuselage design includes an
increasing utilization of advanced composites as well. Firewalls and engine decks are usually
stainless steel. Helicopter fuselages vary widely from those with a truss frame, two seats, no
doors, and a monocoque shell flight compartment to those with fully enclosed airplane-style
cabins as found on larger twin-engine helicopters. The multidirectional nature of helicopter
flight makes wide-range visibility from the cockpit essential. Large, formed polycarbonate,
glass, or Plexiglas windscreens are common.

Landing Gear or Skids

A helicopter’s landing gear can be simply a set of tubular metal skids. Many helicopters do
have landing gear with wheels, some retractable.
TAIL
It is the rear extension and the host of anti-torque unit i.e. the tail rotor. It also contains the
vertical and horizontal stabilizers of the helicopter. The design of the helicopter is based on
the customers’ requirement, the weight, its height, function and equipment it should carry
depends on the customers’ requirement. While designing or manufacturing these should be
taken into consideration. As the basic parameters like geometry, load capacity, material
needed for manufacturing and boundary condition are defined based on customers need.

Designing stages of helicopter’s structure

1. NMG
 In this stage the boundary for the design is suggested.
 This is to give a rough idea about the structure of the product to be
manufactured.
 The basic geometry of the helicopter should be defined within this boundary.

2. Conceptual Design
 Aircraft conceptual design involves sketching a variety of possible
configurations that meet the required design specifications.
  By drawing a set of configurations, designers seek to reach the design
configuration that satisfactorily meets all requirements as well as go hand in
hand with factors such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight performance,
structural and control systems.
 This is called design optimization. Fundamental aspects such as fuselage
shape, wing configuration and location, engine size and type are all
determined at this stage. Constraints to design like those mentioned above are
all considered at this stage as well.
 The final product is a conceptual layout of the aircraft configuration on paper
or computer screen, to be reviewed by engineers and other designers.

3. Preliminary design phase

 The design configuration arrived at in the conceptual design phase is then
tweaked and re modelled to fit into the design parameters.
 In this phase, wind tunnel testing and computational fluid dynamic
calculations of the flow field around the aircraft are done.
 Major structural and control analysis is also carried out in this phase.
Aerodynamic flaws and structural instabilities if any are corrected and the
final design is drawn and finalized.
 Then after the finalization of the design lies the key decision with the
manufacturer or individual designing it whether to go ahead with the
production of the aircraft.
 At this point several designs, though perfectly capable of flight and
performance, might have been opted out of production due to their being
economically nonviable.

4. Design feasibility
 In this the created design is shown to the customer.
 Customer decides whether to keep the design or some modification is needs
to be one as per his requirements.
5. Detail design phase
 This phase simply deals with the fabrication aspect of the aircraft to be
manufactured. It determines the number, design and location of ribs, spars,
sections and other structural elements.
 All aerodynamic, structural, propulsion, control and performance aspects have
already been covered in the preliminary design phase and only the
manufacturing remains. Flight simulators for aircraft are also developed at
this stage.

6. Mock up
 In this stage the structure of the aircraft is designed.
 Only the airframe and the skin is manufactured the other systems are not
manufactured.

7. Test
 The mock up undergoes various tests and the results are documented.
 Based on the test results the flaw are determined.
 This gives the idea of product’s life and function ability.

8. Prototype
 This is to design the aircraft with all its units.
 All the systems are manufactured and assembled as a single piece then it goes
various tests to determine its feasibility.
 It must clear certification as per given standards before manufacturing.


9. Series Manufacturing
 After all the tests and certification clearance the aircraft is ready for large
scale manufacturing and selling.
STRUCTURAL LOAD CALCULATION
The main function of the structure is to carry the loads acting over it, so it becomes very
crucial to calculate the load acting over the body. This will help to find the places needed for
reinforcements to withstand the load acting over the whole body.

To caculate the load the boady is divided into the segments (each segments weight or load is
determined by the equipments it hold or carry during the working life) carrying certain loads.
By divivding the helicopter into segments we can easily find out the places needed to be
reinforced , for instance if one segment is expecting critical load it will be inforced with more
number of stringers than the part eperiencing less loads. In the below figure the whole
helicopter can be seen as structure carrying load as shown below it. This load is divided into
segments say A, B, C & D. Over the segments the loads of say 300 N, 500 N & 150 N are
acting over the structure at certain distances as shown in the figure.
Load calculation on each segment:

Load acting on point A = 300*b/(a+b).

Load acting on point B = 300*a/(a+b) + 500*d/(c+d).

Load acting on point C = 500*c/(c+d) + 150*f/(e+f).

Load acting on point D = 150*e/(e+f).

Hence from above we can conclude that the segment from B to C are carrying more critical
load over the other segments, so more structural reinforcements are needed over these parts
than over the other segments.
Here we can say that by using this method we can predict the critical parts and can reinforce
it to increase the load withstanding capability of the structure.
 Rotor System
The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which generates lift. The rotor consists of
a mast, hub, and rotor blades. The mast is a hollow cylindrical metal shaft which extends
upwards from and is driven and sometimes supported by the transmission. At the top of the
mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are then
attached to the hub by any number of different methods. Main rotor systems are classified
according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor hub.
There are three basic classifications: semi rigid, rigid or fully articulated. Some modern rotor
systems, such as the teetering rotor system bearing less rotor system, use an engineered
combination of these types.

Hinge less rotor system

The rigid rotor system shown in is mechanically simple, but structurally complex because
operating loads must be absorbed in bending rather than through hinges. In this system, the
blade roots are rigidly attached to the rotor hub. Rigid rotor systems tend to behave like fully
articulated systems through aerodynamics, but lack flapping or lead/lag hinges. Instead, the
blades accommodate these motions by bending. They cannot flap or lead/lag, but they can be
feathered. As advancements in helicopter aerodynamics and materials continue to improve,
rigid rotor systems may become more common because the system is fundamentally easier to
design and offers the best properties of both semi rigid and fully articulated systems. The
rigid rotor system is very responsive and is usually not susceptible to mast bumping like the
semi rigid or articulated systems because the rotor hubs are mounted solid to the main rotor
mast. This allows the rotor and fuselage to move together as one entity and eliminates much
of the oscillation usually present in the other rotor systems. Other advantages of the rigid
rotor include a reduction in the weight and drag of the rotor hub and a larger flapping arm,
which significantly reduces control inputs. Without the complex hinges, the rotor system
becomes much more reliable and easier to maintain than the other rotor configurations. A
disadvantage of this system is the quality of ride in turbulent or gusty air. Because there are
no hinges to help absorb the larger loads, vibrations are felt in the cabin much more than with
other rotor head designs.
 Figure 1: Hinge less rotor system

Teetering rotor system

A semi rigid rotor system is usually composed of two blades that are rigidly mounted to the
main rotor hub. The main rotor hub is free to tilt with respect to the main rotor shaft on what
is known as a teetering hinge. This allows the blades to flap together as a unit. As one blade
flaps up, the other flaps down. Since there is no vertical drag hinge, lead/lag forces are
absorbed and mitigated by blade bending. The semi rigid rotor is also capable of feathering,
which means that the pitch angle of the blade changes. This is made possible by the
feathering hinge.

The underslung rotor system mitigates the lead/lag forces by mounting the blades slightly
lower than the usual plane of rotation, so the lead and lag forces are minimized. As the blades
cone upward, the center of pressures of the blades are almost in the same plane as the hub.
Whatever stresses are remaining bend the blades for compliance. If the semi rigid rotor
system is an underslung rotor, the center of gravity (CG) is below where it is attached to the
mast. This underslung mounting is designed to align the blade’s center of mass with a
common flapping hinge so that both blades’ centers of mass vary equally in distance from the
center of rotation during flapping. The rotational speed of the system tends to change, but this
is restrained by the inertia of the engine and flexibility of the drive system. Only a moderate
amount of stiffening at the blade root is necessary to handle this restriction. Simply put, under
slinging effectively eliminates geometric imbalance.
Helicopters with semi rigid rotors are vulnerable to a condition known as mast bumping
which can cause the rotor flap stops to shear the mast. The mechanical design of the semi
rigid rotor system dictates downward flapping of the blades must have some physical limit.
Mast bumping is the result of excessive rotor flapping. Each rotor system design has a
maximum flapping angle. If flapping exceeds the design value, the static stop will contact the
mast. It is the violent contact between the static stop and the mast during flight that causes
mast damage or separation. This contact must be avoided at all costs.
Mast bumping is directly related to how much the blade system flaps. In straight and level
flight, blade flapping is minimal, perhaps 2° under usual flight conditions. Flapping angles
increase slightly with high forward speeds, at low rotor rpm, at high-density altitudes, at high
gross weights, and when encountering turbulence. Maneuvering the aircraft in a sideslip or
during low-speed flight at extreme CG positions can induce larger flapping angles.

Figure 2: Teetering rotor

Articulated Rotor System

A fully articulated rotor system usually consists of three or more rotor blades. The blades are
allowed to flap, feather, and lead or lag independently of each other. Each rotor blade is
attached to the rotor hub by a horizontal hinge, called the flapping hinge, which permits the
blades to flap up and down. Each blade can move up and down independently of the others.
The flapping hinge may be located at varying distances from the rotor hub, and there may be
more than one. The position is chosen by each manufacturer, primarily with regard to
stability and control. Each rotor blade is also attached to the hub by a vertical hinge, called a
drag or lag hinge, that permits each blade, independently of the others, to move back and
forth in the plane of the rotor disc. Dampers are normally incorporated in the design of this
type of rotor system to prevent excessive motion about the drag hinge. The purpose of the
drag hinge and dampers is to absorb the acceleration and deceleration of the rotor blades.
Dampers are usually used to prevent excess back and forth movement around the drag hinge.
The purpose of the drag hinge and dampers is to compensate for acceleration and deceleration
caused by the Coriolis Effect. The blades of a fully articulated rotor can also be feathered, or
rotated about their span wise axis. To put it more simply, feathering means the changing of
the pitch angle of the rotor blades.

E.g.: AgustaWestland AW109, Hughes TH-55 Osage, MD Helicopters MD 500, Sikorsky S-

300, Gimbal Cabri G2.

Figure 3: Fully articulated rotor with flapping hinge.

Table 1: Differences in handling between the types of rotor

System type Advantages disadvantages

Articulated  Good control  High aerodynamic drag. More
 response complex, greater cost.
Semi rigid  Simple, easy to hangar due to  Reaction to control input not
two blades as quick as articulated head.
 Vibration can be higher than
multi bladed articulated
systems.
Rigid  Simple design,  Higher vibration than
 crisp response articulated rotor.
Swash Plate Assembly
The purpose of the swash plate is to convert stationary control inputs from the pilot into
rotating inputs which can be connected to the rotor blades or control surfaces. It consists of
two main parts: stationary swash plate and rotating swash plate.

The stationary swash plate is mounted around the main rotor mast and connected to the cyclic
and collective controls by a series of pushrods. It is restrained from rotating by an ant drive
link but can tilt in all directions and move vertically. The rotating swash plate is mounted to
the stationary swash plate by means of a uni-ball sleeve. It is connected to the mast by drive
links and must rotate in constant relationship with the main rotor mast. Both swash plates tilt
and slide up and down as one unit. The rotating swash plate is connected to the pitch horns by
the pitch links.

Figure 4: Swash plate assembly

Anti-torque system

Figure 4: Anti torque: Torque effect on a helicopter

With a single main rotor helicopter, the creation of torque as the engine turns the rotor creates
a torque effect that causes the body of the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the
rotor. To eliminate this effect, some sort of anti-torque control must be used with a sufficient
margin of power available to allow the helicopter to maintain its heading and provide yaw
control. The three most common controls used today are the tail rotor, Euro
copter’s Fenestron (also called a fantail), and MD Helicopters' NOTAR.

Tail rotor
The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted so that it rotates vertically or near-vertically at the
end of the tail of a traditional single-rotor helicopter. The tail rotor's position and distance
from the center of gravity allow it to develop thrust in a direction opposite of the main rotor's
rotation to counter the torque effect created by the main rotor.
 Figure 5: Tail rotor of an SA 330 Puma

Tail rotors are simpler than main rotors since they require only collective changes in pitch to
vary thrust. The pitch of the tail rotor blades is adjustable by the pilot via the anti-torque
pedals, which also provide directional control by allowing the pilot to rotate the helicopter
around its vertical axis, thereby changing the direction the craft is pointed.

Ducted fan

Figure 6: Fenestron on an EC 120B

Fenestron and FANTAIL are trademarks for a ducted fan mounted at the end of the tail boom
of the helicopter and used in place of a tail rotor. Ducted fans have between eight and
eighteen blades arranged with irregular spacing so that the noise is distributed over different
frequencies. The housing is integral with the aircraft skin and allows a high rotational speed;

Therefore, a ducted fan can have a smaller size than a conventional tail rotor. The Fenestron was used
for the first time at the end of the 1960s on the second experimental model of Suds Aviation's SA 340
and produced on the later model Aerospatiale SA 341 Gazelle. Besides Euro copter and its
predecessors, a ducted fan tail rotor was also used on the canceled military helicopter project,
the United States Army's RAH-66 Comanche, as the FANTAIL.

NOTAR

Figure 7: Diagram showing the movement of air through the NOTAR

NOTAR, an acronym for NO Tail Rotor, is a helicopter anti-torque system that eliminates the use of
the tail rotor on a helicopter. Although the concept took some time to refine, the NOTAR system is
simple in theory and provides anti-torque the same way a wing develops lift by using the Coandă
effect. A variable pitch fan is enclosed in the aft fuselage section immediately forward of the tail
boom and is driven by the main rotor transmission. To provide the sideways force to counteract the
clockwise torque produced by a counterclockwise-spinning main rotor (as seen from above the main
rotor), the variable-pitch fan forces low pressure air through two slots on the right side of the tail
boom, causing the downwash from the main rotor to hug the tail boom, producing lift and thus a
measure of anti-torque proportional to the amount of airflow from the rotor wash. This is augmented
by a direct jet thruster which also provides directional yaw control, with the presence of a fixed-
surface empennage near the end of the tail, incorporating vertical stabilizers.
Development of the NOTAR system dates back to 1975 when engineers at Hughes Helicopters began
concept development work. In December 1981, Hughes flew an OH-6A fitted with NOTAR for the
first time. A more heavily modified prototype demonstrator first flew in March 1986 and successfully
completed an advanced flight-test program, validating the system for future application in
helicopter design. There are currently three production helicopters that incorporate the
NOTAR design, all produced by MD Helicopters. This anti-torque design also improves
safety by eliminating the possibility of personnel walking into the tail rotor.

A predecessor (of sorts) to this system existed in the form of Great Britain's Cierra
W.9 helicopter, a late 1940s aircraft using the cooling fan from its piston engine to push air
through a nozzle built into the tail boom to counteract rotor-torque.

Tip jets
The main rotor may be driven by tip jets. Such a system may be powered by high pressure air
provided by a compressor. The air may or may not be mixed with fuel and burnt in ram-jets,
pulse-jets, or rockets. Though this method is simple and eliminates torque reaction,
prototypes that have been built are less fuel efficient than conventional helicopters. Except
for tip jets driven by unburnt compressed air, very high noise levels is the single most
important reason why tip jet powered rotors have not gained wide acceptance. However,
research into noise suppression is ongoing and may help make this system viable. There are
several examples of tip jet powered rotorcraft. The Percival P.74 was under-powered and
could not fly. The Hiller YH-32 Hornet had good lifting capability but performed poorly
otherwise. Other aircraft used auxiliary thrust for translational flight so that the tip jets could
be shut down while the rotor auto rotated. The experimental Fairy Jet Gyro dyne, 48-
seat Fairy Roto-dyne passenger prototypes and McDonnell XV-1 compound gyroplanes flew
well using this method. Perhaps the most unusual design of this type was the Rotary Rocket
Roton ATV, which was originally envisioned to take off using a rocket-tipped rotor. The
French Sud-Ouest Djinn used unburnt compressed air to drive the rotor, which minimized
noise and helped it become the only tip jet driven rotor helicopter to enter production.
The Hughes XH-17 had a tip jet-driven rotor, which remains the largest rotor ever fitted to a
helicopter.
Blade design
The blades of a helicopter are long, narrow airfoils with a high aspect ratio, a shape that
minimizes drag from tip vortices (see the wings of a glider for comparison). They generally
contain a degree of washout that reduces the lift generated at the tips, where the airflow is
fastest and vortex generation would be a significant problem. Rotor blades are made out of
various materials, including Aluminum, composite structure, and steel or titanium, with
abrasion shields along the leading edge.

Rotorcraft blades are traditionally passive; however, some helicopters include active
components on their blades. The Kaman K-MAX uses trailing edge flaps for blade pitch
control and the Hiller YH-32 Hornet was powered by ramjets mounted on the blade ends. As
of 2010, research into active blade control through trailing edge flaps is underway. Tips of
some helicopter blades can be specially designed to reduce turbulence and noise and to
provide more efficient flying. Examples of such tips are the tips of the BERP rotors created
during the British Experimental Rotor program.

The two families of airfoils are

 symmetrical airfoils

 asymmetrical airfoils

Symmetrical blades are very stable, which helps keep blade twisting and flight control loads
to a minimum. This stability is achieved by keeping the center of pressure virtually
unchanged as the angle of attack changes. Center of pressure is the imaginary point on the
chord line where the resultants of all aerodynamic forces are considered to be concentrated.
Today, designers use thinner airfoils and obtain the required rigidity by using composite
materials.

In addition, some airfoils are asymmetrical in design, meaning the upper and lower surface do
not have the same camber. Normally these airfoils would not be as stable, but this can be
corrected by bending the trailing edge to produce the same characteristics as symmetrical
airfoils. This is called "reflexing." Using this type of rotor blade allows the rotor system to
operate at higher forward speeds. One of the reasons an asymmetrical rotor blade is not as
stable is that the center of pressure changes with changes in angle of attack. When the center
of pressure lifting force is behind the pivot point on a rotor blade, it tends to cause the rotor
disc to pitch up. As the angle of attack increases, the center of pressure moves forward. If it
moves ahead of the pivot point, the pitch of the rotor disc decreases. Since the angle of attack
of the rotor blades is constantly changing during each cycle of rotation, the blades tend to
flap, feather, lead, and lag to a greater degree.

Limitations and hazards

Helicopters with teetering rotors—for example the two-blade system on
the Bell, Robinson and others—must not be subjected to a low-g condition because such rotor
systems do not control the fuselage attitude. This can result in the fuselage assuming an
attitude controlled by momentum and tail rotor thrust that causes the tail boom to intersect the
main rotor tip-path plane or result in the blade roots contacting the main rotor drive shaft,
causing the blades to separate from the hub (mast bumping).

Abrasion in sandy environments

When operating in sandy environments, sand hitting the moving rotor blades erodes their
surface. This can damage the rotors and presents serious and costly maintenance problems.

Abrasion strips on helicopter rotor blades are made of metal, often titanium or nickel, which
are very hard, but less hard than sand. When a helicopter flies low to the ground in desert
environments, sand striking the rotor blade can cause erosion. At night, sand hitting the metal
abrasion strip causes a visible corona or halo around the rotor blades.

The effect is caused by the pyrophoric oxidation of eroded particles, and by

triboluminescence whereby impact with the sand particles produces photo luminesce.
Figure 8: Composite main rotor blade and its section for an advanced helicopter.
 DYNAMICS

The vibrations caused during the operation of the helicopter can present danger to crew,
passengers and the equipment on it. The vibrations shorten the lifespan of the aircraft
And make it unsafe under flight regulations. Helicopter’s vibration can be classified as
passive and dynamic vibration. The passive vibration is due to the structural components and
is present due the material and the design of the aircraft. While most of the vibration is due to
the active vibrations caused due to the rotating elements of the aircraft.
Helicopter’s vibration is classified as three types:

1. Frequency vibrations
Frequency vibrations can be rated as low, medium, or high-frequency are caused
by specific kinds of equipment adjustments or malfunctions. These are often
caused by disturbances in rotor revolution or loose rotating component. These
vibrations have different modes and the biggest vibration amplitude is seen in the
main rotor N-per-revolution (RPM x number of blades) which increases with
density altitude, airspeed and weight.
2. Lateral and Vertical Vibrations
Lateral and vertical vibrations can also occur when certain helicopter components
fall out of alignment or are in disrepair. Certain imbalances or cracked, loose, or
worn-out parts can cause lateral vibrations. And if a rotor blade becomes
misaligned, this can cause a vertical vibration. It’s essential that these blades be
balanced and in good condition to ensure the minimization of vibrations.
3. Ground Resonance Vibrations
These kinds of vibrations are the most serious, as they have the potential to
destroy aircraft. Unlike other kinds of vibrations listed here, ground resonance
vibrations occur only when a helicopter is grounded (rather than when it’s in the
air). If a helicopter’s rotor system contains imbalanced components, has improper
tire pressure, features incorrect landing gear adjustments, or contains defective
rotor blade dampeners, ground resonance vibration could occur.

These vibrations can cost the decrease in life of the product and needed to be reduced to
ensure the safety of the product and the crew or passengers’ various methods have been
incorporated to reduce these vibrations as much as possible. In some helicopters methods like
track and balance theory is applied while the ALH has an integrated system known as ARIS
(Anti Resonant Isolation System) to reduce it.
Rotor Track & Balance
Rotor track and balance (RT&B) smoothest and reduces vibrations in helicopters caused by
the rotor system. RT&B attempts to bring each rotational component in the assembly with
each other. Several portable and onboard systems help automate some or all the process:
• Installation of the equipment (processor, vibration sensors at preselected locations for the
task),
• Operation of the aircraft through a predetermined measurement or set of measurement
points,
• Maintenance actions as a result of the measurements taken,
• Verification of the proper installation and efficacy of the adjustments,
• Repeat as necessary until the desired results are obtained.
One adjustment made during RT&B involves mass imbalance, such as one blade ‘weighing’
more or less than its opposite. “This is generally solved by adding/removing weights to the
root or tip in order to bring the group into harmony,” Sometimes referred to as balancing, this
is generally done to remove vibration in the lateral, or ‘in-plane’ [with respect to the rotor
disk] vibration.
Additionally, some aerodynamic tuning is possible on most modern rotor blades through
small, semi-rigid tabs installed on the trailing edge of the blades. These are usually bent,
using a specialized tool, up or down as needed to make very small adjustments to the
aerodynamics of a specific blade. This makes it more closely resemble the others in the rotor
system. These most often are adjusted to reduce the vertical vibrations, or the “hop.”
Depending upon the aircraft design, there are also adjustable pitch links or control rods,
which affect the relationship of the individual blade to the rotating swashplate and affects
both the lateral and vertical vibration axis. There also may be additional weights moved
within a blade (forward and aft) for additional tuning for specific faults.
Most RT&B focuses on the 1/rev, or the force that is imparted once per revolution of the
rotor system or rotating assembly. “An additional source of vibration is typically referred to
as N/rev, where N equals the number of rotor blades,” says Lilly. “These are caused by a
number of factors such as the ‘work’ of each individual blade and the downward force each
blade exerts on the fuselage as it passes over. Several aircraft employ some form of N/rev
absorber and a comprehensive RT&B program will encompass the tuning of, or at least or
assessing the health of these devices.”
Manufacturers have become very good at producing matching blades, but some small
variations are bound to occur. These variations can include chord and span balance and
torsional flex. Even if the manufacturer produces matched blades, differences can occur
during normal use and repair. These small differences can have an aerodynamic effect on the
way the blade flies and thus on its track and balance. Sometimes a blade that is slightly out of
track is creating the same amount of lift as its neighbors and thus the same balance. Even
with all these factors, the history of blade track and balance has ingrained a sense of comfort
in the pilot and operators when the aircraft is well tracked,”
ALH ARIS SYSTEM
Aris or ANTI RESONANT ISOLATION SYSTEM is a system in the HAL’s ALH aircrafts.
This is a six degree of freedom vibration isolation system. It isolates the fuselage from the
rotor induced vibrations. Four units of ARIS is installed between MGB and the fuselage with
the help of fasteners. These are installed at ± 45° position to fuselage’s centerline which
results in each unit being subjected to the reaction forces generated by the main rotor forces.
It consists of spring mass system and transmits low frequency loads due to flight condition
and absorbs high frequency loads due to vibrations caused by main rotor. Each ARIS UNIT
has 2° of freedom which are interposed between main rotor and fuselage. These isolates
vibration loads pertaining to forces and three moments. ALH IS four bladed, the main rotor
induced vibrations have frequency of 4 / rev = 21 Hz.
Speed of main rotor is 319.06 rpm, frequency is = 4/ rev = 4*319.06/60 = 21Hz.

Functions and capabilities

 Reduces the transmissibility of all rotor hub forces and moments.
 In case of total failure, the springs of ARIS system ensures that the static load is
transferred to the fuselage.
 Functional in maneuvers at typical load factor.
 Reduces vibration in continuous power on at an rpm range of 98 -100 %, where 100%
is 32.88 rad/s.
Components of ARIS
 R-GLASS SPRING
 DIAPRAGHM
 PENDULAM DTRUCTURE WITH ADJUSTABLE MASS
 ELASSTOMERIC BEARINGS
 SPRING HUSING
 SHORUDING RING
 SUPPORTING TUBE
R GLASS SPRING
Seven elements are bonded together to get the desired radial stiffness. It is fabricated out
glass prepreg cloth layer with built thickness of 6.25 mm.
Diaphragm
 It is made of carbon prepreg fabric with built thickness of 1.2 to 1.4 mm. the high
radial stiffness and axial stiffness
 It transfers the displacement to pendulum.
Elastomeric bearings
 It acts as the pivot for transferring the motion and to react to inertial loads from
pendulum to fuselage and rotor point.
 It has specific thickness in radial and axial and cocking directions along with fatigue
resistive capabilities
Shrouding ring
It is a limit stop and it acts as the limitation of spring displacements.
Casing ring and support tube
 Fatigue and the static tests are conducted on casing ring and the support tube
assembly simultaneously.
 It provides interface to introduces loads from rotor.
 It acts as the path for transferring the load in case of spring failure.

WORKING:
The static and dynamic loads are transferred to fuselage through the spring due to which
spring deflects the pendulum which is supported by two elastomeric bearings which is
displaced angularly. These are present at spring center and the diaphragm’s tube.
Static loads are transmitted to fuselage at frequency of 4/ rev for which ARIS is tuned the
induced inertial forces. the pendulum mass cancels out the dynamic forces of spring resulting
in no dynamic force.
DESIGN PARAMETRS
Pivot distance = 25mm.
Distance between spring and pendulum mass = 350 to 420 mm
Mass of single ARIS unit is = 12 kg
The center of ARIS unit is 150 mm above transmission deck.
Weight of whole system is 755 kg in basic version of ALH and 800 kg in AIRFORCE AND
NAVY versions.
 Power Plant

Modern day Helicopters use a Turboshaft engine. This engine, like other jet engines also
works on Brayton cycle. Instead of measuring the thrust produced, this type of engine is used
to generate enough shaft power to turn the main rotors, pumps and the tail rotors at the
desired rpm.
1. Turboshaft Engine
In a turboshaft Engine the engine does not provide any direct physical support to the
helicopter rotor. The rotor is connected to the transmission which itself is bolted to the
airframe and the turboshaft engine simply feeds the transmission via rotating shaft.

Figure 2: - TurboMecca Shakti Engine (SAFRAN ARDIDEN)

2. Power Plant selection criteria

 Availability of Power
 Weight and specific fuel consumption
 Feasibility of installation
 Intake and Exhaust ducts
 Over all dimensions, Output shaft speed and direction
 Modularity, control system (FADEC) and health monitoring
system
 Starting and operating environment
 Reliability and maintenance
 Growth potential
3. Engine mounts
It is designed as per MIL-1290 and to meet engine blade shedding requirements.
Engine mounted on HELICOPTER deck with 3-point mounting system.
 2 lugs (struts) in front left-hand mount with spherical bearing
 2 lugs (struts) in front right-hand mount with spherical bearing and the right
mount are also provided with adjustable mount with turn buckle to Carter for
lateral engine alignment.
 Single mount engine rear mount attachment with turn buckle for vertical
alignment of engine with Main Gear Box

4. Engine fire wall

Fire wall designed based on FAR-27.1191 considering engine including the
combustion, turbine and tail pipe section of turboshaft engine isolated by the fire wall
from personal compartment structure, controls, rotor mechanism and other part that
essential for controlled landing of the helicopter. All the fire wall is made of titanium
(Ti) sheet metal to with stand at least 2000±150°F for at least 15minutes.

5. Drain system
The drain system to ensure safe disposal of drained fuel, lubricant oil and water from
engine and engine compartment.

6. Engine lubrication and cooling system

Engine control system is designed to maintain the oil inlet temperature within he max
established engine oil inlet temperature value. Aerodynamic forward-facing scoop is
provided to enable continuous air supply to engine oil cooling system under all
operating conditions.
The system is designed with the following features
 Dynamic forward-facing entry scoop
 Rear facing exhaust scoop
7. Engine cowling
A cowling provides protection to the engine from environmental conditions and
provides aerodynamic shapes to reduce the drag. Scoop and openings are provided on
these cowling to provide air for engine bay cooling; those cowlings are made of
composite materials and are fastened on the structure and fire wall, with quick release
fastener and with door for easy inspection and maintenance of engine.

8. Engine air intake

The engine air intake system is designed to furnish the required quality of air to the
engine inlet at the highest possible energy level and with minimum flow distortion
under wall operating conditions; plenum chamber is installed on engine to reduce the
velocity and distortion at the engine compressor inlet.

9. Engine exhaust system

The engine exhaust system is designed for safe disposal of exhaust gas avoiding an
impingement of hot gases on horizontal surface.

10. Salient features of exhaust system

 Exhaust gases will be disposed of without fire hazard and to contamination in any
personal compartment and with possible of impingement on any part
 Re-ingestion of exhaust gases through air intake will be avoided.
 Each exhaust system components will be ventilated to prevent point of excessively
high temperature
 Minimizing the pressure lose to reduce the engine power loss.
 Exhaust duct is supported with isolation to withstand vibration and inertial loads
subjected in operation.
 Exhaust duct is made of titanium (Ti) to ensure heat and corrosion resistance.
 Fuel Systems
The fuel system in a helicopter is made up of two groups of components: the fuel supply
system and the engine fuel control system.

Fuel Supply
System

The supply system consists of a fuel tank or tanks, fuel quantity gauges, a shut-off valve, fuel
filter, a fuel line to the engine, and possibly a primer and fuel pumps. [Figure 4-20] The fuel
tanks are usually mounted to the airframe as close as possible to the CG. This way, as fuel is
burned off, there is a negligible effect on the CG. A drain valve located on the bottom of the
fuel tank allows the pilot to drain water and sediment that may have collected in the tank. A
fuel vent prevents the formation of a vacuum in the tank, and an overflow drain allows fuel to
expand without rupturing the tank. The fuel travels from the fuel tank through a shut-off
valve, which provides a means to completely stop fuel flow to the engine in the event of an
emergency or fire. The shut-off valve remains in the open position for all normal operations.
Most non-gravity feed fuel systems contain both an electric pump and a mechanical engine
driven pump. The electrical pump is used to maintain positive fuel pressure to the engine
pump and may also serve as a backup in the event of mechanical pump failure. The electrical
pump is controlled by a switch in the cockpit. The engine driven pump is the primary pump
that supplies fuel to the engine and operates any time the engine is running. A fuel filter
removes moisture and other sediment from the fuel before it reaches the engine. These
contaminants are usually heavier than fuel and settle to the bottom of the fuel filter sump
where they can be drained out by the pilot.

Some fuel systems contain a small hand-operated pump called a primer. A primer allows fuel
to be pumped directly into the intake port of the cylinders prior to engine start. The primer is
useful in cold weather when fuel in the carburetor is difficult to vaporize.

A fuel quantity gauge located on the pilot’s instrument panel shows the amount of fuel
measured by a sensing unit inside the tank. Most fuel gauges will indicate in gallons or
pounds, and must be accurate only when empty.

It is worth noting that in accordance with Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14
CFR) section 27.1337(b)(1), fuel quantity indicators “must be calibrated to read ‘zero’ during
level flight when the quantity of fuel remaining in the tank is equal to the unusable fuel
supply.” Therefore, it is of the utmost importance that the pilot or operator determines an
accurate means of verifying partial or full fuel loads. It is always a good habit, if possible, to
visually verify the fuel on board prior to flight and determine if adequate fuel is present for
the duration of the flight.

Additionally, 14 CFR section 27.1305(l)(1) requires newer helicopters to have warning

systems “provide a warning to the flight crew when approximately 10 minutes of usable fuel
remains in the tank.” Caution should be used to eliminate unnecessary or erratic maneuvering
that could cause interruption of fuel flow to the engine. Although these systems must be
calibrated, never assume the entire amount is available. Many pilots have not reached their
destinations due to poor fuel planning or faulty fuel indications.
Engine Fuel Control System

Regardless of the device, the reciprocating engine and the turbine engine both use the ignition
and combustion of the fuel/air mix to provide the source of their power. Engine fuel control
systems utilize several components to meter the proper amount of fuel necessary to produce
the required amount of power. The fuel control system in concert with the air induction
components combine the proper amount of fuel and air to be ignited in the combustion
chamber. Refer to the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge for a detailed
explanation and illustration.

Fuel Injection

In a fuel injection system, fuel and air are metered at the fuel control unit but are not mixed.
The fuel is injected directly into the intake port of the cylinder where it is mixed with the air
just before entering the cylinder. This system ensures a more even fuel distribution between
cylinders and better vaporization, which in turn promotes more efficient use of fuel. Also, the
fuel injection system eliminates the problem of carburetor icing and the need for a carburetor
heat system.
 TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

The transmission system transfers power from the engine to the main rotor, tail rotor, and
other accessories during normal flight conditions. The transmission takes the engine output
(torque at a certain angular velocity) and transfers it to the rotors at another angular velocity
and torque (in order to prevent it from damaging the system). The other components being
main and tail rotor gear boxes.
Depending on a helicopter's arrangement, other drive shafts and gearboxes may be needed
at various locations. The main rotor gear box serves to reduce the velocity at which the
engine shaft rotates. This is to prevent the tips of the blades from spinning faster than the
speed of sound. This is undesirable as it would require the blades to be extremely strong
and would be very loud! Typically, the main rotor rpm is about 1/7 of the engine rpm, but
that varies from model to model. The tail rotor gear box has the same functions as the main
rotor gear box, though the tail rotor blades can spin at a higher rotational speed, since the
length of the blades is much smaller (tip velocity = radius * angular velocity).
Although clutches vary with model, the two most common are the belt-driven and centrifugal
arrangements. As for example, in the R22 helicopter from Robinson, the clutch arrangement
is belt-driven. In this arrangement, mainly seen on small helicopters, the pulley on the engine
shaft is connected to a pulley on the driving shaft going to the main rotor gear box and tail
rotor gearbox. See Figure 1. In all, there are six pulleys and belts side-by-side. The belts are
loosely fitted around the engine and driving shaft pulleys. In order to make the engine shaft
pulley drive the top pulley, the pilot of the helicopter must move an adjustable pulley, called
the idler, and push it against the belts. This in turn tightens the belt and allows the engine
shaft pulley to drive the driving shaft. The adjustable pulley is pushed against the belts by a
pilot-activated lever on older models or by an electric motor on newer ones
The main components of the transmission system are the main rotor transmission, tail rotor
drive system, gearbox, and freewheeling unit and lubrication unit.

 MAIN ROTOR TRANSMISSION UNIT

 TAIL ROTOR DRIVE SYSTEM
 GEARBOX
  FREEWHEELING UNIT
 LUBRICATION UNIT

Main Rotor Transmission

The primary purpose of the main rotor transmission is to reduce engine output rpm to
optimum rotor rpm. This reduction is different for the various helicopters. As an example,
suppose the engine rpm of a specific helicopter is 2,700. A rotor speed of 450 rpm would
restructure Design In helicopters with horizontally mounted engines; another purpose of the
main rotor transmission is to change the axis of rotation from the horizontal axis of the engine
to the vertical axis of the rotor shaft. [Figure 4-18] This is a major difference in the design of
the airplane power plant and power train whereas the airplane propeller is mounted directly to
the crankshaft or to shaft that is geared to the crankshaft.

The importance of main rotor rpm translates directly to lift. RPM within normal limits
produces adequate lift for normal maneuvering. Therefore, it is imperative not only to know
the location of the tachometers, but also to understand the information they provide. If rotor
rpm can go below normal limits, the outcome could be catastrophic. quire a 6:1 reduction. A
9:1 reduction would mean the rotor would turn at 300 rpm.

Gearbox

Spiral bevel gears are important components on all current rotorcraft drive systems. These
components are required to operate at high speeds, high loads, and for an extremely large
number of load cycles. In this application, spiral bevel gears are used to redirect the shaft
from the horizontal gas turbine engine to the vertical rotor.

Because of the high expense of manufacturing these gears, methods that can achieve the
same level of performance at reduced cost are highly desirable to aerospace gear
manufacturers. Gears manufactured for aerospace applications use high quality materials and
are manufactured to tight tolerances. Special manufacturing machine tools and computer
numerically controlled coordinate measurement systems have enabled rotorcraft drive system
manufacturers to produce extremely high-quality gears during their normal production.

Because of low production rates for rotorcraft, these gears are manufactured in small
batches, and thus are unable to benefit from the economics of high production numbers as in
other industries. Normally there are four gearboxes in helicopters and all the four gearboxes
play a prominent role in transmission of motion and power. The four gearboxes are

 MAIN GEARBOX (MGB)

 AUXILIARY GEARBOX (AGB)
 INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX (IGB)
 TAIL GEARBOX (TGB)

Main gear box

It receives the motion from the engine and transfers it to main rotor, in order to rotate the
main rotor blades. The output from the engine in RPM is very high and of low torque, thus
MGB increases the torque by reducing the speed. Simultaneously transmits the motion to the
Tail gearbox through the Auxiliary and Intermediate gearboxes.

Auxiliary Gearbox:

The lubricating oil in the MGB gets heated to a temperature of around 100o, in order to
reduce the temperature of oil, so that the lubricating capacity of the oil is intact, AGB is
provided which is used to cool the MGB oil and re-circulate the cooled oil to the MGB. It is
also used to drive various auxiliary equipment’s and to transmit power to IGB. Tail drive
shafts are used to transmit the motion from Auxiliary gearbox to Tail gearbox through
Intermediate gearbox. Sliding spline connection is provided between the IGB and the TGB
(i.e. Shaft between the IGB and TGB). This accommodates mounting tolerances and
differential thermal expansion of tail rotor drive shaft and tail boom structure.

Gear parameters
Sly Part units Lube pump Utility Cooler
no hydraulic fan
pump
1 No of teeth rpm 63/69 47/63 19
2 Pinion rpm 4163 4560 4560

3 Gear rpm 4560 6112 15120

Tail Gearbox:
The main purpose of the Tail gearbox is to drive the tail rotor blade by receiving the power
from the IGB by means of a tail drive shaft. The basic purpose of the tail rotor blade is to
give a force in a direction opposite to the force generated by the main gear box by virtue of
friction which tries to rotate the whole of the helicopter with it , such that the whole of the
helicopter is in a stable position during the course of the flight.

Sly Part Unit

no

1 No of teeth 19/49

2 Driving member Pinion

3 Pinion Rpm 4033

4 Gear Rpm 1563

5 Design power KW 250

Intermediate Gearbox:
Intermediate gearbox is mounted on the tail boom at its intersection with the canted vertical
fin. It has one stage of spiral bevel gearing which serves to redirect the driveline upward to
the tail gearbox through a 125° angle. It also provides a small speed reduction (i.e. the speed
reduction ratio is 4163/4033). The estimated dry weight of the IGB assembly is 15 kg.

Gear parameters

Sly Part Unit

no

1 No of teeth 31/32
2 Driving member Pinion

3 Pinion Rpm 4163

4 Gear Rpm 4033

5 Design power KW 250

Reduction Ratio: - Input rpm fixed by tail drive shaft speed while output rpm is based on
input, using a hunting ratio for improved durability of teeth.

No of teeth in input/output being 31/32 each tooth will be hunting for its mate that give better
wear out character

Reduction ratio is given as R = 4163/4032= 1.032.

For TGB

R= 4033/1563=2.58

Tail drive shaft

Tail shaft is a mechanical component for transmitting torque and rotation, usually used to
connect other components of a drive train that cannot be connected directly because of
distance or the need to allow for movement between them.

As torque carriers, drive shafts are subject to torsion and shear stress, equivalent to the
difference between the input torque and the load. They must therefore be strong enough to
bear the stress, while avoiding too much additional weight as that would in turn increase
their inertia.

MGB incorporates tail take off that is driven by collector, spiral, bevel and a helical gear at
an operating speed of 4163 rpm. The tail drive shaft segments are in between MGB & AGB,
AGB & IGB, IGB & TGB.
TAIL DRIVE SHAFT between MGB & IGB consists of 5 similar hollow aluminium alloy
section with titanium alloy flanges riveted at both ends.
Advantages of assembly type over single shaft: -
 Lighter weight with aluminium tube segments.
 Better damage tolerance.
  Windup avoidance.
 Long shafting.
 Easier qualification.
The shaft has an outer diameter of 63mm with end supporters be the greased packed anti
friction ball bearings mounted with elastomeric bushes and connected by flexible disc
couplings.
The distance between IGB and TGB is 1114.5 mm and the flexible coupling is connected at
each end of drive shaft.
No of bearing supports and their sparing have been determined to give more than 30%
margin.

Sly located between Limit power length Rpm

no
1 MGB & AGB 385 7031 4163.41
2 AGB & BEARING1 350 11145 4163.41
IGB & TGB 350 4033
3 BEARING 1& 2 350 11177.55 4163.41
BEARING 2&3 350 4163.41
4 BEARING 3 & IGB 350 1136.85 4163.41

FLEXIBLE COUPLINGS

These are present at both ends of drive shaft segments connecting MGB & ABG, AGB
TO BEARING 1, ALL BEARINGS, IGB & TGB. These are designed to take up axis
alignment from monitoring tolerance and airframe defect and gearbox movements under
loads.

MGB LUBRICATION SYSTEM

The oil for the operation and lubrication of the transmission is made
available by the pressure section of the oil pump. The scavenge section of the oil pump
sends oil from the reservoir of torque converter housing to the reservoir for the
transmission. The two-section pump is turned by a drive gear which is engaged with a
gear that is fastened to the impeller of the torque converter. The reservoir of the torque
converter is in the bottom of torque converter housing. The reservoir for the transmission
is in the bottom of case for output gears. The oil is pulled by’ pressure section of the oil
pump to the magnetic strainer. Which separates foreign material from the pump
inlet oil. The oil goes to the pump through an external line. The oil goes from the pump
through oil filter to the transmission hydraulic controls. If there is a restriction in the oil
filter, or if the viscosity of the oil is very high, the bypass valve in the housing of oil filter
A ill open. This action lets the oil go past the filter element to the transmission hydraulic
controls. Valves in the transmission hydraulic controls send the oil to the clutches in the
transmission and to the torque converter. Oil that is not needed to fill the clutches assent
into the torque converter. From the torque converter, the oil goes through an
oil cooler to the lubrication relief valve on the output transfer gear case.The
lubrication relief valve prevents too high-pressure oil from going to the planetary
transmission.

Specifications of the lubrication system

 Operating pressure 3 to 8 bars.

 Discharge 30 l / min.
 Pressure relief valves at 7.5 bars.
 Sump filter is a magnetic chip detector type.
 Micro filter of 4 to 5 microns.
 Low pressure waring switch if pressure is less than 3 bar.
 Oil is supplied to 4 passages:
Front to accessories
Rear to free wheel
Top to collector gear
Bottom to upper controls
 Temperatures switch at 105 °± 3°.
 Oil used is MIL – L – 23699.
FREEWHEEL MECHANISM

Since lift in a helicopter is provided by rotating aero foils, these aero foils must be free to
rotate if the engine fails. The freewheeling unit automatically disengages the engine from the
main rotor when an engine revolution per minute (rpm) is less than main rotor rpm. [Figure ]
This allows the main rotor and tail rotor to continue turning at normal inflight speeds.

Figure. Freewheeling unit in normal drive position and freewheeling position.

The most common freewheeling unit assembly consists of a one-way sprag clutch
located between the engine and main rotor transmission. This is usually in the
upper pulley in a piston helicopter or mounted on the accessory gearbox in a
turbine helicopter. When the engine is driving the rotor, inclined surfaces in the
 sprag clutch force rollers against an outer drum. This prevents the engine
from exceeding transmission rpm. If the engine fails, the rollers move inward,
allowing the outer drum to exceed the speed of the inner portion. The transmission
can then exceed the speed of the engine. In this condition, engine speed is
less than that of the drive system, and the helicopter is in an auto-rotative state.

SWASHPLATES
A swashplate is a device that translates input via the helicopter flight controls into motion of
the main rotor blades. Because the main rotor blades are spinning, the swashplate is used to
transmit three of the pilot's commands from the non-rotating fuselage to the rotating rotor hub
and main blades.

The swashplate consists of two main parts: a stationary swashplate and a rotating swashplate.
The stationary (outer) swashplate is mounted on the main rotor mast and is connected to the
cyclic and collective controls by a series of pushrods. It can tilt in all directions and move
vertically. The rotating (inner) swashplate is mounted to the stationary swashplate by means
of a bearing and can rotate with the main rotor mast. An anti-rotation link prevents the inner
swash from rotating independently of the blades, which would apply torque to the actuators.
The outer swashplate typically has an anti-rotation slider as well to prevent it from rotating.
Both swashplates tilt up and down as one unit. The rotating swashplate is connected to the
pitch horns by the pitch links. Alternative mechanics to the stationary (outer) swashplate is
the hexapod and the universal joint. Swashplates for helicopters having two rotors mounted
on the same shaft are much more complex than the single rotor helicopters.
CYCLIC blade control
Cyclic controls are used to change a helicopter's roll and pitch. Push rods or hydraulic
actuators tilt the outer swashplate in response to the pilot's commands. The swashplate moves
in the intuitively expected direction, tilting forwards to respond to a forward input, for
instance. However "pitch links" on the blades transmit the pitch information way ahead of the
blade's actual position, giving the blades time to "fly up" or "fly down" to reach the desired
position. That is, to tilt the helicopter forward, the difference of lift around the blades should
be maximum along the left-right plane, creating a torque that, due to the gyroscopic effect,
will tilt the rotor disc forward and not sideways.

To control the collective pitch of the main rotor blades, the entire swashplate must be moved
up or down along its axis without changing the orientation of the cyclic controls.
Conventionally, the entire swashplate is moved along the mains haft by a separate actuator.
However, some newer model helicopters remove this mechanically complex separation of
functionalities by using three interdependent actuators that can each move the entire
swashplate. This is called cyclic/collective pitch mixing.
 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

1. INTRODUCTION
Hydraulic fluid power is widely used in airborne applications specifically to operate the flight
controls and landing-gear systems due to its compact size, high response rates, high load
holding capabilities and excellent power to weight ratio. Modern helicopters are no
exceptions in this regard due to the adaptation of advanced rotor systems calling for higher
control loads, fast response requirements and use of retractable landing gear systems. This
paper provides the salient features of the hydraulic systems used in helicopters based on
literature survey and experience gained during the development of a recent origin helicopters.
Helicopters under 3000 kg all-up weight category using conventional articulated rotors could
be manually controlled since the rotor control loads will be well within the handling
capability of pilot. However, to reduce the pilot’s workload, hydraulic boosters are used in
such helicopters with lower fluid pressure for their operation. Helicopters above 3000 kg all-
up weight category using modern rotor concepts like semi-rigid or rigid rotors will result in
control loads beyond pilot’s handling capability and positively calls for fully powered flight
control system. Requirement of high response characteristics under high operating load
conditions needed for the flight control operations has resulted in extensive use of hydraulic
systems in helicopters. Helicopters with all up weight in excess of 3000 Kg and fitted with
high response rotor system, the rotor loads are beyond the pilot’s handling capability &
hydraulic power is invariably used to operate the flight controls.

2. SYSTEM TRADEOFFS
System tradeoffs need to be made to clearly define the number of systems required for the
helicopter including certain primary parameters to be finalized considering overall
requirements of the helicopter reliability & survivability. To achieve this use of multiple
hydraulic systems has emerged. With the decision to use two hydraulic systems, there are two
available options to the designer. First option is to design each system capable of handling the
entire spectrum of control loads and use one system as the main system keeping the other
system as a standby system. The standby system gets activated automatically in the event of
failure of main system. Second option is to design each hydraulic system capable of handling
the control loads for minimum basic flying and both system together cater for the entire flight
spectrum in which case failure of any one system will ensure minimum basic flying
capability. The second option provides better reliability due to the fact that both systems
will be operating at all times and is also lower in weight. As per the emerging new civil
airworthiness requirements, in addition to dual hydraulic systems, one electrical back up
system is also need to be provided for the flight control system of helicopter. This third
system can also be used for the flight control system preflight checks.
Landing gear retraction / extension, wheel brake, deck lock harpoon, rescue winch and sonar
winch are some of the other systems of the helicopter, which are operated using hydraulic
power. In the helicopters using primary & standby hydraulic systems for flight control
operation, the standby hydraulic system may be used for these utility services with a safety
device to divert the hydraulic power to controls in the event of primary hydraulic system
failure. However, such diversion of hydraulic power to the utility services from standby
system will reduce reliability of flight control system due to the presence of many other
operating equipment. Helicopters adopting continuously operating dual hydraulic system for
flight controls invariably demand the additional utility hydraulic system to operate all the
utility services.

3. SELECTION OF SYSTEM PRESSURE, FLOW RATES &

OPERATING FLUID

After defining hydraulic system configuration, next step is to define the primary parameters
of each of the systems like system fluid pressure, maximum fluid flow rate and the hydraulic
fluid that need to be used.

3.1 Selection of Fluid Pressure

For a defined power level, a lower system pressure will increase the size of equipment. On
the other hand high system fluid pressure will call for increased wall thickness in the
equipment. Hence, selected system pressure has a bearing on the hydraulic system weight &
size, while meeting the required power levels. It is interesting to note that the hydraulic
system weight for a defined power level will considerably lower for operating fluid pressure
between 3000 psi and 4000 psi. Hence, it is preferable to develop the hydraulic system for
fluid pressure range 3000 to 4000 psi and to have the advantage of weight & size reduction.
Use of standard fluid pressure 3000 or 4000 psi will also provide the advantage of using
many already developed hydraulic equipment and reducing the development cost & time.
3.2 Computation of Fluid Flow Rates
Second step is to arrive at the fluid flow rate requirements for each of the hydraulic systems
used in the helicopter, which is specific to the helicopter under consideration. This step needs
certain forecast about the sub-systems that are likely to operate together at a given point of
time. Let us assume that all the flight control actuators work simultaneously and these flight
control actuators are supported by two hydraulic systems 1 & 2. From the rotor design we
obtain the maximum control loads that need to be operated by each of the actuators. Since
two hydraulic systems are feeding power to each of the flight control actuators having two
operating cylinders, it can be assumed that each cylinder will hold 75% of maximum control
load and both the hydraulic systems together will provide 150% of the maximum control
load. This philosophy is preferred to arrive at a lower weight of the actuators compared to
200% maximum load holding capability. However, it is essential to ensure that 75% of the
maximum control load would be adequate to perform all the basic flying capability of the
helicopter under consideration to ensure flight safety, in the event of one hydraulic system
failure condition. Once the maximum actuator ram load per hydraulic system has been
arrived for each of the servo actuators, the piston annular area can be easily computed using
the defined operating fluid pressure. Then by using the operation rate of controls (it is
considered that pilot can move the control stick end to end in one second in absence of any
specific data), we could easily arrive at the fluid flow rate. No load speed of the actuators
(normally 150% of maximum operating speed by the pilots) should also be taken into account
while computing the system fluid flow rate since it has an indirect relation to the actuating
speed under loaded condition. For the fluid flow rate thus arrived, we need to add the
estimated internal fluid leakage rate including pump case drain leak rate to arrive at the
pumping capacity of the hydraulic pump. Similar analysis has to be made to arrive at the fluid
flow rate for the utility hydraulic system considering all utility services, which operate
simultaneously.
3.3 Selection of Hydraulic Fluid
Suitable hydraulic fluid is selected considering functional requirements, operating
environment and operating temperature limitations. Careful consideration has to be imparted
for the fluid properties like viscosity, pour point, lubrication ability, oxidation resistance, rust
& corrosion protection etc.
Mainly three types of hydraulic fluids are used in aerospace applications. Mil-H-5606 is a
mineral based hydraulic fluid which is very much suitable for hydraulic systems working
under operating temperature range -40 to +107°C with a maximum temperature range of -54
to +135°C defined for hydraulic systems conforming to Mil-H-5440G, Type II systems. Mil-
H-83282 is a fire resistant synthetic hydraulic fluid, suitable for hydraulic systems working at
temperatures beyond +100°C and in fire susceptible areas but this fluid becomes highly
viscous below -20°C. Skydral is the other hydraulic fluid, which is mainly used, in
commercial civil aircrafts.

4. PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Preliminary design shall include identification of specific type of equipment and hydraulic
lines, which will become part of the system. It is essential to make a detailed study of the
airframe under consideration, to arrive proper interfaces & mountings and efforts to be made
to suit available hydraulic equipment to a maximum possible extent as a part of the
preliminary design. Any hydraulic system shall have Hydraulic Pump to generate fluid flow,
Fluid Reservoir to store & circulate fluid, High Pressure Relief Valve to release any high
fluid pressure, Fluid Filter to keep the fluid clean, Pressure Sensor to indicate fluid pressure
and Hydraulic Lines to connect various hydraulic equipment. Hence, they should be defined.
Apart from above basic equipment, other equipment need to be added based on requirements.
Each of the equipment has to be clearly specified so that the equipment is as simple as
possible without compromising the performance requirements. As a part of preliminary
design, it is essential to prepare a Failure Mode & Effects Analysis (FMEA) to evaluate the
system and to incorporate required modifications to avoid many problems during detailed
design & qualification. Preparation of a hydraulic line layout is essential as a part of
preliminary design to look into any probable problems during detail design phase and to
optimize the line routing.
5. SYSTEM PRESSURE CONTROL

5.1 Pressure Relief Valve

This is a safety equipment and essential to be fitted in any hydraulic system between the
high-pressure side and reservoir. The preset opening pressure will be 110% of the normal
operating system pressure in case of fixed delivery hydraulic pumps and 125% of the nominal
operating system pressure in case of variable delivery hydraulic pumps. The maximum flow
rate of this valve shall be equivalent that of maximum flow rate of the system. If flow rate is
in excess of 10 lpm, two stage valves are used to bring down unit size & weight.

5.2 Pressure Regulating Valve

Pressure regulators (mainly pressure reducing valves) are used to step down system pressure
for use in specific sub-system. Pressure reducers may include relief valves for protection of
subsystem in the event of regulator failure.

6. SYSTEM DESIGN
System design will be a mile stone activity in which the system requirements and
configuration will be clearly defined. A typical helicopter requirement is taken as an example
to describe this stage of design.

6.1 Hydraulic Equipment

This chapter throws some light on the hydraulic equipment and the means by which they
have been achieved in a typical Helicopter Hydraulic Systems.

6.1.1 Hydraulic Pump

Gear Pumps & Gerotar Pumps are available only in fixed delivery types. As a result, power
will be draining through pressure relief valve when the operating systems are not in use or
being used partially. They are suitable only for low-pressure (up to 500 psi) applications.
Vane pumps are complex in their design and bigger in size. As a result they are not popular in
aerospace applications. Radial Piston Pumps are also not used in aerospace applications since
they are bigger in size and weighs more than an equivalent axial piston pump.
The most popular hydraulic pumps in the aerospace applications are the variable delivery
axial piston pumps due to their simple construction, smaller size and low weight against a
defined hydraulic power output. The power drain is absolutely minimum in these pumps due
to the existence of automatic outlet pressure compensator as a part of this pump.
These pumps have minimum internal fluid leakage and collected back to the reservoir
through pump case drain. If the pump is driven at a lower RPM, the size of the pump will
increase and the pressure pulses in the pump pressure line will also be significant. On the
other hand if the pump is run at a very high RPM, the wear of the pump will be prominent
and calls for frequent maintenance of the pump. Hence, based on the literatures collected on
the proven pumps, it is preferable to drive these pumps around 6000 RPM. In a typical
helicopter application, these pumps are driven by gearbox.
System compatibility tests on pump must be conducted as early as possible in the hardware
development period. Care should also be taken that none of helicopter vibrating frequencies
are closer to pulsating frequency of the pump and pump pulsating frequency shall not impart
any resonance on the other helicopter systems.

6.1.2 Fluid Reservoir

Reservoirs store fluid (working fluid & fluid from sub-system differential volumes), provide
room for thermal expansion / contraction and cater for calculated external leakage at dynamic
seals during system operation. Mainly fluid reservoirs can be grouped into two varieties. One,
vented to atmosphere, and other not vented to atmosphere. Reservoirs, which are vented to
atmosphere, cannot provide pressurized fluid at the suction port of the hydraulic pump and
cause cavitation problems in the suction lines of high performance hydraulic pumps. To avoid
this problem, generally the reservoirs are closed in their construction and the fluid stored in
the reservoir is pressurized up to 50 psi by means of spring load or compressed air or by the
high-pressure fluid of the hydraulic system itself. If the reservoir fluid is self-pressurized by
the high-pressure fluid of the system with the help of a differential piston then such reservoirs
are called as bootstrap reservoirs. If there is no forced fluid cooling system, the reservoir shall
have adequate cooling fins built around it to continuously cool the fluid.
The first aspect that needs to be defined in a reservoir is its fluid capacity. Use of closed loop
hydraulic system involving bootstrap type of reservoirs are permitted to have reservoir fluid
capacity equivalent to 10% of the maximum fluid flow rate of the system. As the quantity of
fluid reduces in the reservoir, cooling of the hydraulic system will become more critical.
Hence, as a first step, use of variable delivery hydraulic pump is a must to reduce the power
drain, when the system is being used at low power levels. As a next step, it is preferable to
have fins on the reservoir to dissipate the heat to surroundings. If the above two measures are
found inadequate to keep the oil temperature within the permissible level, it is essential to
have an oil cooling facility. In case of bootstrap reservoir, seal friction and life expectancy
are of primary considerations. Other aspects of the reservoir, which need to be defined, are
fluid level indicator, good air bleeding provision, hydraulic port inter-faces and mounting
interface. In pressurized reservoirs (including bootstrap type) where fluid is stored under
pressure, it is also essential to provide an over-board relief valve to expel excessive fluid in
the event of thermal expansion and to limit reservoir fluid pressure with in design limits.

6.1.3 Filtration & Fluid Filters

Filters are used in the hydraulic system to continuously filter the fluid and reduce fluid
contamination, which occur from external sources and internal generation. If the entire fluid
passes through the filter, then such filters are called as full flow filters. On the other hand if a
portion of the flow is diverted across the filter installed through a parallel circuit, such filters
are defined as by-pass filters. In the aerospace applications only full flow filters are used.
Further, it is common to use more than one filter in a hydraulic circuit. For example use of
one pressure line filter and a return line filter is a standard practice. In addition to two main
filters, last chance filters are also used just before the fluid enters certain critical equipments
like servo valves.
Adequate filtration is essential for satisfactory operation of the hydraulic system. Mil-F-8815
covers the detail requirements for filter housings and filter elements and NAS-1638 defines
fluid contamination levels. It is necessary to have automatic shut-off valves as a part of the
filter assembly, so that minimum amount of fluid is lost during changing filter element.
Differential pressure indicators are required in order to signal when the element is loaded
with contamination and needs replacement. Thermal lockouts are used to keep the differential
pressure indicators from operating below a specified fluid temperature. The interactions of
the relief valve, thermal lockout, and differential pressure indicator and filter element clean-
dirty differential pressure characteristics are interrelated and highly important while selecting
a suitable filter unit. In a typical helicopter application, 15-micron filter without by-pass is
used for pressure line filtration and 5-micron filter with by-pass is used for return line
filtration.
6.1.4 Accumulator
Accumulators are used for energy storage and for pressure pulsation attenuation. They can be
of the piston or bladder type to separate gas fluid separation. Seal & bladder leakage and its
control are the basic accumulator problems. In most of the high-pressure applications, piston
type accumulators are commonly used. The evolution of high response pumps has almost
eliminated use of accumulators as a pressure pulsation attenuator. During this phase of
design, if it is noticed that the pump pressure ripples as felt at the flight control servo
actuators are negligible, use of accumulator as a part of hydraulic system is not required.
Avoiding use of gas charged accumulator is very good since such accumulators may ingress
the charged gas into the hydraulic system when its seal fails and it will be extremely difficult
to detect this failure. With this, accumulators find place only as emergency back-up system.
Accumulator sizing & selection are a function of temperature range under which the
accumulator is likely to be used. The fluid volume available at minimum pressure and
minimum operating temperature should obviously meet the sub-system operating energy
requirements. Being pressurized units, the accumulators used in tactical helicopters shall be
designed to retain their integrity when exposed to gunfire as a safety requirement.

6.1.5 Servo Valves

Servo valve is a directional control valve that may be infinitely positioned to provide control
of both the quantity and direction of fluid flow. A servo valve coupled with the proper
feedback sensing devices provides very accurate control of position, velocity or acceleration
of an actuator.

6.1.6 Hydraulic Actuators

The major function of a hydraulic actuator is to convert hydraulic power into mechanical
power. Linear actuators are called as cylinders or jacks and generally move end to end.
Rotary actuators are called motors. If the actuator is associated with position or load control
then they are termed as servo actuators or servomotors.
Since hydraulic servo actuators is a vital component used to operate various systems in an
aircraft, specifically the flight control system with its interface to fly-by-wire & flyby- light
technologies, actuators themselves make a major topic for discussion in aerospace field.
Hence, more emphasis is not imparted on actuators in this paper.
6.1.7 Other Hydraulic Equipment
High pressure relief valve is used as a safety equipment to off-load fluid from high pressure
line to reservoir in case of increase in the fluid pressure beyond 125% of nominal system
operating pressure.
Check Valve is used to avoid control the fluid flow in a defined direction. For example, if no
check valve is provided in the pump pressure line, the pump may function as a motor during
the system interface with ground hydraulic power source during system checks.
Solenoid Valve can be used in each of the subsystem in multi-system configuration to isolate
defined sub-system.
Reservoir Low Fluid Indicator, is a part of reservoir to indicate low fluid level when falls
below a predetermined volume.
Pressure Transducer is used to continuously measure the system pressure and indicate the
same in the cockpit.
Pressure Switch is used to provide a low-pressure warning in the cockpit when the system
pressure drops below a defined level.
Temperature Switch can be used to check the temperature of fluid returning to reservoir &
provide a high temperature warning in the cockpit when the fluid temperature goes above a
defined level.
Quick Disconnect Couplings are used in places where fluid connections are disturbed
frequently and to isolate certain sub-systems. This will avoid air ingress to the system during
servicing and eliminates use of any tools for connection /dis-connection.

6.2 Hydraulic Lines

Hydraulic lines form a part of hydraulic system and inter-connect various hydraulic
equipment. Both rigid pipelines and flexible hoses are used as hydraulic lines based on the
requirements. Flexible hoses are used where hydraulic port of the equipment has a relative
movement w.r.t. structure or associated hydraulic equipment. Defining hydraulic line sizes to
inter-connect various hydraulic equipment is an important task. As a thumb rule, the fluid
velocity in the high pressure lines carrying fluid under pressure above 2000 psi shall be
limited to 5 m/sec and in the low pressure lines carrying fluid below 100 psi shall be limited
to 3 m/sec. whereas the fluid velocity in the pump suction lines should not exceed 1 m/sec.
Titanium alloy tubes are used for the high & low-pressure lines due to its low density, higher
fatigue life and better flexibility. Flexible hoses used in aerospace applications are made of
PTFE inner core tube reinforced externally by stainless steel or Kevlar braid as necessary.
Interface connections between the hydraulic equipment and hydraulic lines need to be clearly
defined. Hoses, quick disconnects and swivels are heavy & expensive. Hence, a balanced
combination between tubes & hoses will work out as the best solution.
6.3 Integration of Hydraulic Components
Once the required hydraulic components are decided, the next task is to integrate them with at
most care for achieving simple installation, low maintenance, reduced weight, space
optimization and least number of hydraulic lines. Interface for ground & service hydraulic
connections could be provided by quick disconnects couplings for ease of handling and to
avoid air & dust ingression to the system during servicing & maintenance.

Figure 9A typical hydraulic system for helicopters in the light to medium range.

7. Detail Design

7.1 Strength Consideration

All the hydraulic system components including their attachment linkages and mounting
provisions shall be designed so as to meet the most critical combination of loads. Adequate
safety margins shall be provided as a part of design to ensure safety and life of components.
Hydraulic system design fluid pressures (operating pressure, proof pressure and burst
pressure) shall be determined based on the guidelines provided in Mil-H-5440 standard. The
actuating cylinders and other components including interconnecting lines & fittings if
subjected to acceleration loads as experienced during most adverse flight condition, shall not
deform or malfunction. They shall be adequately tested to prove such conditions.

7.2 Temperature Consideration

At high temperatures, low fluid viscosity can cause internal leakage and slippage in pumps,
actuators and valves. Compressibility of a fluid increases with pressure & temperature and
result in loss of volume output of pumps. In control systems, compression of fluid provides a
mass-spring condition that limit system response. The designer shall consider the temperature
distribution within the helicopter, in order to achieve judicious placement of hydraulic system
plumbing and components in cooler regions. In many applications, normal heat losses from
lines and components are adequate to maintain hydraulic system temperatures within design
limits, thus use of heat exchangers is unnecessary.
Permitted temperature variations shall not lead to malfunctioning of the system or cause
excessive stress. Hence consideration must be given during design to cater for expected
temperature variations to avoid binding, sticking or malfunctioning of components.

7.3 Installation Consideration

It is very much necessary to impart adequate thinking well in advance for proper installation
and support of hydraulic units & lines to avoid installation problems substantially at the
drawing making stage. The hydraulic lines must be installed behind other removable
equipment. Reservoir filling filter elements and ground support interfaces shall be easily
reachable through quick access doors. Reservoir fluid level indicators and filter clog
indicators shall be easily seen through transparent panels. All separable connections shall be
relatively accessible easily since they are employed to permit component removal and / or
removal of lines to have access to other equipment.

8. CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Contaminant in hydraulic system is defined as a foreign material in hydraulic fluid that has
deleterious or adverse effect on fluid’s intended performance as a component in the hydraulic
system. The sources of contamination in hydraulic systems can be divided into three general
categories i.e. Built-in contamination, Ingresses contamination & internally generated
contamination. Overall contamination in Aerospace Hydraulic Systems shall not exceed NAS
1638 Class-8 contamination level and the system must function satisfactorily up to NAS 1638
Class-10 during emergency. Even with a good awareness on prevention and control of
contamination level in hydraulic systems, it is established that 70% of hydraulic system
failures are due to fluid contamination.

9. HYDRAULIC SYSTEM TESTING

9.1 Ground Tests

The ground tests are divided into two major groups. The tests that are done on a dedicated
ground test rig are grouped under hydraulic system rig tests and the tests that are done on the
helicopter are grouped under helicopter ground tests or pre-flight tests. These tests are for
proving the system function, performance, proper integration of system on helicopter, failure
mode analysis and endurance.

9.2 Hydraulic System Flight Tests

The primary objective of the flight test program is to confirm the theoretical analysis and
ground test results. Load holding capability, system operating characteristics, ambient & fluid
temperature effects, cockpit indications and performance in the total flight or mission
envelope shall be evaluated. Flight control functions associated with dual hydraulic systems
shall be evaluated in a series of flights with both the hydraulic system operating and with
each one of the hydraulic system energized condition to establish one hydraulic system
operating capability. The pressure, temperature, position and vibration transducer readouts
shall be recorded and analyzed. The evaluation shall be conducted in accordance with a
detailed flight test procedure developed prior to initiation of flight test program as per Mil-T-
5522. The flights shall include flight conditions leading to service ceiling, cruise altitude,
maximum speed, maximum banking and all other critical flight modes. The utility hydraulic
system flight tests shall be similar to the control hydraulic system flight tests and all utility
functions used during flight shall be evaluated, like landing gear, brake, winch and any other
function. In addition, any emergency back-up functions and manual release functions shall
also be evaluated related to the specific performance requirements.
LANDING GEAR SYSTEMS FOR HELICOPTER

1. INTRODUCTION
The landing gear of modem Aircraft - tires, wheels, brakes, shock struts and associated
retraction equipment - represents a substantial unit of an aircraft. It accounts for some 3 5 to 5
% of the gross aircraft weight. In bigger aircrafts like Boeing 747, the landing gear weight
alone is as high as 15 tones. But Wheel brakes of landing gear for helicopter is relatively
lighter due to less or no forward velocity of the helicopter while landing and also due to the
lower weight of the helicopter compared to the fixed wing aircrafts. In helicopters, use of
wheels is not essential for flight as in the case of fixed wing aircrafts, but useful in case of
taxing and towing. Hence in helicopters, landing gear is meant for absorbing energy while
landing with specified descent velocity and for taxing and towing.
Landing gear for Helicopters is mainly of two types. They are Skid type & Wheel type. Skid
type landing gear is, simple, lighter from weight point of view, involving lesser maintenance
and cheaper, but is difficult for ground handling since separate ground handling system is
needed and difficult to cater for higher crashworthiness. Wheel type landing gear is, Complex
and heavier from weight point of view. This requires more maintenance & costlier but it can
be used for ground handling. It is relatively easier to cater for higher crashworthiness with
wheel type landing gear. Type of landing gear (skid or wheel type) is chosen as per customer
requirement.

2. SKID TYPE LANDING GEAR

Skid type Ian ding gear consists of forward cross tube, rear cross tube and skid tubes .Size of
the cross tube and skid tube is arrived at based on the landing velocities stipulated in
standards like FAR 29, AR 56, and DEFSTAN 00970 etc. Energy is absorbed by deflection
of both cros-3 tubes, which are hinged to the structural brackets. Energy absorbing capability
is evaluated by static and drop tests of cross tubes. Wear plates are fitted at the bottom of the
skid tubes to avoid damage to skids. This skid landing gear is fitted on ALH.
3. WHEEL TYPE LANDING GEAR
Wheels type landing gear depending upon the number of landing gears per helicopter and
location of installation can be classified as follows.
i) Tricycle nose wheel type is one which has one nose landing gear installed in the
front and two main landing gears installed at the rear of the c.g

ii) Tail wheel type is one which has two main landing gears installed in the front and
one landing gear installed at the rear of the c.g

iii) Quadricycle type is one, which has two landing gears installed in the front and
two landing gears installed in the rear of the c.g of the aircraft.
3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF LANDING GEAR
Depending on the geometry of the landing gear, landing gears can be broadly divided in to
three classes,
i) Non-articulated or telescopic type.

ii) Articulated or levered suspension type

iii) Semi articulated or semi levered suspension type

In a telescopic landing gear the ratio of wheel axle travel to shock strut stroke is unity. If
there is an introduction of mechanical advantage to the shock strut, the landing gear can be
termed as an articulated landing gear. In articulated landing gear the shock strut is hinged at
both the ends and results only axial loads. In the semi articulated landing gears, the shock
strut is fixed and a link rod is introduced to complete the four bar mechanism. In this case
lateral load on shock shut is not absent but can be reduced to a greater extent in telescopic
landing gears, the lateral load on shock strut is appreciable since the gear does not have four
bar mechanism. The articulated gear geometry can be further subdivided into two types based
on the orientation of the plan of the four bar mechanism.
(i) Variable base type, which changes wheel base of aircraft while telescoping

(ii) Variable track type, which changes wheel track of aircraft while telescoping

Semi articulated gear also can be further subdivided into two types based on position of link
rod in four bar mechanism
i) Link at shock strut end

ii) Link at trailing arm end

3.2 LANDING GEAR RETRACTION SYSTEM

Even though most fixed wing aircrafts are provided with retractable type landing gears owing
to its high forward speed, in rotary wing aircraft, landing gear can be either made retractable
or non-retractable depending on its forward speed and performance requirements. Retraction
system calls for a hydraulically operated actuator. Up lock and Down lock to lock landing
gear in position, a hydraulic selector valve, UPIDOWN micro switches, UP/DOWN switch
and indicators in the cockpit and facility for emergency extension etc.
3.3 LANDING GEAR STEERING SYSTEM:
Any wheel type landing gear needs steering, either an active steering by providing steering
jacks in nose LG or a passive steering with a freely swiveling nose wheel with mechanical
trail which attains yawing, by applying tail rotor thrust. Active steering calls for steering jack
on nose landing gear, steering manifold, which controls hydraulic supply to jacks, cockpit
controls and indicators.

3.4 WHAT A LANDFNG GEAR CONSISTS OF WHAT?

A typical landing gear consists of a barrel with structural attachment fork, Oleo pneumatic
shock absorber, Piston, Axle, Wheel, Brake, Tyre, Toggle links, Drag stay, Retraction
extension actuator and UP/DOWN locks. Apart from the above it may consists of nose wheel
steering jack, jacking point, mooring point, towing point, earthling cable, micro switches
including weight on wheel switch, electrical & hydraulic routings.
Landing gear system would include hydraulic units like retraction/extension selector valve,
steering selector valve, accumulator and cockpit controls & indication, circuit for sequencing,
needed hydraulic and electrical routings etc. The barrel basically houses the oleo-pneumatic
shock strut and attaches the landing gear on the structure. The barrel is generally made out of
Aluminum forging. Oleo-pneumatic shock absorber telescopes and absorbs the energy by
compressing the air and allowing the fluid to pass through narrow orifice .Piston is connected
to the wheel axle. Axle holds brake, wheel & tire. Piston and axle are generally are of high
strength steel (NCM steel or Maraging steel). Axle is made out of a forging. Wheels are
usually made from forged Aluminum alloy and accommodate fire apart from being large
enough to house the brake .Wheels are often made into two halves and joined by tie bolts
Wheel also houses bearing of taper roller type and air inflation valve is installed in the
outboard side of the wheel. Tires are now a days of tubeless type and charged with dry
Nitrogen. Present day tires are of conductive type to discharge state electricity. Toggle links
,which connects the axle hub and barrel of landing gear, either does the function of holding
the wheel in fore & aft position or transfer the steering torque to the wheel. Drag stay is a
structural strut that connects landing gear and structure to transfer the drag load. If the
landing gear is retractable, in many cases retraction jar-k itself will do the function of drag
stay also.
 3.5 OLEO PNEUMATIC (GASIOIL) SHOCK ABSORBER:

Most of to-days aircrafts use oleo-pneumatic shock absorber, a typical design of which is
shown in fig.3. They have the highest efficiency of all shock absorber types and also have the
best energy dissipation. Unlike a coil spring that stores energy and then suddenly releases it
since the oil is returned to its uncompressed state at a controlled rate through an orifice as
shown in fig-4 during when the energy is converted in to heat. Oleo pneumatic shock
absorbers are either single stage or double stage. Shock absorber shown in fig. 3 is double
stage in which gas is compressed in two stages (high pressure chamber & low pressure
chamber). When aircraft lands, due to load the piston moves up.
This forces the oil in the top to move to the piston side through the closure orifice in a
controlled manner and compresses the Ist stage pneumatic spring. After this, as load
increases, 2nd stage chamber also gets compressed. Due to controlled oil flow, maximum
efficiency is obtained by a fairly constant strut load, during dynamic loading.
A 100% efficient ideal strut would have a rectangular shaped drop test curve (load Vs
deflection), but in practice the obtained efficiency is usually between 80 and 90 percent. After
piston fully compresses and reaches the required stroke, piston recoils (bounces back).
During this process the high pressure chamber expands first and then the low pressure
chamber forcing the fluid back to the top of the cylinder through recoil orifice. Recoil orifice
enables the entire expansion in a controlled way giving rise to higher energy dissipation and
desired recoil acceleration.

.
 WEIGHT AND CG BALANCE

Limitations to the Weight

When determining if a helicopter is within the weight limits, consider the weight of the basic
helicopter, crew, passengers, cargo, and fuel. Although the effective weight (load factor)
varies during maneuvering flight, this chapter primarily considers the weight of the loaded
helicopter while at rest. It is critical to understand that the maximum allowable weight may
change during the flight. When operations include OGE hovers and confined areas, planning
must be done to ensure that the helicopter is capable of lifting the weight during all phases of
flight. The weight may be acceptable during the early morning hours, but as the density
altitude increases during the day, the maximum allowable weight may have to be reduced to
keep the helicopter within its capability. The following terms are used when computing a
helicopter’s weight. Basic Empty Weight The starting point for weight computations is the
basic empty weight, which is the weight of the standard helicopter, optional equipment,
unusable fuel, and all operating fluids including engine and transmission oil, and hydraulic
fluid for those aircraft so equipped. Some helicopters might use the term “licensed empty
weight,” which is nearly the same as basic empty weight, except that it does not include full
engine and transmission oil, just undrainable oil. If flying a helicopter that lists a licensed
empty weight, be sure to add the weight of the oil to computations. Maximum Gross Weight
The maximum weight of the helicopter. Most helicopters have an internal maximum gross
weight, which refers to the weight within the helicopter structure and an external maximum
gross weight, which refers to the weight of the helicopter with an external load. The external
maximum weight may vary depending on where it is attached to the helicopter. Some large
cargo helicopters may have several attachment points for sling load or winch operations.
These helicopters can carry a tremendous amount of weight when the attachment point is
directly under the CG of the aircraft. Weight Limitations Weight limitations are necessary to
guarantee the structural integrity of the helicopter and enable pilots to predict helicopter
performance accurately. Although aircraft manufacturers build in safety factors, a pilot
should never intentionally exceed the load limits for which a helicopter is certificated.
Operating below a minimum weight could adversely affect the handling characteristics of the
helicopter. During single-pilot operations in some helicopters, a pilot needs to use a large
amount of forward cyclic in order to maintain a hover. By adding ballast to the helicopter, the
cyclic position is closer to the CG, which gives a greater range of control motion in every
direction. When operating at or below the minimum weight of the helicopter, additional
weight also improves auto rotational characteristics since the auto rotational descent can be
established sooner. In addition, operating below minimum weight could prevent achieving
the desirable rotor revolutions per minute (rpm) during auto rotations. Operating above a
maximum weight could result in structural deformation or failure during flight, if
encountering excessive load factors, strong wind gusts, or turbulence. Weight and
maneuvering limitations also are factors considered for establishing fatigue life of
components. Overweight, meaning overstressed, parts fail sooner than anticipated. Therefore,
premature failure is a major consideration in determination of fatigue life and life cycles of
parts. Although a helicopter is certificated for a specified maximum gross weight, it is not
safe to take off with this load under some conditions. Anything that adversely affects takeoff,
climb, hovering, and landing performance may require off-loading of fuel, passengers, or
baggage to some weight less than the published maximum. Factors that can affect
performance include high altitude, high temperature, and high humidity conditions, which
result in a high density altitude. In-depth performance planning is critical when operating in
these conditions. Balance Helicopter performance is not only affected by gross weight, but
also by the position of that weight. It is essential to load the aircraft within the allowable CG
range specified in the RFM’s weight and balance limitations. Center of Gravity Ideally, a
pilot should try to balance a helicopter perfectly so that the fuselage remains horizontal in
hovering flight, with no cyclic pitch control needed except for wind correction. Since the
fuselage acts as a pendulum suspended from the rotor, changing the CG changes the angle at
which the aircraft hangs from the rotor. When the CG is directly under the rotor mast, the
helicopter hangs horizontally; if the CG is too far forward of the mast, the helicopter hangs
with its nose tilted down; if the CG is too far aft of the mast, the nose tilts up. [Figure 6-1]
CG Forward of Forward Limit A forward CG may occur when a heavy pilot and passenger
take off without baggage or proper ballast located aft of the rotor mast. This situation
becomes worse if the fuel tanks are located aft of the rotor mast because as fuel burns the CG
continues to shift forward.
 CG Aft of Aft Limit
CG Aft of Aft Limit Without proper ballast in the cockpit, exceeding the aft CG may occur
when:-

• A lightweight pilot takes off solo with a full load of fuel located aft of the rotor mast.

• A lightweight pilot takes off with maximum baggage allowed in a baggage compartment
located aft of the rotor mast.

• A lightweight pilot takes off with a combination of baggage and substantial fuel where both
are aft of the rotor mast.

A pilot can recognize the aft CG condition when coming to a hover following a vertical
takeoff. The helicopter will have a tail-low attitude, and will need excessive forward
displacement of cyclic control to maintain a hover in a no-wind condition. If there is a wind,
even greater forward cyclic is needed. If flight is continued in this condition, it may be
impossible to fly in the upper allowable airspeed range due to inadequate forward cyclic
authority to maintain a nose-low attitude. In addition, with an extreme aft CG, gusty or rough
air could accelerate the helicopter to a speed faster than that produced with full forward
cyclic control. In this case, dissymmetry of lift and blade flapping could cause the rotor disk
to tilt aft. With full forward cyclic control already applied, a pilot might not be able to lower
the rotor disk, resulting in possible loss of control, or the rotor blades striking the tail-boom.
Lateral Balance For smaller helicopters, it is generally unnecessary to determine the lateral
CG for normal flight instruction and passenger flights. This is because helicopter cabins are
relatively narrow and most optional equipment is located near the centerline. However, some
helicopter manuals specify the seat from which a pilot must conduct solo flight. In addition, if
there is an unusual situation that could affect the lateral CG, such as a heavy pilot and a full
load of fuel on one side of the helicopter, its position should be checked against the CG
envelope. If carrying external loads in a position that requires large lateral cyclic control
displacement to maintain level flight, fore and aft cyclic effectiveness could be limited
dramatically. Manufacturers generally account for known lateral CG displacements by
locating external attachment points opposite the lateral imbalance. Examples are placement of
hoist systems attached to the side, and wing stores commonly used on military aircraft for
external fuel pods or armament systems.

Lateral Balance
Lateral Balance For smaller helicopters, it is generally unnecessary to determine the lateral
CG for normal flight instruction and passenger flights. This is because helicopter cabins are
relatively narrow and most optional equipment is located near the centerline. However, some
helicopter manuals specify the seat from which a pilot must conduct solo flight. In addition, if
there is an unusual situation that could affect the lateral CG, such as a heavy pilot and a full
load of fuel on one side of the helicopter, its position should be checked against the CG
envelope. If carrying external loads in a position that requires large lateral cyclic control
displacement to maintain level flight, fore and aft cyclic effectiveness could be limited
dramatically. Manufacturers generally account for known lateral CG displacements by
locating external attachment points opposite the lateral imbalance. Examples are placement of
hoist systems attached to the side, and wing stores commonly used on military aircraft for
external fuel pods or armament systems.

Weight and Balance Calculations

When determining whether a helicopter is properly loaded, two questions must be answered:-

1. Is the gross weight less than or equal to the maximum allowable gross weight?
2. Is the CG within the allowable CG range, and will it stay within the allowable range
throughout the duration of flight including all loading configurations that may be
encountered?

To answer the first question, just add the weight of the items comprising the useful load
(pilot, passengers, fuel, oil (if applicable) cargo, and baggage) to the basic empty weight of
the helicopter. Ensure that the total weight does not exceed the maximum allowable gross
weight. To answer the second question, use CG or moment information from loading charts,
tables, or graphs in the RFM. Then using one of the methods described below, calculates the
loaded moment and/or loaded CG and verifies that it falls within the allowable CG range
shown in the RFM.It is important to note that any weight and balance computation is only as
accurate as the information provided. Therefore, ask passengers what they weigh and add a
few pounds to account for the additional weight of clothing, especially during the winter
months. Baggage should be weighed on a scale, if practical. If a scale is not available,
compute personal loading values according to each individual estimate. Figure 6-2 indicates
the standard weights for specific operating fluids. The following terms are used when
computing a helicopter’s balance.

Reference Datum
Balance is determined by the location of the CG, which is usually described as a given
number of inches from the reference datum. The horizontal reference datum is an imaginary
vertical plane or point, arbitrarily fixed somewhere along the longitudinal axis of the
helicopter, from which all horizontal distances are measured for weight and balance purposes.
There is no fixed rule for its location. It may be located at the rotor mast, the nose of the
helicopter, or even at a point in space ahead of the helicopter.
The lateral reference datum is usually located at the center of the helicopter. The location of
the reference datum is established by the manufacturer and is defined in the RFM.
CG ENVELOPE
 HELICOPTER SAFETY AND AIRWORTHINESS

Certification of helicopters by RCMA (H/C) is a major milestone and recognition of

CEMILAC by a foreigner. Ecuador Air Force has executed a contract with Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited (HAL) for procurement of seven Advanced Light Helicopters (ALH)
with CEMILAC certification. CEMILAC has issued a Release to Service Documents (RSD)
to Ecuador Air Force for operation of ALH in their country.
HELICOPTER is a unique flying machine which can land and take-off from remote places
having no prepared helipads and visibility. They can takeoff vertically fly forward, rearward,
and sideward and can hover at one place for longer duration, thus having multi-role
capabilities. To perform these versatile roles safely, helicopters are designed with many state-
of-the-art technologies. As the roles to be performed by helicopters is widening day by day,
the demand/necessity for inventing new technologies is also increasing.

Certification of these new systems and helicopters and ensuring the airworthiness of the
helicopters throughout their life without jeopardizing flight safety is a great challenge for the
certification authorities. Therefore, the certification requirements for any system evolved by
the certification authorities should be adequate to ensure safe operation of the system under
all the adverse environmental conditions. Centre for Military Airworthiness and Certification
(CEMILAC) located at Bangalore i s the agency responsible for ensuring the airworthiness
and certification of all airborne stores and systems developed by PSUs, DRDO, and Private
Organizations for the Indian Armed F o r c e s. CEMILAC was established in 1994 and
works under the direct control of Scientific Advisor to Raksha Mantri and the Director
General of Defense Research and Development. Fourteen Regional Centers for Military Air-
worthiness (RCMAs), located across the country under CEMILAC, are giving airworthiness
coverage for the aviation activities for all airborne systems. RCMA (Helicopters), located at
Bangalore is responsible for certification of helicopter platforms and its systems. The quality
control aspects are looked after by DGAQA. In India, the state-of-the-art helicopters like
ALH, Light Combat Helicopter (LCH), Light Utility Helicopter (LUH), etc., are under
various stages of development at HAL. This article describes the certification methodology
adopted by CEMILAC in certification of the ab initio designed and developed ALH. ALH,
named as Dhruv, is a twin engine, multirole, multi-mission, 5.5 ton class helicopter. ALH
comprises many state-of-the-art technologies, such as Hinge less Main Rotor System,
Bearing less Tail Rotor System, Composite Main and Tail Rotor Blades with Elastomeric
bearings, Integrated Dynamic System (IDS), Anti Resonant Vibration Isolation System
(ARIS), Self-Sealing Fuel tanks, Crashworthy seats, Full Authority Digital Engine Control
System, Free Turbine Turbo Shaft Engine, Integrated Architecture Display System (IADS),
and extensive usage of composite materials. ALH is configured for exploitation in multiple
versions. The utility version is designed in two configurations, namely, skid version and
wheel version. Skid version is to meet the requirements of the Army and the Air Force and
the wheel version is to meet the requirements of the Navy, Coast Guard, and the civil
authorities. The weaponized versions of the ALH for the Army and the Air Force are being
integrated with various weapon systems and sensors, sighting systems, and countermeasure
systems. The weaponized version of ALH for Navy is to be integrated with weapons and
sensors suitable for naval missions.
Airworthiness
Airworthiness of a helicopter is defined as 'fitness for safe flying'. Thus a helicopter can be
considered airworthy if it is safe for flying to fulfill the mission requirements under the
prevailing environmental condition s throughout its intended life with acceptable level of
safety and reliability. Certification is defined as an assurance that a helicopter/system will
function as expected by the user for a specified period of time. Certification is also the
culmination of various activities starting from design analysis, ground evaluation of system in
test rigs, integration tests, flight testing and final clearance of a helicopter/system for
production and release to the Services.

Design Validation
Certification activities (see figure), viz., evolving technical specifications, preliminary design
phase, detailed design phase, configuration freeze, design evaluation, ground testing and
flight testing/evaluation, etc., progress in parallel during all phases of the project.
Advanced Light Helicopter is required to be operated under extreme environmental
conditions. As per the Services' requirements, ALH has been designed to operate under the
following conditions for safe operation throughout its life fulfilling all performance
requirements:-
 Low and high temperatures (- 45 Cto85 C).
 High humidity (70 per cent to 95 per cent).
 Hot and wet conditions.
 Saline atmosphere.
 Sand, rain, snow, hail storm, lightning, etc.

For safe operation of a helicopter under these environmental conditions, different systems
should be designed to achieve the main parameters such as good handling quality, less
vibration/noise, safe life, damage tolerance, etc., which are essential criteria in design of any
helicopter. The design criteria adopted for ALH to meet the Services requirements are:
 Safe life concept for critical dynamic components like rotating and non-rotating
control rods, scissors, mixing unit, lift rods, etc. Damage tolerance/fail safe concept
for main and tail rotor blades, main rotor hub plates, ARIS, etc.
 High fatigue life for all critical components.
  Helicopter should be able to withstand the loads arising due to crash conditions of 35
g forward, 12 g rearward, 25 g downward, 8 g upward, and 12 sideward.
 The control system should be designed to have high stiffness and strength
requirements.
 Should have sufficient control margins.
 The fuel tanks should have self-sealing characteristics and should have crash-resistant
features.

Testing
Despite comprehensive analysis of the structure and various systems using accurate analysis
tools, product may still result in unacceptable performance, failures, reliability issues, etc.
Therefore, the product should be tested under various conditions so as to ensure the design
adequacy. Major types of testing involved in helicopter development and certification are:

 Wind tunnel testing.

 Ground testing of components and systems.
 Model test with floatation gear.
 Integration of all systems on a ground test vehicle and testing.
 Shake test.
 Flight testing in different configurations and terrains.

Ground Testing
Helicopter is an assembly of several thousand detailed parts and systems. Testing of each part
individually is very difficult and not mandatory also. However, all the critical parts and
systems are tested individually under simulated environmental conditions with application of
appropriate loads experienced by the part/system during helicopter operation. Detailed
qualification/certification test orders including the test conditions, loads, number of
specimens to be tested, etc., are released by the certification authorities before the test is
undertaken. The number of parts systems thus tested includes:

 All the raw material to confirm their specifications.

  Static and fatigue testing of critical parts like control rods, scissors, mixing unit,
shafts, etc., to establish the life of the component.
 Strength and endurance testing of the Upper Control System (UCS).

 Fatigue testing of main and tail rotor blades and main rotor hub plates (made of
composite material) to establish the life and damage tolerance.

 Whirl tower testing of main and tail rotor blades to establish the various loads,
performance and dynamic characteristics.
 Testing of the fuselage, undercarriage, hard points, etc., to establish the strength and
safety margins.

Ground Test Vehicle

All the systems tested individually in stand-alone mode are integrated on a Ground Test
Vehicle (GTV), representing an actual helicopter, but anchored to the ground. Endurance
testing of the systems on the GTV are carried out extensively with the application of control
inputs which resembles the actual flying of the helicopter. Running of GTV satisfactorily in
this condition is required to establish the performance and reliability of the systems and form
a critical integration testing for clearing the prototype helicopters for flight evaluation.
Shake Test
Helicopter is subjected to shake test as per the test order approved by RCMA(H/C) before the
first flight. The purpose of this test is to excite/shake the helicopter with electromechanical
shakers to establish the natural frequencies, mode shapes of the helicopter, and systems.
Resonance search of the helicopter is carried out on the ground with engines and rotor
running with different control inputs. The test ensures that the blade frequency of the
helicopter does not coincide with its natural frequency. This is one of the certification
requirements to discount the possibility of excessive ground resonance, which may damage
the helicopter.

Flight Testing
Based on the satisfactory test results of ground testing, ground test vehicle testing and shake
test, the first ALH was cleared for its maiden flight towards flight evaluation .RCMA (H/C)
issues a Flight Clearance Note (FCN) delineating all limitations, conditions, safety features,
critical loads/parameters and warnings, etc. for the prototype helicopter. Flight test
specification and flight programmed for each flight is issued by the RCMAs for regular flight
testing of the prototype helicopters. Flight by flight clearance is accorded by RCMAs after
thorough analysis of the flight test data, performance of the system, pilot report, helicopter
serviceability, etc. By performing the flight test/evaluation, performance of the helicopter will
be demonstrated to the Services to fulfill ASR,GSQR, NSR, etc.
Evaluation of System during Flight Testing and FMEA
More than 1000 flight hours of developmental and certification flight testing was carried out
to assess the performance of all the systems of ALH. The significant developmental and
certification flight testing comprises the following:

 FADEC control law validation and failure simulation. Engine performance

evaluation. Evaluation of performance of rotor system, transmission system, hydraulic
system, control system, fuel system, electrical and avionics systems, etc.
 Automatic Flight Control System (AFCS) tuning and evaluation.
 Helicopter performance, stability and handling characteristics and margin assessment
including hover performance; forward flight, climb and endurance flying; stability
handling, controllability and maneuverability; establishment of V-n (Speed vs Load
Factor) diagram; establishment of H-V (height vs speed) diagram for defining the
dead-man zone; auto-rotative flights; and negative 'g' flights.
 Establishing the One Engine Inoperative (OEI) performance of the helicopter.

 Special flight testing related to optional mission /role equipment like rescue hoist,
slithering system, under slung loads, fuel dumping, deployment of emergency
floatation system, etc.
Conclusion
 References

WEBSITES:
• www.hal-india.in
• www.wikipedia.org
• www.mathworks.com

BOOKS: -
• Military helicopters By EJ Everestt, GM Moss, AW Mowalt, K.E.
Reid
• Automatic Flight Control System By Boris J Luric& Paul J Enright
• Helicopter Aerodynamics